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Soil salinity

Soil salinity is the accumulation of excessive soluble salts, such as sodium chloride, sulfates, and carbonates of calcium, magnesium, and potassium, in the soil profile, particularly in the root zone, leading to reduced plant water uptake and growth inhibition.^[1]^[2] It is typically measured by electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil saturation extract, with saline soils defined as those having an EC greater than 4 dS/m at 25°C.^[2]^[3] This phenomenon distinguishes between salinity, which involves high levels of total soluble salts without necessarily degrading soil structure, and sodicity, characterized by excessive sodium (exchangeable sodium percentage, ESP > 15%, or sodium adsorption ratio, SAR > 13), which disperses soil particles and impairs permeability.^[4]^[2] Saline-sodic soils combine both issues, exacerbating challenges for agriculture.^[1] Globally, salt-affected soils cover approximately 1,381 million hectares, or 10.7% of the Earth's land surface, with over 833 million hectares identified as saline or sodic, predominantly in arid and semi-arid regions like the Middle East, Central Asia, Australia, and parts of Africa and South America.^[5]^[6] Natural causes include rock weathering, high evapotranspiration rates, and rising saline groundwater tables, while anthropogenic factors—such as poor irrigation practices, inadequate drainage, and overuse of fertilizers—have accelerated salinization, affecting up to 20% of irrigated lands worldwide.^[4]^[1]^[3] The primary effects of soil salinity include osmotic stress that limits water availability to plants, ionic toxicity from excess chloride or sodium, and nutrient imbalances, resulting in stunted growth, leaf burn, and yield reductions—such as 50% losses in sensitive crops like onions at EC levels of 4.3 dS/m.^[2]^[3] On a broader scale, it degrades soil structure in sodic conditions, reduces infiltration and increases erosion, contaminates groundwater, and threatens food security, with projections indicating that up to 50% of global croplands could be affected by 2050 if unmanaged.^[4]^[1] Management strategies focus on prevention and remediation, including leaching excess salts with low-salinity water, applying amendments like gypsum to displace sodium in sodic soils, selecting salt-tolerant crops (e.g., barley, which withstands EC up to 8 dS/m), and improving irrigation and drainage systems to maintain soil EC below critical thresholds.^[2]^[1] Integrated approaches, such as phytoremediation using halophytes and agroforestry, offer sustainable long-term solutions, particularly in drylands where salinity poses a rising threat to ecosystems and agricultural productivity.^[4]

Fundamentals

Definition

Soil salinity refers to the concentration of dissolved salts in the soil water, which adversely affects plant growth when levels are elevated. These salts primarily consist of sodium chloride (NaCl), but also include a range of ions such as sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), sulfate (SO₄²⁻), chloride (Cl⁻), and bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻).^[7]^[8] In saline soils, sodium and chloride ions dominate, particularly in highly saline conditions, while calcium and magnesium sulfates are also common.^[7] Salinity must be distinguished from sodicity, where salinity denotes the total concentration of soluble salts in the soil solution, and sodicity indicates a high relative proportion of sodium to other cations, such as calcium and magnesium.^[7]^[9] Sodicity is typically measured by the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), defined as \text{SAR} = \frac{\text{Na}^+}{\sqrt{(\text{Ca}^{2+} + \text{Mg}^{2+})/2}}, with ion concentrations expressed in milliequivalents per liter in the saturation extract.^[10] Soils with SAR values exceeding 13–15 and low electrical conductivity are classified as sodic, leading to distinct structural issues compared to saline soils.^[7] A key threshold for identifying saline soils is an electrical conductivity (EC) of the saturation extract greater than 4 dS/m at 25°C, a standard established in foundational soil science literature.^[10] At this level, the elevated salt concentration lowers the osmotic potential of soil water, making it harder for plants to absorb water, and can result in specific ion toxicities.^[7]^[11] The term "salinization," describing the process of salt accumulation in soils, gained widespread use in 20th-century agricultural studies, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where irrigation practices accelerated salt buildup.^[7] This recognition was formalized in key publications like the 1954 USDA handbook Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils, which provided diagnostic criteria and management strategies for salt-affected lands.^[10]

Measurement

Soil salinity is quantified primarily through the measurement of electrical conductivity (EC), which reflects the concentration of dissolved salts in the soil solution. The standard laboratory method involves preparing a saturated paste from the soil sample by adding deionized water until saturation is achieved, followed by extraction of the soil solution and measurement of its EC, denoted as ECe and expressed in decisiemens per meter (dS/m) at 25°C.^[12] This ECe value can be estimated from total dissolved solids (TDS) using the approximate formula ECe (dS/m) = TDS (ppm) / 640, providing a practical conversion for assessing salt levels.^[13] Soil sampling techniques for EC measurement include the saturation paste method, which offers high accuracy for lab analysis but requires vacuum filtration and is labor-intensive, and the simpler 1:2 soil-to-water extract method, where soil is mixed with water at a 1:2 ratio by volume before EC assessment; the latter is faster for field approximations but less precise due to varying soil moisture contents.^[12] For large-scale mapping, in-situ probes such as electromagnetic induction (EMI) devices, like the EM-38 sensor, are employed to measure apparent electrical conductivity (ECa) non-invasively across fields, calibrated against ECe through linear regression models to estimate salinity distribution at depths up to 2 meters.^[12]^[14] Key indicators beyond EC include the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), calculated as the proportion of sodium on soil exchange sites, with values exceeding 15% indicating sodic conditions that impair soil structure.^[15] Soil pH, measured on the saturation extract, often rises above 8.5 in sodic soils due to sodium dispersion, further signaling potential issues.^[15] Chloride concentrations in the saturation extract exceeding approximately 250 mg/L can be toxic to sensitive plants, causing ion imbalances and foliar burn.^[16] Recent advancements have enhanced monitoring capabilities through satellite remote sensing, utilizing Landsat imagery since the 2010s to derive soil salinity indices from near-infrared and shortwave infrared bands, enabling regional-scale mapping with accuracies improved by multi-temporal data integration.^[17] In the 2020s, drone-based hyperspectral imaging has emerged for real-time, high-resolution assessment, capturing spectral signatures across hundreds of bands to predict salinity levels via machine learning models, offering precision for site-specific management in agricultural fields.^[18] These technologies complement traditional methods by providing non-destructive, scalable data for ongoing salinity surveillance.

