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Sol Bloom

Sol Bloom (March 9, 1870 – March 7, 1949) was an American entertainment impresario and Democratic politician who represented New York's 19th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1923 until his death.^[1] Born to Polish-Jewish immigrant parents in Pekin, Illinois, and raised in San Francisco after his family moved there in 1873, Bloom began his career in the entertainment industry as a teenager, managing vaudeville theaters, promoting boxing matches, and publishing sheet music.^[1]^[2] Bloom gained prominence as a concessionaire at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, where he introduced the Ferris Wheel to the American public and managed the Midway Plaisance attractions, including the Algerian Village that popularized "belly dancing"—a term he reportedly coined to describe the performances and boost attendance.^[3]^[4] After the fair, he relocated to New York City, succeeding in real estate before entering politics as a Tammany Hall Democrat, winning election to Congress in 1922 and serving 13 terms.^[1]^[5] As chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949, he played a role in organizing the 1939–1940 New York World's Fair, advocating for the United Nations headquarters site in Flushing Meadows, and supporting Zionist efforts, including opposition to early U.S. policies restricting Palestine immigration while favoring Israel's eventual establishment.^[5]^[6] His congressional tenure included significant involvement in the 1938 George Washington Bicentennial celebration and contributions to the UN Charter drafting process as a delegate to the 1945 San Francisco Conference, though it drew criticism for his isolationist leanings and resistance to expanding Jewish refugee immigration quotas during the Holocaust, reflecting priorities aligned with domestic political constraints over aggressive intervention.^[7]^[8]^[9] A self-made man known for his flamboyant style and showmanship, Bloom's career bridged popular entertainment and foreign policy influence, embodying the immigrant success narrative amid debates over U.S. global engagement.^[1]^[3]

Early Life

Childhood and Family

Sol Bloom was born on March 9, 1870, in Pekin, Tazewell County, Illinois, to Polish Jewish immigrants Gershon Bloom, a clothier, and Sarah Bennett.^[10]^[11] As the youngest of six children in a family of modest means, he experienced early economic hardship typical of immigrant households in post-Civil War America.^[12] In 1873, Bloom's family relocated to San Francisco, California, when he was three years old, seeking better opportunities amid the city's booming post-Gold Rush economy; his father shifted to work as a huckster or peddler to support the household.^[1]^[10] The move immersed the young Bloom in a diverse urban environment marked by rapid industrialization, ethnic enclaves, and entrepreneurial activity, fostering his early self-reliance.^[10] Bloom received only limited formal schooling, attending irregularly due to family finances and school policies that differentiated between tuition-paying and non-paying students, leaving him largely self-educated through independent reading and observation.^[13] His parents' religious Jewish practices, rooted in their Eastern European heritage, provided a cultural foundation that echoed in Bloom's lifelong identification with Jewish communal values, though his formative years emphasized practical adaptation over doctrinal adherence.^[14]

Initial Career in San Francisco

Bloom began his working life in San Francisco at age eight, around 1878, laboring in a brush factory where he operated a lathe treadle for $1.25 per week.^[15] This early employment reflected the economic pressures on immigrant families, as his Polish Jewish parents had relocated from Pekin, Illinois, to the city shortly after his birth in 1870.^[14] By age thirteen, circa 1883, Bloom had advanced to the business office of The San Francisco Chronicle while also overseeing the ticket office at the Alcazar Theatre.^[16] There, he organized candy peddlers and managed a syndicated claque—hired applauders—to boost audience enthusiasm across local theaters, demonstrating nascent promotional acumen.^[13] In his mid-teens, around 1885, he served as assistant treasurer at the Alcazar under publisher H.H. de Young, further immersing himself in variety theater operations.^[17] These roles evolved into broader entrepreneurial efforts in vaudeville promotion and boxing matches during the late 1880s, establishing Bloom as an impresario by age eighteen in 1888.^[18] Such activities in San Francisco's burgeoning entertainment scene cultivated his showmanship skills through direct management of crowds and acts, yielding financial gains that supported his independence by early adulthood around 1890.^[19]

Entertainment Career

Development of Showmanship Skills

In San Francisco during the 1880s, Sol Bloom entered the theater industry as a teenager, beginning with operational roles that sharpened his promotional acumen. At age 13, he managed the ticket office for the Alcazar Theatre while also working in the business office of The San Francisco Chronicle, gaining firsthand insight into audience logistics and revenue generation from live performances.^[16] By 17, he had advanced to positions at the Alcazar, including impresario duties, where he coordinated variety acts typical of the era's vaudeville circuit.^[18] Bloom pioneered showmanship techniques by organizing syndicated claques—paid groups planted in audiences to generate applause and enthusiasm—which created artificial buzz to draw larger crowds through perceived popularity.^[13] He also systematized ancillary operations, such as directing candy peddlers within theaters to maximize per-patron spending, reflecting a pragmatic focus on empirical revenue metrics over mere ticket sales. These methods stemmed from direct observation of what compelled attendance: heightened excitement and novelty, rather than passive programming, allowing him to boost turnout for routine acts by simulating organic demand. His early work revealed a keen grasp of public fascination with exotic or culturally distant spectacles, as evidenced by his subsequent pursuit of international acts that capitalized on such curiosity without relying on unverified stereotypes. This San Francisco foundation emphasized audience psychology—using scarcity, hype, and sensory immersion to convert curiosity into sustained patronage—prioritizing causal drivers of attendance like perceived exclusivity over conventional advertising. While specific metrics like box-office figures from his Alcazar tenure remain undocumented, his rapid ascent from ticket handler to manager by age 18 underscores the efficacy of these innovations in a competitive West Coast entertainment market.^[18]