Causes

Natural Causes

Soil salinity arises naturally through geological and climatic processes that mobilize and concentrate soluble salts in the soil profile, independent of human intervention. These processes include the weathering of parent materials, atmospheric deposition of marine salts, fluctuations in groundwater dynamics within closed hydrological systems, and the legacy of ancient evaporative deposits. Such natural mechanisms establish baseline salinity levels, particularly in arid and semi-arid environments where evaporation exceeds precipitation, leading to salt accumulation over geological timescales.^[4] One primary natural cause is the weathering of salt-rich parent materials, such as marine sediments containing evaporite strata like halite and gypsum. Physical and chemical weathering breaks down these minerals, releasing soluble ions including sodium (Na⁺), chloride (Cl⁻), calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), sulfate (SO₄²⁻), and bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) into the soil solution. This process is especially pronounced in regions underlain by ancient marine deposits, where the mineralogy of amphiboles, Na-pyroxenes, and Na-plagioclases contributes to elevated baseline salinity. For instance, coastal and inland arid zones derived from such parent rocks exhibit inherent salt mobilization through leaching and dissolution.^[4]^[19] Cyclic salt deposition further contributes to natural soil salinity, particularly in coastal and near-coastal arid regions. Sea spray aerosols, generated by wave action, are carried inland by prevailing winds, depositing sodium chloride (NaCl) and other marine salts directly onto the land surface. In arid environments, annual deposition rates can range from 20 to 200 kg/ha of salts, with higher values near coastlines and lower in continental interiors. This aeolian transport mechanism replenishes soil salts cyclically, exacerbating accumulation in areas with low rainfall to flush them away.^[4]^[20] In endorheic basins—closed hydrological systems with no outlet to the sea—groundwater rise driven by climatic factors concentrates salts through evaporation. In such basins, like the Jordan River-Dead Sea basin, surface water and infiltrating precipitation carry dissolved salts from upstream weathering, which accumulate as groundwater levels fluctuate and evaporate at the surface. High evaporation rates in arid climates cause saline groundwater to discharge into shallow soils via seeps or capillary rise, forming saline horizons. This process is evident in alluvial plains and wetlands within endorheic settings, where salt concentrations build over time without external drainage.^[4]^[21] Fossil salts from ancient marine or lacustrine environments represent another key natural source, embedded in sedimentary layers from prehistoric seas. These relic deposits, leached slowly into modern soils, contribute to inherent salinity in regions like the Indo-Gangetic plain, where saline groundwater from evaporated ancient water bodies permeates the soil profile. In this area, fossil salts provide a pre-agricultural baseline of sodium and chloride ions, influencing soil chemistry in alluvial and deltaic landscapes. Such legacies highlight how paleoenvironmental conditions continue to shape contemporary soil salinity patterns.^[4]

Dryland Salinity

Dryland salinity develops in non-irrigated agricultural landscapes where the clearance of deep-rooted native vegetation, such as trees and shrubs, disrupts the natural hydrological cycle. This vegetation previously transpired large volumes of water, intercepting rainfall and preventing excess infiltration; its removal for crops like wheat leads to higher recharge rates to underlying aquifers, elevating shallow water tables typically to depths of 2-3 meters below the surface. The risen water table then facilitates capillary rise, drawing saline groundwater toward the root zone and soil surface, where evaporation concentrates salts and renders the land unproductive.^[22]^[23]^[4] The accumulation of salts follows a straightforward hydrological relationship, where the salt load delivered to the soil surface equals the groundwater recharge rate multiplied by the salt concentration in the aquifer:

\text{Salt load} = \text{recharge rate} \times \text{salt concentration in groundwater}

In semi-arid drylands, this often results in annual salt buildup of 20-200 kg per hectare, depending on local geology and rainfall patterns, progressively degrading soil structure and fertility over decades.^[24]^[25] A prominent example is Australia's Murray-Darling Basin, where widespread vegetation clearance for wheat and pasture farming since the 1990s has accelerated dryland salinity, affecting over 300,000 hectares directly and contributing to broader basin-wide degradation through rising groundwater flows. This human-induced process contrasts with natural salinity baselines but shares hydrological similarities with irrigation effects in terms of salt mobilization.^[26]^[27] Studies indicate that hydrological changes are intensifying dryland salinity risks and complicating land management in vulnerable regions like southern Australia.^[28]

Irrigation-Induced Salinity

Irrigation-induced salinity arises primarily from the application of water containing dissolved salts to agricultural fields, where the process leads to progressive salt buildup in the soil profile. Irrigation water typically has an electrical conductivity (EC) ranging from 0.5 to 1 dS/m, introducing salts such as sodium chloride, calcium, and magnesium compounds into the soil. As crops transpire 90-95% of the applied water, these salts concentrate in the remaining soil solution, particularly in the root zone, since plants selectively absorb water but exclude most ions. Without adequate drainage, this accumulation prevents natural leaching, elevating soil EC and reducing water availability to plants through osmotic stress.^[29]^[30] Key factors exacerbating this process include high evaporation rates in arid and semi-arid regions, which further concentrate salts at the soil surface, and the use of saline groundwater for irrigation, often with EC exceeding 2 dS/m. In the Indus Valley of Pakistan, for instance, seepage from unlined canals and inefficient water application contribute to rising water tables and salt mobilization across millions of hectares of irrigated land. Additionally, urban runoff containing NaCl from road de-icing salts can infiltrate irrigation systems or adjacent fields, adding sodium loads that promote sodicity alongside salinity. Poor drainage infrastructure amplifies these issues by trapping excess water and salts, hindering leaching during rainfall or over-irrigation events.^[31]^[32] To mitigate salt buildup and maintain soil EC below crop tolerance thresholds, the leaching requirement (LR) quantifies the fraction of irrigation water that must percolate below the root zone. The standard formula is:

LR = \frac{EC_w}{5 \times EC_e}

where EC_w is the electrical conductivity of the irrigation water (dS/m) and EC_e is the maximum soil saturation extract EC tolerated by the crop (dS/m) for near-full yield potential. This approximation assumes steady-state conditions and accounts for the relationship between soil solution and saturation paste EC; for example, with EC_w = 1 dS/m and EC_e = 2 dS/m for sensitive crops like beans, LR ≈ 0.10, meaning 10% extra water is needed for leaching. Applied water depth is then ET / (1 - LR), where ET is crop evapotranspiration.^[33]^[29] A notable historical example is the construction of Egypt's Aswan High Dam in 1970, which curtailed annual Nile flooding and silt deposition, leading to perennial irrigation without natural flushing. This raised groundwater levels across the Nile Delta and Valley, salinizing approximately 1 million hectares of farmland through salt accumulation from irrigation residues and mobilized subsurface salts. Remediation efforts since have included gypsum application and improved drainage, but the event underscores the risks of altering hydrological regimes in salt-prone basins.^[34]^[35]

Soil Types

Saline Soils

Saline soils are characterized by a high concentration of soluble salts, primarily neutral salts such as sodium chloride (NaCl), calcium chloride (CaCl₂), magnesium chloride (MgCl₂), sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄), and magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄), which accumulate in the soil solution without a dominance of exchangeable sodium ions.^[36] These soils exhibit an electrical conductivity (EC) greater than 4 dS/m in the saturation extract, indicating significant salinity levels that can adversely affect plant growth through osmotic stress.^[37] The pH of saline soils is typically neutral to slightly alkaline, ranging from 7 to 8.5, which distinguishes them from more alkaline sodic soils.^[37] Physically, saline soils maintain good soil structure and permeability due to the absence of high exchangeable sodium, allowing adequate water infiltration and drainage.^[38] In extreme cases, saline soils develop visible salt crusts on the surface due to evaporation concentrating salts at the soil-air interface, forming features such as white alkali flats in arid regions.^[10] These crusts consist predominantly of neutral salts like NaCl and do not involve significant exchangeable sodium, unlike sodic soils where sodium ions cause clay dispersion and structural degradation.^[39] According to the USDA classification system, saline soils are defined by an EC greater than 4 dS/m and an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) less than 15%, ensuring that salinity effects are due to total soluble salts rather than sodium-specific issues.^[37] This differentiates them from sodic soils, which have an ESP exceeding 15% but lower EC, and from saline-sodic soils that combine both high EC and high ESP.^[37] Globally, salt-affected soils, including saline types, impact approximately 20% of irrigated agricultural lands, posing challenges to food production in arid and semi-arid regions.^[1] Recent research from 2015 to 2025 has highlighted microbial adaptations in saline soils, particularly the role of halophilic bacteria and archaea in maintaining ecosystem functions. Studies show that halophilic microorganisms contribute to nutrient cycling, such as organic matter decomposition and certain nitrogen and sulfur processes, particularly in halophyte-induced "fertile islands" that boost microbial diversity and nutrient transformation efficiency under high salinity conditions.^[40]^[41] These findings underscore the potential of halophilic microbes for sustainable management of saline soils.^[41]

Saline-Sodic Soils

Saline-sodic soils combine characteristics of both saline and sodic soils, with EC greater than 4 dS/m and ESP greater than 15% (or SAR >13). They exhibit high soluble salts causing osmotic stress alongside high sodium leading to clay dispersion and poor structure once salts are leached. pH is typically 8.2-8.5 or higher. These soils maintain better permeability initially due to salts floccuating clays, but reclamation by leaching can worsen sodicity issues if not amended with calcium sources like gypsum. They are common in irrigated arid regions and require integrated management.^[37]^[36]

Sodic Soils

Sodic soils are defined by a high exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) exceeding 15%, a sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) greater than 13, and low electrical conductivity (EC) below 4 dS/m, typically resulting in a pH above 8.5 due to sodium carbonate hydrolysis. These conditions lead to clay dispersion, where sodium ions dominate the cation exchange sites on soil colloids, causing clay particles to swell and deflocculate, which forms impermeable surface crusts and severely reduces water infiltration rates to less than 1 cm per hour in affected areas. The dispersed clays create a greasy or oily surface appearance, impairing soil structure and aeration. The primary structural issue in sodic soils arises from sodium ions replacing divalent calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions on clay colloids, promoting osmotic swelling and reduced hydraulic conductivity that exacerbates waterlogging in wet conditions. Additionally, these soils often exhibit associated elemental toxicities, particularly from boron concentrations exceeding 2-4 mg/kg in available forms (depending on crop sensitivity), which form soluble sodium borate compounds, and elevated molybdenum levels that become more plant-available at high pH, potentially leading to uptake imbalances. Such toxicities are linked to the alkaline environment and sodium dominance, which mobilize these elements beyond typical thresholds. Sodic soils are commonly found in floodplains and alluvial plains, where sodium-rich sediments accumulate, such as in the Indo-Gangetic plains of India, covering approximately 1.8 million hectares—a significant portion of the country's sodic soils (total ~3.8 million hectares). In these regions, sodic soils often manifest as black alkali types, characterized by a dark surface staining from dispersed organic matter that resists decomposition due to poor aeration and high pH. Globally, they occur in semi-arid to arid lowlands with poor drainage, including parts of the western United States and Australia, but are less prevalent in humid climates without historical salinization. Differentiation from saline soils is key, as sodic soils emphasize sodium-specific effects rather than overall salinity; while both may coexist, sodic classification relies on SAR >13 with low total salts, and initial attempts to wash them with low-sodium water can temporarily intensify dispersion by removing stabilizing electrolytes without addressing sodium exchange. This contrasts with saline soils, where high EC drives osmotic stress amenable to simple leaching, whereas sodic issues require targeted cation replacement for stability.