Role in the 1893 Chicago World's Fair

At age 23, Sol Bloom, an entertainment promoter from San Francisco, secured a concession for the Algerian Village at the World's Columbian Exposition's Midway Plaisance after negotiations in Europe, importing a troupe of performers originally featured at the 1889 Paris Exposition Universelle.^[4]^[12] He expanded this into the "Streets of Cairo" attraction, which simulated an Egyptian urban scene with camel rides, vendor stalls, and dance performances by Syrian and Algerian artists, drawing crowds through sensational marketing that emphasized exotic spectacles.^[20]^[21] Bloom promoted the undulating abdominal movements in the performers' danse du ventre as "belly dance," a term he adapted from the French to appeal to American audiences and boost ticket sales, reportedly coining it in English to heighten intrigue and attendance at the attraction, which saw heavy foot traffic amid the fair's overall 27 million visitors.^[4]^[22]^[23] The performances, set to a simple musical riff Bloom helped popularize as "The Streets of Cairo," generated significant revenue for the Midway—estimated in the tens of thousands of dollars daily during peak periods—contrasting with the fair's formal exhibits by prioritizing commercial amusement over educational display.^[24]^[25] Managing the concession involved logistical hurdles, including transporting over 100 performers and animals across the Atlantic, resolving payment disputes with the troupe amid cultural clashes, and navigating financial risks from an initial $1,000 investment in rights, which Bloom mitigated through on-site deal-making and publicity stunts that turned potential deficits into profits.^[12]^[18] While Bloom denied direct involvement with a performer dubbed "Little Egypt"—a moniker later mythologized in folklore—the attraction's dancers, including figures like Fatima, sparked public fascination and moral debates over the eroticism of the stylized routines, which critics lambasted as reductive exoticism despite their role in popularizing global cultural motifs in U.S. entertainment.^[12]^[4]^[20] This pragmatic approach underscored Bloom's showmanship, prioritizing attendance-driven income over authenticity, though later accounts from participants highlighted performer exploitation in the high-pressure environment.^[18]

Songwriting and Broader Entertainment Ventures

Bloom continued his entertainment pursuits after the 1893 World's Fair by establishing himself as a music publisher and songwriter in Chicago, issuing ragtime and novelty tunes such as "Humpty Dumpty" (1902) and "The Sun Dance" (1901). He popularized the "Streets of Cairo" melody—also known as the "Arabian riff" or "snake charmer song"—to accompany performances in the Algerian Village exhibit, adapting it into a signature ditty for the "hootchy-kootchy" displays that drew massive crowds. Though Bloom later asserted authorship in his autobiography, the tune originated from earlier French compositions like "Danse du ventre," and his omission of copyright registration forfeited potential royalties as it permeated American culture, appearing in vaudeville, cartoons, and recordings without compensation to him.^[25]^[26]^[27] Relocating to New York around 1900, Bloom shifted to real estate speculation and theater development, leasing prime sites like an 80-foot plot on West 42nd Street in 1910 for theatrical use and investing in Broadway properties. He financed or renovated approximately a dozen venues, including the Apollo, Harris, and Music Box theaters, leveraging his showmanship to attract performers and audiences while steering clear of illicit operations amid the era's burlesque crackdowns. These ventures yielded substantial returns—Bloom deemed one early investment his shrewdest—outpacing the limited earnings from his uncopyrighted music, though he exited publishing by 1910 amid rising political ambitions.^[28]^[29]^[18]^[30]

Entry into Politics

Relocation to New York and Tammany Hall Ties

In 1903, following his involvement in the Chicago World's Fair, Bloom relocated to New York City, where he entered the real estate and construction sector, capitalizing on the city's rapid urbanization and housing demand.^[16] He developed multiple apartment buildings in Manhattan, achieving financial success that enabled his retirement around 1920.^[5] This move eastward reflected broader economic opportunities in New York's booming property market, which attracted entrepreneurs from across the United States amid post-industrial growth.^[28] After retiring from business, Bloom pragmatically shifted his political allegiance from Republican to Democrat, forging ties with Tammany Hall, the influential Democratic machine in New York County known for its control over local nominations and patronage.^[31] In December 1922, following the death of Democratic Representative-elect Samuel Marx for New York's 19th congressional district—a heavily immigrant area on the Lower East Side—Tammany leader Charles F. Murphy recruited Bloom as the replacement candidate.^[9] Bloom's selection stemmed from Tammany's strategic calculus, viewing him as a viable figure to consolidate support among Jewish voters without prior entrenched rivals. He later described the choice dryly in his own words: "I had been chosen to run because I was an amiable and solvent Jew," underscoring his awareness of machine politics' ethnic and financial pragmatism over ideological purity.^[31] This entry into politics leveraged his prior fame as an entertainment impresario and real estate developer, providing name recognition and resources to appeal to the district's working-class immigrants facing urban challenges like overcrowding.^[30] Tammany's backing ensured organizational muscle, including voter mobilization through its ward networks, though Bloom positioned himself as an independent operator focused on constituent services rather than blind loyalty to the machine's often corrupt practices.^[31]

First Election to Congress in 1922

In the November 1922 general election for New York's 19th congressional district, Democrat Samuel Marx defeated incumbent Republican Walter M. Chandler, but Marx died in December 1922, creating a vacancy and necessitating a special election. Tammany Hall leader Charles F. Murphy selected Sol Bloom, a recent transplant to New York with real estate wealth accumulated from his entertainment promotions, as the Democratic nominee for the January 30, 1923, special election.^[9] The district, encompassing Manhattan's Lower East Side with its dense population of Jewish immigrants and working-class residents, favored Democratic candidates attuned to urban labor and ethnic concerns.^[1] Bloom campaigned leveraging his showmanship from prior ventures in theater and world's fairs, emphasizing his outsider status while aligning with Tammany's machine politics; his personal fortune from music publishing and real estate enabled robust self-funding without heavy reliance on party coffers.^[18] Facing Chandler's rematch bid, Bloom secured victory by a slim margin of 199 votes out of over 30,000 cast, reflecting Democratic strength in the district amid national Republican dominance post-1920 census redistricting.^[32] ^[33] The contest drew scrutiny, culminating in a House election committee review that upheld Bloom's win despite Republican challenges over precinct irregularities, seating him for the 68th Congress.^[34] Bloom took the oath of office on March 4, 1923, at the opening of the 68th Congress, beginning his tenure representing immigrant-heavy constituencies with initial focus on constituent services for naturalization and housing issues.^[35] His early committee assignments, including to the Committee on Accounts, demonstrated Democratic leadership's placement of loyal newcomers in administrative roles to build party discipline before advancing to policy panels.^[1] Bloom's voting record from the outset supported urban relief measures and immigration leniency, aligning with the district's demographic priorities of Eastern European Jews and Italians facing post-World War I economic pressures.^[36]