Impacts

Agricultural Impacts

Soil salinity imposes significant constraints on agricultural productivity through osmotic stress, which limits plant water uptake by reducing the soil water potential, effectively mimicking drought conditions even when irrigation is adequate. This stress becomes pronounced at electrical conductivity (EC) levels of 4-8 dS/m, where crop yields of glycophytic crops can decline by 50-80% depending on the species and environmental factors, as the high salt concentration in the soil solution draws water out of root cells via osmosis.^[42] Additionally, ion toxicity from excessive chloride (Cl⁻) ions can cause leaf burn and necrosis, particularly in sensitive crops, by disrupting cellular functions and leading to oxidative damage.^[4] Crop tolerance to salinity varies widely, with halophytes such as quinoa exhibiting thresholds of 8-16 dS/m before significant yield reductions occur, allowing it to thrive in moderately saline environments through mechanisms like sodium compartmentalization in vacuoles. In contrast, sensitive crops like common beans experience yield declines above 1.5 dS/m, highlighting the need for tailored farming practices. These tolerances are often quantified using the Maas-Hoffman model, which describes yield response as a threshold EC_e value beyond which relative yield decreases linearly: for EC_e below the threshold, yield is 100%; above it, yield = 100 - slope × (EC_e - threshold), where the slope indicates the percentage yield loss per unit increase in salinity.^[43]^[44]^[43] The economic ramifications of soil salinity are substantial, with global annual losses estimated at $27.3 billion due to reduced crop production on affected irrigated lands, exacerbating food insecurity in arid regions.^[6] A 2024 FAO assessment indicates that salt-affected soils now cover nearly 1.4 billion hectares globally (over 10% of land area), contributing to ongoing productivity declines of 1-2% annually in arable lands and limiting farming expansion.^[5] Furthermore, ongoing soil degradation from salinity contributes to a 1-2% annual reduction in arable land productivity worldwide, limiting expansion of farming areas and increasing reliance on marginal soils. Recent advancements, such as CRISPR-Cas9 editing of rice varieties post-2018 to enhance expression of the SOS1 gene, have improved Na⁺ exclusion from shoots, boosting salt tolerance and yields under saline conditions in field trials.^[45]^[46]

Environmental Impacts

Soil salinity profoundly affects biodiversity by limiting the range of species that can thrive in affected ecosystems, leading to reduced ecological complexity. Saline conditions inhibit the growth and activity of many soil microorganisms, resulting in significant declines in microbial diversity; for instance, studies have shown linear decreases in bacterial alpha diversity with increasing salinity levels in highly saline environments.^[47]^[48]^[49] This reduction disrupts essential nutrient cycling processes, such as nitrogen and carbon transformations, as salt-tolerant taxa dominate while sensitive species diminish, impairing overall soil ecosystem functions. Salinization also degrades water quality through increased salt loading from soil runoff and leaching, elevating salinity in rivers and aquifers downstream. In the Colorado River Basin, for example, average total dissolved solids (TDS) levels reach approximately 700-800 mg/L due to contributions from saline soils and irrigation return flows, which exceed thresholds for many aquatic species and cause physiological stress, reduced reproduction, and biodiversity loss in freshwater habitats.^[50] Groundwater contamination from saline soils can extend up to 10-12 km inland via saltwater intrusion, particularly in coastal or irrigated areas, rendering aquifers unsuitable for drinking or irrigation without treatment.^[51] The formation of salt crusts on saline soils exacerbates erosion and contributes to desertification by sealing the surface and drastically reducing water infiltration rates, which can increase surface runoff by 20-50% during rainfall events. This heightened runoff accelerates soil particle detachment and transport, promoting land degradation in arid and semi-arid regions where vegetation cover is already sparse. Climate change intensifies these effects through sea-level rise, which is projected to salinize coastal soils globally by 2050 via saltwater intrusion, further expanding saline-affected areas and linking soil degradation to broader desertification processes.^[52]^[53] Beyond natural ecosystems, soil salinity causes substantial infrastructure damage through salt mobilization that corrodes buried pipes, roads, and foundations via electrochemical reactions in moist soils. In regions like the Colorado River Basin, salinity causes total annual economic damages estimated at $300-400 million (as of 2021), including repairs to water conveyance systems and transportation networks from corrosion and other effects.^[54]^[55]^[56]

Management

Prevention Strategies

Prevention of soil salinity requires proactive measures to minimize salt accumulation before it impacts agricultural productivity and ecosystems. Effective strategies focus on controlling water inputs, land practices, policy frameworks, and technological innovations to maintain soil health. By integrating these approaches, salinity buildup from irrigation or dryland processes can be significantly curtailed, preserving long-term land viability.^[57] Water management is a cornerstone of salinity prevention, emphasizing the use of low electrical conductivity (EC) irrigation sources and strategic leaching practices. Irrigation water with EC below 0.75 dS/m is considered good quality and helps avoid introducing excess salts into the soil profile.^[2] Cyclic irrigation, which alternates between low-EC water applications and periodic higher-volume leaching events, maintains a leaching fraction greater than 0.15 to flush salts below the root zone, preventing accumulation in cropped areas.^[58]^[59] This approach ensures that 10-20% of applied water percolates through the soil, reducing salinity risks without excessive water use.^[57] Land use practices play a critical role in preventing dryland salinity by regulating groundwater recharge. Retaining native vegetation buffers along recharge areas intercepts rainfall and reduces deep drainage, thereby limiting the rise of saline water tables.^[60] Contour farming, which involves plowing and planting along elevation contours, significantly decreases surface runoff and infiltration in dryland regions, thereby curbing recharge rates and associated salinity expression.^[61] Policy frameworks support prevention through integrated watershed management and monitoring. The European Union's Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), with ongoing updates in the 2020s, promotes holistic water resource strategies that include salinity control measures to protect soils from salinization.^[62] In Australia, the National Landcare Program, initiated in the 1990s, facilitates community-based monitoring and land management initiatives to track and mitigate salinity risks across agricultural landscapes.^[63] Technological interventions enhance prevention by optimizing water delivery and crop resilience. Drip irrigation systems deliver water directly to the root zone, reducing evaporation and salt input compared to surface methods, with studies showing reductions in soil salinity by over 30% in saline-alkali areas.^[64] For orchards, grafting onto salt-tolerant rootstocks, such as those used in almond production, improves plant uptake of water and limits salt stress, enabling cultivation in marginally saline conditions without exacerbating soil degradation.^[65] Emerging tools, such as precision agriculture with sensors and AI for real-time salinity monitoring (as of 2025), further optimize irrigation to prevent salt buildup.^[66]