Congressional Service

Tenure in the House of Representatives (1923–1949)

Sol Bloom entered the House of Representatives as a Democrat representing New York's 19th congressional district on March 4, 1923, following his election to the Sixty-eighth Congress.^[1] He secured re-election to thirteen succeeding Congresses, serving continuously through the Eightieth Congress and into the Eighty-first until his death, for a total of fourteen terms spanning pre-Depression prosperity, the Great Depression and New Deal era, World War II, and the early Cold War.^[37] His tenure reflected steady legislative participation, evidenced by his assignment to influential committees and handling of constituent casework, though specific attendance records from the era are not comprehensively digitized.^[38] Early in his service, Bloom joined the Committee on Appropriations, contributing to fiscal oversight amid fluctuating economic conditions from the 1920s boom to Depression-era austerity.^[39] By the 1930s, he shifted focus to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, becoming its ranking Democratic member and leveraging his position for active involvement in international legislation during the lead-up to and conduct of World War II.^[36] Bill sponsorship data highlights his productivity, with Bloom introducing measures on topics ranging from immigration adjustments in the interwar period to postwar foreign aid frameworks, though exact counts vary by Congress and are detailed in archival records rather than aggregated statistics.^[9] Bloom's electoral durability stemmed from diligent constituent services in Manhattan's Lower East Side, a hub of Jewish and immigrant populations where he assisted with naturalization, veterans' benefits, and local federal aid through extensive case files and special bills.^[38] This grassroots engagement, rooted in his Tammany Hall connections, ensured repeated victories in a competitive urban district, often with broad Democratic support.^[40] His service ended abruptly on March 7, 1949, when he suffered a fatal heart attack at the age of 78 while hospitalized in Washington, D.C., prompting tributes in the House for his 26 years of dedication.^[16]^[41]

Domestic Policy Positions and New Deal Support

Sol Bloom, representing New York's 19th congressional district—a heavily urban area encompassing parts of Manhattan—aligned closely with Franklin D. Roosevelt's Democratic administration on domestic economic measures. As a reliable party loyalist during the 74th Congress (1935–1937), Bloom backed core New Deal initiatives aimed at alleviating the Great Depression's effects, including expansive federal relief and recovery programs that expanded government intervention in the economy. His support reflected a commitment to legislative efforts that prioritized immediate employment stabilization over fiscal restraint, consistent with Roosevelt's strategy of deficit-financed public spending to stimulate demand.^[30] Bloom voted in favor of the Social Security Act of August 14, 1935, which established unemployment insurance, old-age pensions, and aid for dependent children, marking a pivotal expansion of the federal welfare state. This legislation passed the House 372–25, with near-unanimous Democratic support, and Bloom's affirmative vote underscored his endorsement of structured social insurance as a causal mechanism to mitigate poverty cycles amid 25% national unemployment peaks in 1933. In his district, New Deal allocations funneled substantial public works funding through agencies like the Works Progress Administration (WPA), employing over 700,000 New Yorkers by the late 1930s and contributing to a measurable decline in local unemployment from one-third of the workforce in 1933 to under 20% by 1937, as federal projects built infrastructure such as parks, bridges, and housing in Manhattan. These interventions provided direct causal benefits to urban immigrant-heavy constituencies like Bloom's, fostering short-term economic stabilization via government outlays exceeding $4 billion nationwide for relief by 1936.^[42]^[43]^[44] Conservative opponents, including Republican members of Congress, critiqued Bloom's backing of such policies as enabling fiscal irresponsibility, arguing that unchecked deficit spending—pushing the national debt from $22.5 billion in 1933 to $40.4 billion by 1939—distorted private markets and prolonged recovery by crowding out investment rather than addressing root monetary causes of the Depression. Figures like House Minority Leader Bertrand Snell warned in floor debates that New Deal programs represented "socialistic experimentation" risking permanent bureaucratic expansion without sustainable growth, a view echoed in analyses attributing only partial employment gains to public works while highlighting persistent GDP shortfalls relative to pre-1929 levels until wartime mobilization. Bloom dismissed such charges, prioritizing empirical relief outcomes in his district over long-term solvency concerns.^[45]

Foreign Affairs Committee Leadership

Sol Bloom ascended to the chairmanship of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs in 1939 amid Democratic majorities, retaining the role through the 79th Congress in 1947 and resuming it briefly in the 81st Congress until his death in March 1949; during the Republican-controlled 80th Congress (1947–1949), he served as ranking Democratic member.^[2]^[46] In this capacity during World War II, Bloom advocated an anti-Nazi position prior to the Pearl Harbor attack on December 7, 1941, aligning with President Franklin D. Roosevelt's strategy to oppose Axis expansion through diplomatic and legislative measures, including support for Lend-Lease aid enacted in March 1941.^[9] His committee oversight facilitated congressional scrutiny of executive foreign policy, reflecting a gradual shift from pre-war caution to active interventionism. Bloom's early tenure balanced initial adherence to U.S. neutrality principles—rooted in the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s—with pragmatic revisions that eroded strict isolationism. In June 1939, as committee chair, he advanced a resolution to repeal the arms embargo, permitting cash-and-carry sales to belligerents, which passed the House and contributed to the Neutrality Act of 1939 signed on November 4, enabling indirect support for Allied powers without immediate U.S. belligerency.^[47] This evolution aligned with broader congressional debates, where Bloom defended administration proposals against isolationist amendments, though some contemporaries critiqued the pace of these changes for insufficiently countering Nazi advances before U.S. entry into the war. Post-Pearl Harbor, his leadership steered the committee toward endorsing full wartime mobilization, including hearings on military alliances and lend-lease extensions ratified in 1943 and 1945.^[48] In the war's later stages and aftermath, Bloom's committee prioritized institutional frameworks for global stability, conducting hearings that informed U.S. participation in the United Nations Conference on International Organization held in San Francisco from April 25 to June 26, 1945, where he contributed to drafting the UN Charter ratified by the Senate on July 28, 1945, and by President Truman on August 8.^[29] He also championed post-war reconstruction through oversight of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), established in November 1943, which distributed over $2.7 billion in aid to liberated Europe by 1947, though committee deliberations under Bloom emphasized coordination with State Department priorities over expedited unilateral actions. Critics, including some Republican members, argued that such procedural emphases delayed certain relief authorizations, prioritizing multilateral consensus amid domestic fiscal debates.^[49] These efforts underscored Bloom's role in embedding interventionist commitments into U.S. policy, bridging wartime exigencies with enduring international engagements.^[50]

Zionist Advocacy and Support for Israel

Sol Bloom, as chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949, actively championed Zionist objectives through legislative measures endorsing a Jewish national home in Palestine. In 1944, under his leadership, the committee conducted extensive hearings titled The Jewish National Home in Palestine, compiling testimony from Zionist advocates and issuing reports that urged U.S. support for unrestricted Jewish immigration and statehood aspirations in the region.^[51] These efforts culminated in the approval of resolutions, such as the amended Compton-Wright Resolution by the committee in the late 1940s, which called for the U.S. to use its influence to open Palestine's doors to Jewish refugees and facilitate the establishment of a viable Jewish commonwealth.^[52] Bloom opposed President Truman's initial hesitancy on partitioning Palestine, advocating instead for decisive U.S. backing of the 1947 United Nations plan to divide the territory into Jewish and Arab states. Leveraging his congressional influence, he rallied bipartisan support for the UN Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) recommendations, aligning House positions with Zionist goals to counter British restrictions and Arab opposition.^[22] His advocacy contributed to the empirical outcome of U.S. congressional endorsements that bolstered the UN General Assembly's adoption of Resolution 181 on November 29, 1947, paving the way for Israel's declaration of independence.^[53] In the critical months following Israel's proclamation on May 14, 1948, Bloom urgently lobbied Truman for immediate de facto recognition, emphasizing the strategic and moral imperatives of supporting the nascent Jewish state amid invasion by Arab forces. Truman's announcement of recognition just 11 minutes after Israel's declaration reflected the success of such high-level Zionist pressures, including Bloom's direct interventions.^[16] Post-recognition, Bloom pushed for U.S. economic and diplomatic aid to Israel, including appeals to Britain in 1948 to permit additional Jewish refugees into the territory, though his tenure ended with his death in March 1949.^[22]

Controversies

Immigration and Refugee Policies During the Holocaust

During the 1930s and early 1940s, Sol Bloom consistently aligned with the Roosevelt administration's adherence to the Immigration Act of 1924 national origins quotas, which capped annual immigration from Germany at 25,957 visas (adjusted to 27,370 after the 1938 Anschluss with Austria), even as Nazi persecution forced hundreds of thousands of Jews to seek emigration after 1933.^[54]^[55] State Department practices further restricted actual visa issuances through stringent documentation requirements and administrative delays, resulting in only about 110,000 Jewish immigrants from Germany and Austria entering the United States between 1933 and 1941, far below quota limits in later years.^[56] Bloom, as a senior Democratic congressman, deferred to these executive policies without introducing or championing legislation to expand quotas, prioritizing party loyalty amid broader isolationist sentiments in Congress.^[55] In April 1939, Bloom followed the administration's stance on the Wagner-Rogers Bill, which sought to admit 20,000 German refugee children outside existing quotas; while President Roosevelt expressed conditional support, the proposal was conditioned on not establishing precedents for general quota relief, and Bloom did not advocate for its unrestricted passage, contributing to its defeat in the House amid fears of opening doors to broader immigration.^[57]^[58] As chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee from 1939 onward, Bloom coordinated with State Department officials, including Assistant Secretary Breckinridge Long, on refugee matters, often emphasizing hearings and deliberations that delayed action rather than expediting admissions.^[59] This approach reflected deference to executive foreign policy constraints, including national security concerns over espionage and economic pressures during the Great Depression.^[9] Over the Holocaust era (1933–1945), when approximately six million Jews were murdered by the Nazi regime and its collaborators, Bloom sponsored no major personal bills to raise immigration quotas or create special refugee pathways, despite his prominence as the highest-ranking Jewish member of Congress and access to administration channels for individual cases.^[60] Total Jewish refugee admissions to the United States remained limited to roughly 200,000, constrained by quotas and consular bottlenecks, underscoring the restrictive outcomes of policies Bloom upheld.^[61]^[56] His participation in the 1943 Bermuda Conference as a congressional delegate further exemplified this pattern, yielding no commitments to ease quotas or facilitate large-scale rescue despite evidence of ongoing mass killings.^[9]^[59]

Criticisms of Party Loyalty Over Jewish Interests

Critics within the Jewish community, particularly Zionist activists and the Yiddish press, accused Sol Bloom of subordinating urgent rescue efforts for European Jews to his unwavering loyalty to President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration during the Holocaust.^[19] As chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Bloom opposed initiatives like those led by Revisionist Zionist Peter Bergson (Hillel Kook), who advocated for a government commission to rescue Jews from Nazi persecution; Bloom viewed such agitation as counterproductive and pressed the FBI to investigate Bergson for potential deportation, prioritizing administrative harmony over independent action.^[62] Yiddish-language newspapers in New York harshly criticized Bloom's positions, such as his resistance to resolutions demanding increased refugee admissions, portraying him as complicit in the low numbers of Jews saved—only about 200,000 European Jewish refugees entered the U.S. from 1933 to 1945 amid restrictive quotas and policies Bloom defended.^[19] This backlash intensified after events like the 1939 MS St. Louis voyage, where 937 Jewish refugees were denied entry to the U.S. despite appeals, reflecting broader immigration inertia Bloom supported to avoid embarrassing the administration.^[9] Bloom's efforts to dissuade protests, such as urging over 400 Orthodox rabbis to cancel their October 1943 march on Washington to plead for rescue with Roosevelt—warning it would provoke antisemitism and harm the war effort—further fueled accusations of party loyalty trumping Jewish interests.^[63] Right-leaning observers critiqued this Democratic allegiance as contributing to delayed U.S. interventionism, arguing Bloom's fidelity to FDR's cautious approach on refugees mirrored broader hesitancy that postponed military action against Hitler until Pearl Harbor, indirectly exacerbating Jewish suffering.^[31] Defenders contextualize Bloom's decisions within severe political constraints, including rampant congressional isolationism and antisemitism—evident in the defeat of refugee aid bills by overwhelming margins—and note his public anti-Nazi rhetoric, such as speeches condemning persecution as early as 1933.^[19] While acknowledging his fear that aggressive Jewish lobbying could incite backlash, supporters argue Bloom navigated a hostile environment where party discipline was essential for any progress, as seen in his role facilitating Lend-Lease aid in 1941, which indirectly aided Allied efforts against the Nazis.^[31] These defenses, often from establishment perspectives, emphasize realism over revisionist narratives from activist groups like Bergson's, which the David S. Wyman Institute—known for critiquing mainstream Jewish leadership—has amplified but which overlook Bloom's behind-the-scenes facilitation of some rescues, such as aiding the Gerrer Rebbe's escape.^[3]