Remediation Techniques

Remediation of saline soils involves applying excess low-salinity water to flush soluble salts below the root zone, typically requiring 10-30 cm of water depending on initial salinity levels, with good internal drainage essential to prevent waterlogging. Tile drainage systems enhance this process by facilitating the removal of saline effluent, potentially reducing soil salt concentrations by 50-80% over 2-5 years in permeable soils. For instance, applying approximately 15 cm of water can leach about half the salts from the profile, while deeper applications up to 60 cm may remove up to 90% in responsive soils. This method is most effective for saline soils with adequate permeability, as confirmed by agricultural extension guidelines.^[8]^[15]^[30] Soil amendments, particularly gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O), address sodicity by displacing sodium ions (Na⁺) with calcium (Ca²⁺), improving soil structure and permeability for subsequent leaching. Application rates of 5-10 tons per hectare are common for moderately sodic saline soils, leading to significant reductions in sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). Organic matter amendments, such as compost, complement gypsum by enhancing aggregation and water retention, further aiding salt displacement. Studies on saline-sodic fields demonstrate that gypsum applications can significantly reduce electrical conductivity (EC) when combined with irrigation.^[67]^[68]^[69] Biological remediation leverages salt-tolerant plants (halophytes) for phytoextraction, where species like Atriplex spp. accumulate salts in biomass, removing 1-2 tons of salt per hectare per year through harvest and removal. Halophytes like Atriplex spp. can remove up to 500 kg of NaCl per hectare in a growing season under saline conditions, with repeated cropping enhancing overall desalination. Post-2015 research highlights microbial inoculants, such as plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), that enhance halophyte performance by improving root exudation and salt exclusion, accelerating soil desalination by 20-30% in field trials. These approaches are sustainable for marginal lands, integrating forage production with remediation.^[70]^[71]^[72] For severely saline soils where traditional methods are insufficient, advanced techniques like electrodialysis apply electric fields to mobilize and extract ions, achieving significant salt removal (20-50% for key ions) in pilot setups without excessive water use. Reverse osmosis, often integrated in Middle East projects since the early 2020s, treats extracted soil solutions or irrigation water for targeted leaching, as seen in solar-powered systems in Saudi Arabia and the UAE that support agricultural reclamation. These methods, piloted in arid regions, offer precise control for high-salinity hotspots but require energy inputs and are typically scaled for research or small fields.^[73]^[74]^[75]

Distribution

Affected Regions

Soil salinity affects approximately 1.4 billion hectares of land globally, equivalent to about 10% of the world's land area, based on the 2021 assessment updated in 2024 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).^[5] This widespread issue is most prevalent in arid and semi-arid regions, where up to 33% of irrigated land is impacted due to high evaporation rates and limited rainfall leaching salts from the soil profile. These zones, covering roughly 40% of Earth's land surface, account for the majority of salt-affected soils, exacerbating challenges in regions dependent on agriculture for sustenance. Key affected regions include Australia, where salinity impacts around 2 million hectares of irrigated land and up to 17 million hectares of dryland areas, primarily in the southwest due to rising groundwater tables. In the Middle East and North Africa, approximately 50 million hectares are salt-affected, with high concentrations in countries like Iraq, Syria, and Egypt from intensive irrigation in river basins. South Asia faces significant challenges in the Indus Basin, where about 6 million hectares—roughly 35-40% of the irrigated area—are compromised by salinity accumulation from canal systems and poor drainage.^[5]^[76] The extent of soil salinity is expanding at a rate of 1-2% annually, driven largely by the growth of irrigated agriculture and climate variability that intensifies evaporation. Recent assessments, such as those from the ISRIC World Soil Information in 2022, offer higher-resolution global mapping using satellite data up to 2016, providing a more accurate picture than the outdated 1980 FAO/UNESCO soil classification map, which underestimated affected areas in dynamic regions.^[77]^[78]

Case Studies

In the Murray-Darling Basin of Australia, widespread tree clearing for agriculture during the 1990s exacerbated dryland salinity, affecting approximately 300,000 hectares of arable land by mobilizing salts from deeper soil layers through rising groundwater tables.^[79] This land-use change, combined with irrigation practices, led to significant economic losses in crop productivity and ecosystem degradation across the basin's upland catchments.^[80] Remediation efforts intensified with the implementation of the Basin Plan in 2012, which incorporated water recovery through voluntary buybacks of irrigation entitlements, reducing overall water extraction and thereby alleviating salinity pressures in river systems and adjacent soils.^[81] These measures, building on the earlier Basin Salinity Management Strategy, have contributed to measurable improvements in water quality, with salinity levels at key monitoring sites like Morgan declining due to enhanced environmental flows and reduced recharge.^[82] The Aral Sea Basin in Central Asia exemplifies severe soil salinization driven by Soviet-era irrigation expansion starting in the 1960s, when large-scale diversion of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers for cotton production desiccated the sea and salinized over 4 million hectares of former arable land through salt-laden dust storms and poor drainage. By the 1990s, the sea had shrunk to about 10% of its original volume, rendering vast areas unproductive and causing desertification that affected fisheries, public health, and regional agriculture.^[83] Post-2000 initiatives, including shifts away from intensive cotton monoculture and the adoption of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) principles in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, have facilitated partial recovery, with the North Aral Sea stabilizing through a 2005 kokaral dam and improved irrigation efficiency, reclaiming roughly 10% of lost water volume in that sub-basin.^[84] These efforts, supported by international aid, have restored some wetland habitats and boosted fish stocks, though southern portions remain critically degraded.^[85] In Egypt's Nile Delta, the completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 disrupted natural sediment and flood regimes, leading to increased soil salinity and waterlogging across deltaic farmlands as reduced flushing allowed salts to accumulate in the clay-rich soils.^[86] This has affected over 1 million hectares of irrigated land, diminishing yields of key crops like rice and cotton while exacerbating coastal erosion and groundwater intrusion.^[87] To counter these effects, recent studies in the 2020s have modeled the potential for desalination infrastructure along the Mediterranean coast to abstract up to 500,000 cubic meters per day of low-salinity water from coastal aquifers, which could support leaching saline soils and supplementing irrigation in the northern Delta.^[88] Supported by national programs, these facilities integrate with drainage reuse strategies to enhance soil reclamation, though challenges persist from ongoing sea-level rise.^[89] The California Central Valley, a major U.S. agricultural hub, contends with soil salinity impacting approximately 800,000 hectares of irrigated cropland, primarily in the San Joaquin Valley, where shallow saline groundwater and evaporative concentration from irrigation have degraded soil structure and reduced yields for salt-sensitive crops like tomatoes and almonds.^[90] Historical over-reliance on Colorado River water, which carries dissolved salts, has intensified the issue since the mid-20th century.^[91] The U.S. Geological Survey's 2018 groundwater salinity mapping and sustainable yield models provide critical frameworks for management, integrating drainage improvements with crop rotation practices to maintain long-term aquifer balance and prevent further salinization.^[92] These models simulate salt transport and recommend tailored leaching schedules, helping sustain productivity across the valley's 2.3 million hectares of farmland.^[93]

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Soil Salinity Testing, Data Interpretation and Recommendations
Soil salinity is caused by several factors. Soils may become saline as a result of land use, including the use of irrigation water with high levels of salt.
[9]
Sodium Adsorption Ratio and Sodicity - Soil Health Nexus
Soil SAR is a measure of the ratio of sodium (Na+) relative to calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) in the water extract (solution phase) from a saturated soil ...
[10]
[PDF] Diagnosis and Improvement of - USDA ARS
Chapter 2. Determination of the properties of saline and alkali soils. .............................. Soil sampling.
[11]
An Introduction to Soil Salinity and Sodium Issues in New Mexico
Soil salinity, measured by electrical conductivity, is when a soil's saturated paste extract is greater than 4 mmhos/cm, and it does not mean excess sodium is ...Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
[12]
[PDF] Soil salinity assessment: Methods and interpretation of electrical ...
It is based on proven theory of soil electrical conductivity. The required equipment is commercially available. The advocated instrumental methodology is.
[13]
[PDF] Salinity: Electrical Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids
Soil salinity is the total salt concentration in the soil solution, measured by total dissolved solids (TDS) or electrical conductivity (EC).
[14]
Electromagnetic induction as a basis for soil salinity monitoring ...
Aug 5, 2011 · ▻ Electromagnetic induction (EMI) gives a baseline for monitoring soil salinity of an irrigated district. ▻ EMI is calibrated with soil ...
[15]
[PDF] TECHNICAL NOTE - Natural Resources Conservation Service - USDA
Saline soils are characterized by the following: EC > 4, Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) <. 15, and pH < 8.5. Saline soils can be easily reclaimed by ...
[16]
Soil Salinity Detection and Mapping by Multi-Temporal Landsat Data
This work aims to propose a spatiotemporal method for monitoring soil salinization using spectral indices derived from Earth observation data.
[17]
UAV hyperspectral analysis of secondary salinization in arid oasis ...
The optimal soil salinity prediction model proposed in this study can accurately, non-invasively and rapidly identify excessive salt accumulation in drip ...
[18]
Salt Affected Soil - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Excess soluble salts in salt-affected soils originate either through the weathering of parent minerals (causing fossil or primary salinity and sodicity) or ...Role Of Prosopis In... · Crop Microbiome Dynamics In... · 15.4. 1 Saline Stress
[19]
Soil Salinity Explained
Salt occurs naturally in all soils. Salts in soil are derived from a variety of sources including. weathering of salt-rich parent material,; wind ...Missing: sediments | Show results with:sediments
[20]
Effects of Downward Intrusion of Saline Water on Nested ...
Oct 2, 2020 · The results show that, as the salinity in the discharge zones increases, the hydraulic gradient near the discharge zone can be significantly reduced.
[21]
[PDF] 1 DRYLAND SALINISATION: A CHALLENGE FOR LAND AND ...
Large- scale clearing of native vegetation and its replacement with annual crops and pastures have substantially increased the amount of water leaking beneath.
[22]
[PDF] Surface water as a cause of land degradation from dryland salinity
Feb 17, 2020 · Secondary dryland salinity is a severe land degradation prob- lem caused where land clearing alters the hydrological bal- ance and rising saline ...
[23]
[PDF] salinity impacts from dryland vegetation clearance
Mar 29, 2017 · 5. additional recharge at the water table below cleared dryland areas generates increased groundwater flux and salt load to the floodplain and ...
[24]
[PDF] Dryland Salinity: Inevitable, Inequitable, Intractable? - AgEcon Search
In the Murray Darling River system, average salinity at Morgan will exceed the WHO desirable limit for drinking (800 EC) between 2050 and 2100 (Murray Darling ...
[25]
Salinity Management in the Murray–Darling Basin, Australia - MDPI
The southern Murray–Darling Basin (MDB) is particularly vulnerable to salinity problems. Much of the Basin's landscape and underlying groundwater is ...
[26]
[PDF] DRYLAND SALINITY IN AUSTRALIA—Summary - Inside Cotton
Photo: Murray–Darling Basin Commission. Photo: Baden Williams. MANAGING DRYLAND SALINITY INTO THE FUTURE. We face a threefold increase in dryland salinity over ...
[27]
Salinity and temperature increase impact groundwater crustaceans
Jul 23, 2020 · ... dryland salinity, a consequence of land ... climate change and nothing was previously known on their responses to salinity increases.
[28]
Surface water as a cause of land degradation from dryland salinity
Wood (1924) proposed that land clearing increases the volume of water on the hillside that will then raise the water table ... 2 m is full scale; i.e. <0.5 ...
[29]
2. SALINITY PROBLEMS (Continued) - Water quality for agriculture
To estimate the leaching requirement, both the irrigation water salinity (ECw) and the crop tolerance to soil salinity (ECe) must be known. The water salinity ...
[30]
Managing Saline and Sodic Soils and Irrigation Water | USU
Irrigation water is often the most significant source of salt. For example, water with an ECw = 2 dS/m has about 1.7 tons of salt per acre-foot of water (Figure ...
[31]
Managing salinity and waterlogging in the Indus Basin of Pakistan
These problems are the result of a multitude of factors, including seepage from unlined earthen canals system, inadequate provision of surface and subsurface ...
[32]
Fact Sheet 170-98 - USGS.gov
Nov 29, 2016 · Progressive waterlogging and salinization were evident from the historical succession of crops—a 50/50 split of wheat and barley was grown in ...
[33]
[PDF] Managing Salts by Leaching - UC ANR catalog
leaching requirement: LR = (ECw × 100) ÷ [(ECe × 5) – ECw] where ECw is the salinity of the irrigation water and ECe is the soil salinity threshold in the ...
[34]
Land and water resources information system in Egypt
After the construction of the Aswan High Dam, this land was converted to perennial irrigation. ... Almost one million hectares of the irrigated area are salt- ...Missing: impact | Show results with:impact
[35]
Aswan High Dam: Key of Egypt's Modern Industrial Age
May 29, 2025 · The dam has reduced the natural flow of nutrient-rich silt to Egypt's farmlands, leading to the gradual salinization of the soil, making it less ...
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[PDF] Determination of the Properties of Saline and Alkali Soils - USDA ARS
This chapter discusses determinations that give in- formation on the chemical and physical properties of saline and alkali soils and thus serve as a basis ...
[37]
https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/plantmaterials/mtpmctn13976.pdf
[38]
Saline and sodic soils: Understanding the basics