Responses to Accusations and Historical Defenses

In his 1948 autobiography, Sol Bloom maintained that he had exerted the maximum feasible influence on refugee policy through private advocacy with President Roosevelt and administrative channels, emphasizing loyalty to the Democratic administration's wartime priorities amid isolationist opposition in Congress.^[15] He portrayed his role as strategically restrained to avoid alienating key allies, arguing that overt challenges to restrictive quotas under the 1924 Immigration Act would have provoked backlash and undermined incremental gains, such as limited visa extensions for select cases.^[9] Subsequent historiography has offered partial defenses by contextualizing Bloom's inaction within systemic barriers, including widespread congressional antisemitism, State Department obstructionism, and public opinion polls showing 70-80% opposition to increased Jewish immigration in the early 1940s.^[59] While acknowledging his failure to advocate for temporary refugee processing camps or quota suspensions—measures that could have admitted tens of thousands more—scholars note Bloom's facilitation of individual rescues for over 100 Jewish families via personal networks, leveraging his committee chairmanship for discreet interventions rather than public confrontation.^[60] This approach, defenders argue, preserved his influence for Zionist causes post-war, though critics counter that it prioritized party allegiance over urgent humanitarian imperatives. Post-2000 reassessments, including detailed examinations of congressional records, question the feasibility of bolder actions by Bloom, given that even Roosevelt's inner circle deemed quota reforms politically untenable until 1948, with annual German quotas fixed at 27,000 amid 400,000+ applicants by 1939.^[64] Balanced analyses credit Bloom with raising awareness through Foreign Affairs Committee hearings that publicized European atrocities to 1943, fostering elite consensus that contributed to the War Refugee Board's creation, yet empirically highlight the unaltered quotas' role in limiting entries to under 200,000 Jews from 1933-1945—far below potential amid shipping and port constraints.^[60] These studies underscore causal trade-offs: Bloom's deference avoided short-term defeats but missed opportunities to test congressional resolve, as evidenced by the 1943 Wagner-Rogers bill's narrow defeat despite bipartisan sympathy for child refugees.^[59]

Death and Legacy

Final Years and Death in 1949

Following the conclusion of World War II, Sol Bloom persisted in his congressional duties, maintaining his position as a senior member and eventual chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs during the 81st Congress (1949–1951).^[65] In this capacity, he directed committee efforts on international relations, including matters pertaining to U.S. policy toward the newly independent State of Israel amid its 1948 War of Independence and early statehood challenges.^[1] Bloom's advocacy emphasized diplomatic and economic support for Israel, aligning with his longstanding Zionist commitments, though constrained by broader U.S. foreign aid priorities and the ongoing arms embargo enforced until mid-1949.^[66] Bloom's health deteriorated in early 1949, culminating in a fatal heart attack on March 7, 1949, at the United States Naval Hospital in Washington, D.C., at the age of 78.^[16] President Harry S. Truman conveyed condolences via telegram to Bloom's daughter, stating that the congressman would be "greatly missed and widely mourned."^[67] Bloom's remains were interred at Mount Eden Cemetery in Westchester Hills, New York.^[1] His death prompted the elevation of another Democrat to the Foreign Affairs chairmanship, marking the end of his 26-year House tenure.^[65]

Achievements in Entertainment and Public Service

Bloom's early career in entertainment centered on promoting international cultural acts to American audiences. At the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, he managed the Midway Plaisance, a mile-long amusement zone that featured exotic exhibits such as the "Streets of Cairo," introducing belly dancing and the hoochie-coochie to the U.S. public through performers like Little Egypt, thereby popularizing global performance arts and drawing significant attendance to boost fair revenues.^[5]^[68] As a music publisher and promoter, he contributed to the Tin Pan Alley era by producing sheet music and advocating for composers' rights, including proposals in 1926 for radio stations to pay fees for broadcasting compositions, which supported the industry's growth.^[69]^[70] In public service, Bloom served 14 terms in the U.S. House of Representatives from New York's 19th district (1923–1949), demonstrating electoral longevity and constituent support through re-elections amid shifting political landscapes.^[1] He chaired the House Committee on Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949, guiding U.S. foreign policy legislation during World War II and postwar reconstruction. Bloom organized the George Washington Bicentennial celebration in 1932, coordinating nationwide events with a congressional appropriation of $338,000 and a staff of 125 to uplift national morale during the Great Depression.^[71] Similarly, he directed the 1937 U.S. Constitution Sesquicentennial Exposition, fostering public education on foundational documents.^[1] Bloom played a key role in establishing the United Nations as a U.S. delegate to the 1945 San Francisco conference, where he helped draft the charter and proposed the preamble's opening phrase, "We the Peoples of the United Nations," emphasizing collective global responsibility; he later oversaw congressional approval of the UN and its headquarters placement in New York City.^[10]^[6] As U.S. Commissioner General for the 1939 New York World's Fair, he contributed to its organization, an event that attracted over 44 million visitors and highlighted democratic ideals amid global tensions.^[18] These efforts underscored his impact on cultural promotion and international cooperation, with measurable outcomes in public engagement and policy enactment.^[31]

Historical Reassessments and Balanced Critiques

Historians have increasingly scrutinized Sol Bloom's congressional tenure through the lens of policy outcomes rather than personal charisma or entertainment background, revealing a figure whose Zionist commitments achieved postwar dividends but faltered amid Holocaust-era constraints. Scholarship highlights Bloom's advocacy for the 1947 UN Partition Plan as a pivotal step toward Israel's establishment, crediting his Foreign Affairs Committee influence for shaping U.S. support that facilitated recognition on May 14, 1948.^[19] Yet, this success is tempered by critiques of his earlier deference to executive immigration quotas, which limited Jewish refugee admissions to under 100,000 from 1933 to 1945 despite documented extermination campaigns.^[72] Critiques emphasize Bloom's prioritization of partisan alignment over independent Jewish advocacy, particularly his opposition to Revisionist Zionist Peter Bergson's rescue campaigns and the 1943 rabbis' march on Washington, which sought to pressure for relaxed quotas and bombing of Auschwitz rail lines.^[73] ^[63] As House Foreign Affairs chairman, Bloom's defense of the Bermuda Conference's (April 1943) failure to expand rescue pathways—yielding no substantive policy shifts—has been faulted for enabling administrative inertia, with refugee approvals averaging fewer than 5,000 annually pre-1944.^[9] ^[74] Conservative analysts further reassess his New Deal endorsements, such as backing the Works Progress Administration and relief acts, as accelerating federal expenditure growth from $4.6 billion in fiscal 1933 to $8.2 billion by 1936, laying groundwork for sustained welfare expansions without corresponding revenue reforms.^[45] Balanced evaluations acknowledge Bloom's constraints within a Democratic supermajority and isolationist Congress, where his maneuvers secured incremental gains like the 1944 War Refugee Board, which aided over 200,000 lives through relief operations.^[75] However, data-driven reassessments reject hagiographic portrayals, noting that his resistance to intra-Jewish dissent—labeling Bergson efforts as unauthorized—mirrored establishment biases that delayed broader mobilization until Allied victories rendered rescue moot.^[76] Fiscal retrospectives from libertarian perspectives similarly critique his role in entrenching precedents for deficit-financed programs, correlating New Deal-era policies with a tripling of national debt-to-GDP ratios by 1946, though Bloom's influence was facilitative rather than initiatory.^[77] These analyses underscore a legacy of pragmatic trade-offs, where Zionist triumphs coexisted with missed opportunities for causal intervention in refugee crises.