Saline soils often are in normal physical condition with good structure and permeability. They are characterized by irregular plant growth and salty white ...
[39]
[PDF] Irrigation Water Quality Standards and Salinity Management Strategies
Saline soils (resulting from salinity hazard) normally have a pH value below 8.5, are relatively low in sodium and contain principally sodium, calcium and mag- ...
[40]
The role of halophyte-induced saline fertile islands in soil microbial ...
Aug 29, 2024 · The results demonstrate that nutrient cycling in the outer soils is primarily driven by taxa such as Gemmatimonas and halophilic archaea, which ...
[41]
The role of halophyte-induced saline fertile islands in soil microbial ...
Our findings demonstrate that halophyte shrubs serve as hotspots for halophilic microbes, enhancing microbial nutrient transformation in saline soils.
[42]
Salinity affects microbial function genes related to nutrient cycling in ...
Jun 13, 2024 · This research provides new insights into the effects of soil salinization on nutrient biochemical cycling and in saline environments.
[43]
Effects of Salinity on Seed Germination and Early Seedling Stage
There have been high yield losses in these crops under moderate salinity (EC 4–8 dS m−1, approximately 40–80 mM NaCl) [5]. High salinity leads a decrease in ...
[44]
Annex 1. Crop salt tolerance data
The threshold and slope concept has its greatest value in providing general salt tolerance guidelines for crop management decisions.
[45]
(PDF) The salt tolerance of quinoa measured under field conditions
the extrapolated no economic yield level corresponded to a maximum ECe of 51.5 dS m-1. Therefore quinoa is highly tolerant to salinity when considering ECe at ...
[46]
Assessing salinity impacts on crop yield and economic returns in the ...
Sep 1, 2023 · This study aimed to assess the impact of salinity in the root zone on crop yields and profitability in the Central Valley.
[47]
Molecular tools, potential frontiers for enhancing salinity tolerance in ...
Key steps of CRISPR/Cas9 mediated gene editing for salinity tolerance in rice. ... IDSI repressed the activity of LEA1 and SOS1 genes (Cheng et al., 2018).Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
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Salinity Is a Key Determinant for Soil Microbial Communities in a ...
Feb 12, 2019 · Microbial diversity linearly decreased with increases in salinity, and community dissimilarity significantly increased with salinity differences ...
[49]
High Salinity Inhibits Soil Bacterial Community Mediating Nitrogen ...
Salinity could influence bacterial growth and decrease microbial biomass (15). The alpha diversity of the bacterial community decreased with increasing soil ...
[50]
Microbial diversity and functions in saline soils: A review from ... - NIH
For instance, increasing soil salinity decreased microbial enzyme activities, but increased the metabolic quotient (higher metabolic quotient means lower CUE), ...
[51]
[PDF] Quality of Water Colorado River Basin Progress Report #26
The model estimates the impacts from salinity levels greater than 500 mg/L TDS on household water using appliances, damages in the commercial sector ...
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022169419303622
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Measuring and estimating the hydrological properties of a soil crust
Formation of soil crusts results in reduced infiltration, increased runoff, and reduced rainfall and irrigation efficiency. Improved knowledge of the ...
[54]
Impacts of salinization caused by sea level rise on the biological ...
Soil salinization caused by sea level rise threatens coastal agricultural soils and geochemically important wetlands worldwide. The aim of this review is to ...Missing: dryland | Show results with:dryland
[55]
New study demonstrates how climate and irrigation influence salinity ...
Feb 8, 2024 · High salinity levels in the Colorado River reduce agricultural yield, damage infrastructure and are estimated to cause $348 million per year in ...Missing: soil TDS
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Substantial Declines in Salinity Observed Across the Upper ...
Apr 19, 2021 · Salinity in the Colorado River Basin causes an estimated $300 to $400 million per year in economic damages in the United States.Missing: TDS aquatic life
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climate risks, saltwater intrusion, and biogeochemical chain reactions
Mar 10, 2025 · Infrastructure corrosion costs billions of dollars per year ... soil salinity and alkalinity in Bafra Plain. Turkey Environ Monitor ...
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2. salinity problems - Water quality for agriculture
Table 3 lists concentration factors for a wide range of leaching fractions (LF = 0.05 to 0.80). The predicted average soil salinity (ECe) is estimated by ...
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Effect of cyclic irrigation using moderately saline and non‐saline ...
Jul 9, 2020 · A new study in the Ethiopian context was conducted to evaluate the effect of cyclic irrigation using non-saline canal water (EC, 0.41–0.78 dS m −1 ) and ...
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Soil salinity control in irrigated land - TheWaterChannel
The primary method of controlling soil salinity is to permit 10-20% of the irrigation water to leach or wash the soil, and be drained and discharged through an ...
[61]
[PDF] Dryland salinity – causes and impacts
Removing native vegetation, growing shallow-rooted annuals and long fallowing of paddocks increases leakage to the groundwater system. Watertable rise.
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[PDF] Contour Farming
The action reduces sheet and rill erosion and can increase water infiltration, thereby reducing the transport of nutrients and organics to surface water.Missing: recharge salinity 30-50%
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[PDF] Handbook for Saline soil management - FAO Knowledge Repository
Integrated approaches to water resource management are widely practiced in the world as, for example, the EU Water Framework Directive. Some of those ...
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Salinity - DAFF
Nov 4, 2019 · The Australian Government has supported salinity management through programs such as the National Dryland Salinity Program (1993-2004) and the ...
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Soil moisture and salinity dynamics of drip irrigation in saline-alkali ...
Mar 9, 2023 · Drip irrigation with an appropriate irrigation volume in the saline land in northern Ningxia can improve water saving, salt suppression, and maize yield.Abstract · Introduction · Results · Discussion
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Effects of Salt Stress on Salt-Repellent and Salt-Secreting ...
Apr 8, 2024 · Using salt-tolerant rootstocks for grafting cultivation can effectively reduce the harm caused by soil salinization and fully utilize soil ...