References

[1]
BLOOM, Sol | US House of Representatives - History, Art & Archives
BLOOM, Sol, a Representative from New York; born in Pekin, Tazewell County, Ill., March 9, 1870; moved with his parents to San Francisco, Calif., in 1873.
[2]
Sol Bloom: A Manhattan Leader In American WWII Foreign Policy
Jan 19, 2022 · Sol Bloom (March 9, 1870 – March 7, 1949) was a song-writer and Congressman from New York who began his career as a sheet music publisher in ...Missing: US | Show results with:US
[3]
America First: The Story of Sol Bloom, the Most Powerful Jew in ...
Sep 1, 2023 · Sol Bloom – a colorful character who introduced the Ferris Wheel to the world in 1893 – chaired the Foreign Affairs Committee in the House of Representatives ...
[4]
The Congressman Who Brought Belly Dancing to America
Mar 22, 2016 · Born in 1870 in Pekin, Illinois, Solomon Bloom was the son of Orthodox Jewish Polish parents.Missing: key facts immigration
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Bloom, Sol | Encyclopedia.com
Extremely successful in business, Bloom retired in 1920 and went into politics. He was elected to Congress as a Democrat in 1923, and served continuously until ...Missing: Congressman | Show results with:Congressman
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The Many Careers of Sol Bloom - Edited Entry - h2g2
Apr 22, 2023 · He was also responsible for putting the United Nations' US headquarters where it is, and for helping write its charter. Quite a journey. Let's ...Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies<|separator|>
[7]
Sol Bloom: Celebrating George Washington, Uplifting the Nation
Sol Bloom (1870-1949) was a fourteen term US Congressman from New York and was the individual behind the success of the US Bicentennial Commission celebration.
[8]
February 24: Sol Bloom and the Chicago World's Fair
Feb 24, 2011 · He was a strong supporter of Zionism and a delegate to the founding convention of the United Nations in San Francisco. It was Bloom who penned ...Missing: key facts immigration
[9]
The Holocaust-Era Activities of Rep. Sol Bloom - ProQuest
Sol Bloom (1870-1949) was arguably the most powerful Jew in Congress during the Holocaust. To the extent that historians discuss him at all, they do so in a ...
[10]
Of Gerson Bloom and his son Sol - Pekin Public Library
Bloom” was Gershon or Gerson Bloom, a Jewish immigrant who came to America from Poland in 1850. He became a naturalized U.S. citizen in Chicago on Feb. 23, 1858 ...Missing: biography | Show results with:biography
[11]
Solomon Bloom (1870–1949) - Ancestors Family Search
When Solomon Bloom was born on 9 March 1870, in Pekin, Tazewell, Illinois, United States, his father, Gershon Bloom, was 44 and his mother, Sarah Bennett, was ...
[12]
Kharmine tells of Sol Bloom for the Gilded Serpent
Sol Bloom the American promoter, who hyped traditional Oriental dancing by coining the term “belly dancing” to titillate the audience at the 1893 World's ...Missing: key facts
[13]
Sol Bloom Reminisces; THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF SOL BLOOM ...
... San Francisco, at age 7. He never went to school a full day in his life. He started, but found that the schools made a difference between those who paid for ...Missing: childhood | Show results with:childhood
[14]
[PDF] chicago jewish history
Sol Bloom was born in 1870 to religious Polish. Jewish immigrant parents, and was just an infant when the family moved to San Francisco. In his book, “The ...Missing: heritage | Show results with:heritage
[15]
BOOK REVIEWS The Autobiography of Sol Bloom . By Sol Bloom ...
In San Francisco, Bloom found a job in a brush factory, working the treadle on a lathe for $1.25 a week. Sol Bloom went to school for one day. In those days ...
[16]
Representative Sol Bloom Dies of Heart Attack at 78
Bloom was born in Pekin, Ill., on March 9, 1870, the son of Polish-Jewish immigrants who lost all their possessions in the panic of 1873. When he was 5 years ...Missing: biography | Show results with:biography
[17]
Party Like It's 1732 | US House of Representatives
Jul 21, 2015 · Sol Bloom turned his early-career skills towards planning a monumental and edifying celebration for George Washington's 200th birthday.
[18]
Sol Bloom Loved Middle Eastern Dance - Baba Yaga Music
Sol Bloom is often described as a cultural profiteer who introduced Middle Eastern dance at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair in such a salacious context that the ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
[19]
Sol Bloom | Research Starters - EBSCO
He served multiple terms, ultimately becoming chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs. His tenure was marked by significant controversies, ...
[20]
When the Streets of Cairo Met Main Street - Arab Kitsch
Sol Bloom, the impresario, press agent, and later congressman, brought a Syrian troupe from the Paris Exposition of 1889 to perform at the Algerian Theatre and ...
[21]
“Oriental” Jews on the Frontier of Leisure - Sephardic Los Angeles
Putnam, director of Harvard's Peabody Museum, the development of the Midway was quickly taken over by an ambitious young theater producer named Sol Bloom, who ...Missing: Capitol | Show results with:Capitol
[22]
Belly Dancing, Sol Bloom & the Middle East - New York Almanack
Jul 1, 2025 · Born in Pekin, Illinois, into a Jewish family of Polish immigrants, Sol Bloom had settled in San Francisco where he staged spectacular shows and ...
[23]
Origins of Oriental Dance in America
Sol Bloom is also said to have coined the term “belly dance,” which is a translation of the French term “Danse du ventre” or dance of the stomach, said to have ...
[24]
Sol Bloom (1870-1949) - Snake Charmer - Music History
In the "Street in Cairo", the North African belly dance was reinvented as the "hootchy-kootchy dance" to a tune made up by Bloom, "The Streets of Cairo, or the ...
[25]
Souvenir Music from the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893
1. The Streets of Cairo; or, The Poor Little Country Maid. Composed by James Thornton ; 2. Chicago Day Waltz. Composed by Giuseppe Valisi ; 3. The Viking March.
[26]
Folk or Fake? The Strange Journeys of Tunes and Their Composers
Jan 12, 2015 · Sol Bloom never bothered to copyright his music – he had a political career to worry about – and Little Egypt-related questions, such as ...
[27]
Sol Bloom – Let's rag
Composer Wm. H. Penn Title Humpty Dumpty Subtitle Characteristic March & Two-Step Publisher Sol Bloom, Chicago Year 1902 Source Sheet Music Collection of ...Missing: songwriting | Show results with:songwriting
[28]
https://www.nytimes.com/1910/08/23/archives/in-the-real-estate-field-sol-bloom-leases-eightyfoot-site-in-times.html
[29]
Sol Bloom Playground Highlights - NYC Parks
His lucrative music publishing company brought him to New York in 1903. Seven years later, Bloom had a successful real estate venture, building apartment houses ...
[30]
The Amazing Sol Bloom - The K.F. Stone Weekly
Jul 13, 2006 · At age fifteen, Bloom was hired by San Francisco newspaper publisher H.H. de Young to be assistant treasurer of the Alcazar Theater. Over the ...
[31]
Sol Bloom of New York | The Knoxville Focus
Born in Pekin, Illinois in 1870, Sol moved to San Francisco where he became the manager of a theatre while still in his early teens. Bloom showed a flair ...Missing: career | Show results with:career
[32]
Sol Bloom Elected to Congress in 19th District
Representative Walter M. Chandler, Republican, was defeated by Sol Bloom, Democrat, by 199 votes at a special elect held yesterday in the Nineteenth ...
[33]
BLOOM'S ELECTION PLEASES GOVERNOR - The New York Times
The Democrats showed extraordinary strength in the Nineteenth Congressional District, where Sol Bloom, the Democratic candidate for Representative, beat ...
[34]
Chapter 171 - General Election Cases, 1923 To 1925 - GovInfo