[67]
Mitigating Soil Salinity Stress with Gypsum and Bio-Organic ... - MDPI
After three years of gypsum application (5 t ha−1), the EC of a saline-sodic soil was reduced by 9%, 46.5%, 91.3%, 123% and 174% at soil depths of 0–20 cm, 20– ...Missing: formula | Show results with:formula
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[PDF] Gypsum - Soil Science Extension
to reduce the SAR from 10 to 5, the formula would be -. 0.00385 X 1.27 X ... Addition of any salt to areas of high salt will not reduce soil salt levels ...Missing: ha | Show results with:ha
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Combining chemical and organic treatments enhances remediation ...
Aug 11, 2023 · Organic amendments can also increase the effectiveness of conventional chemical treatments such as gypsum or elemental sulfur in mitigating the ...
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Potential Use of Halophytes to Remediate Saline Soils - PMC - NIH
Several halophyte species including grasses, shrubs, and trees can remove the salt from different kinds of salt-affected problematic soils.
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Evaluating the efficacy of Atriplex spp. in the phytoextraction of road ...
The utilization of halophytes to remove salts from saline soils is an emerging, low cost remediation method (Gharaibeh et al., 2011).
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(PDF) Recent Trends in Microbial Approaches for Soil Desalination
Apr 6, 2025 · We discuss the use of PGPB inoculants under salinity that can reduce chemical fertilization. Finally, we present some possible directions ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
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Reclaiming salt-affected soils using electro-remediation technology
Feb 1, 2016 · Soil electrokinetic remediation (SEKR) is a promising technology to remediate polluted soil from inorganic, organic, and radioactive pollutants.
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Evolution of desalination research and water production ... - Frontiers
Today, all planned and ongoing desalination projects in the Middle East are expected to utilize RO, underscoring the region's full transition toward non-thermal ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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Flexible batch electrodialysis for low-cost solar-powered brackish ...
Mar 26, 2024 · EDR, more energy efficient and with higher water recovery than RO, is advantageous for renewable-powered desalination. Wright and Winter ...
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Managing salinity in the Indus Basin of Pakistan
Waterlogging and salinity have plagued irrigated agriculture in the Indus Basin for the past 30–40 years. Approximately 6 million ha (35–40% of total ...
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Climate Change and Salinity Effects on Crops and Chemical ...
About 6% of the cultivated area is destroyed by soil salinization with a continued addition of 1–2% every year around the globe, causing significant yield ...Missing: yearly | Show results with:yearly
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Global Soil Salinity Map
This dataset includes global soil salinity layers for the years 1986, 1992, 2000, 2002, 2005, 2009 and 2016.
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Hydrogeochemical and isotopic constraints on the origins of dryland ...
A review of historic and future hydrological changes in the Murray-Darling Basin. 2012, Global and Planetary Change. Show abstract.
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[PDF] Salinity Audit: Upland catchments of the NSW Murray Darling Basin
dryland salinity. Awareness of dryland salinity within the Murray-Darling Basin has been increasing over the last 30-40 years. In 1989, the Murray-Darling ...
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Basin Plan timeline and history
The Basin Plan is a significant water reform to improve the health of the Murray–Darling Basin, and in doing so continue to support agriculture, other ...
[82]
[PDF] REVIEW OF WATER REFORM IN THE MURRAY-DARLING BASIN
Further upstream at Morgan, salinity was significantly lower due to the combined impact of the Basin Plan, the. Basin Salinity Management Strategy (2001-2015) ...
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Sep 2, 1988 · The Aral Sea in the Soviet Union, formerly the world's fourth largest lake in area, is disappearing. Between 1960 and 1987, its level dropped nearly 13 meters.
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The country that brought a sea back to life - BBC
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Reviving the Aral Sea: A Hydro‐Eco‐Social Perspective
Nov 22, 2023 · The Aral Sea further shrank from 26,280 km2 in 2000 to 9,285 km2 by 2020, particularly in the first decade of the twenty-first century.
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Impacts of the Aswan High Dam After 50 Years - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · Agricultural fields in the Nile Valley and Delta tend to waterlogged and since the water is not flushed out annually, the soils are saltier and ...
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Monitoring soil salinization and waterlogging in the northeastern ...
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Sustainable desalination at coastal zones: Study on abstraction rate ...
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[PDF] salinity management in the nile delta case study: reuse of drainage ...
Reuse of such water is well developed in Egypt and will continue to be a significant portion of the irrigation supply, particularly in the Nile Delta region.Missing: 1970 desalination 2020s 500000 day leaching
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[PDF] Regional scale soil salinity evaluation using Landsat 7 ... - USDA ARS
paring different satellite sensors, spatial resolutions, and atmospheric corrections to improve soil salinity assessment with remote sensing tools.
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Sustainability of irrigated agriculture in the San Joaquin Valley ...
Our detailed historic simulations of soil and groundwater salinity in the San Joaquin Valley suggest that irrigation may not be sustainable.
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[PDF] Preliminary Groundwater Salinity Mapping Near Selected Oil Fields ...
Distribution of total dissolved solids in A, produced water from petroleum wells, and B, water from water wells, for selected oil fields in the South Kern ...Missing: sustainable | Show results with:sustainable
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Central Valley | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
The Central Valley's population growth, along with anticipated reductions in Colorado River water deliveries, drought, and the ecological crisisMissing: salinity 800000 ha yield drainage crop rotation