The New York election case of Chandler v. Bloom, in the Sixty- eighth Congress. The House, overruling its committee, declined to reject the vote of precincts ...
[35]
https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/B/BLOOM%2C-Sol-%28B000565%29
[36]
BLOOM AN EXPERT ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS; Ranking Democrat on ...
A member of the House of Representatives since 1923, Representative Sol Bloom is the ranking Democratic member of the House Foreign Affairs Committee.
[37]
BLOOM, SOL, a Representative from New York
Papers: ca. 1927-1945, 0.25 cubic foot. The papers of Sol Bloom contain correspondence between him and Edward Coleman, librarian of the American Jewish ...
[38]
BLOOM, Sol | US House of Representatives - History, Art & Archives
BLOOM, Sol, a Representative from New York; born in Pekin, Tazewell County, Ill., March 9, 1870; moved with his parents to San Francisco, Calif., in 1873; ...Missing: 1920s | Show results with:1920s
[39]
[PDF] House Calendar No. 81 - GovInfo
At the special election held in the nineteenth congressional district of the State of New York on January 30, 1923, according to the official returns, Sol ...
[40]
SOL BLOOM PUT UP FOR CONGRESS RACE - The New York Times
SOL BLOOM PUT UP FOR CONGRESS RACE; 19th District Democrats Name Theatre Builder as Choice for Representative. Share full article.
[41]
HOUSE IN TRIBUTE TO BLOOM RE(ORD; Legislators Adjourn After ...
Bloom died last night, at the age of 78. He had served in the House for twenty-six years. Those who voiced sorrow and emphasized their deep personal affection ...
[42]
[PDF] 1935 CONGRESSIONAL, RECORD-HOUSE 6037 - Social Security
Among the Republicans who voted for the bill were the party leaders in Congress who sat side by side at the minority table and voted “ aye ” when the roll ...
[43]
Documenting the New Deal
May 14, 2021 · New York received more federal funds than any other city in the nation and employed more than 700,000 people through the Depression years. They ...
[44]
The New Deal in New York City, 1933—1943
The New Deal and The Social Safety Net The New Deal employed millions of workers to rebuild America and the economy and passed legislation to aid those workers ...
[45]
A Conservative Coalition Forms in Congress, 1933-1939 - jstor
and Byrnes for instance, had in 1935 approved social security, banking re- form, and moderate tax reform. And men like Cox, hostile to abuses by private ...
[46]
House Foreign Affairs Committee | Congressional Chronicle - C-SPAN
Committees of the 80th Congress. House Foreign Affairs Committee. Chair CHARLES AUBREY EATON. R-New Jersey. Ranking Member SOL BLOOM. D-New York. View All ...
[47]
ISOLATIONISTS LOSE NEUTRALITY TEST; House Committee Bars ...
As introduced, the Bloom resolution makes no mention of arms, ammunition and implements of war. The most serious struggle in the committee will result, from all ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[48]
Debate on Neutrality; Isolationist Arguments - The New York Times
The Bloom resolution would drop the mandatory ban on arms exports, though belligerents buying supplies in the United States would have to do so on a cash-and- ...
[49]
the united nations relief and rehabilitation administration (unrra) and ...
However the Democrats were ina majority and were inpower. The Chairman of the House, Foreign Affairs Committee was Sol Bloom ... of post war Europe. In fact ...
[50]
January 17, 1946 - Historical Documents - Office of the Historian
Representative Sol Bloom; Representative Charles A. Eaton; Mr. Frank Walker ... Formulation of a foreign financial program: policy to help war-devastated ...
[51]
Catalog Record: The Jewish national home in Palestine....
419, resolutions relative to the Jewish national home in Palestine. ... Sol Bloom, chairman. Physical Description: ii, 512 p. 23 cm. Locate a Print ...
[52]
House Foreign Affairs Committee Approves Palestine Resolution
The House Foreign Affairs Committee today approved the Compton-Wright Resolution on Palestine. The bill as amended provides that, “The United States use its ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[53]
Sol Bloom • the Open Siddur Project פְּרוֺיֶקְט ...
Sol Bloom (March 9, 1870 – March 7, 1949) was a song-writer and American politician from New York who began his career as an entertainment impresario and ...<|separator|>
[54]
Emigration, 1933-1941 – The Holocaust Explained
Between 1933 and 1941, many Jews decided to emigrate from the Third Reich in response to the increasing Nazi persecution. By September 1939, approximately ...
[55]
Bloom, Sol - Encyclopedia
The son of Polish Jewish immigrants, Bloom found early professional success as a vaudeville entertainer and producer. He was first elected to the U.S. House ...Missing: heritage influence
[56]
Refugees | Holocaust Encyclopedia
About 85,000 Jewish refugees (out of 120,000 Jewish emigrants) reached the United States ... American Refugee Policy and European Jewry, 1933–1945.
[57]
Limits of Consensus: Unions and the Holocaust - jstor
The AFL clearly stated its opposition to Nazism with Hitler's accession to power in 1933. The Federation's convention that year attacked the new German ...Missing: stance | Show results with:stance
[58]
[PDF] THE UNITED STATES CONGRESS AND THE JEWISH REFUGEE ...
The introduction of the Wagner-Rogers Bill was a turning point in congressional discussion. Up until that point, the cases of German, Polish, and Lithuanian ...
[59]
[PDF] American Immigration Policies and Public Opinion on European ...
Representative Sol Bloom chaired the House Foreign. Affairs Committee, Representative Samuel Dickstein chaired the House Committee on. Immigration and ...
[60]
The Holocaust-Era Activities of Rep. Sol Bloom - YAIR
Sol Bloom (1870-1949) was arguably the most powerful Jew in Congress during the Holocaust. To the extent that historians discuss him at all, they do so in a ...Missing: heritage family influence
[61]
How Many Refugees Came to the United States from 1933-1945?
More than 300,000 people, most of them Jewish, were on the waiting list. The State Department almost filled the German quota in 1940.
[62]
When the U.S. Government Spied on American Jews (long version)
Nov 7, 2006 · Meanwhile, U.S. Congressman Sol Bloom (D-NY) was pressing the FBI to find grounds to deport Bergson, on the grounds that “if Kook were not ...
[63]
The 1943 Jewish March on Washington, through the Eyes of Its Critics
A prominent Jewish member of Congress, Representative Sol Bloom (D-New York), urged the rabbis to call off the march on the grounds that “it would be very ...
[64]
Immigration to the United States 1933–1941 | Holocaust Encyclopedia
It revised American immigration laws individual's “national origins.” The act set quotas, a specific number of visas available each year for each country. The ...
[65]
[PDF] The Foreign Service Journal, April 1949
The death of the Honorable Sol Bloom, on March 7, 1949, from a heart attack, has elevated to the Chairmanship of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs a.
[66]
10 - The US and UN Arms Embargo: November 1947–May 1948
The most important result of State Department opposition to the Zionist project was the imposition, in November 1947, of an embargo on arms to the Jews in ...
[67]
TRUMAN SENDS MESSAGE; Wires to Bloom's Daughter
WASHINGTON, March 7-Representative Sol Bloom of New York will be “greatly missed and widely mourned," President Truman said in a telegram to Mr. Bloom's ...Missing: funeral | Show results with:funeral
[68]
"There's a Place in France" aka "Streets of Cairo" - Shira.net
"Danse Du Ventre" (French for "Belly Dance"); "Kutchi Kutchi"; "The ... Sol Bloom might have been doing in Chicago. But if the melody had been known ...
[69]
PEACE TERMS SUGGESTED FOR RADIO AND COMPOSERS ...
Mr. Bloom believes that radio stations should pay an equitable fee for broadcasting musical compositions, but is not of the opinion that this should be done ...
[70]
Ten Well-Known Visitors to Historic Kenmore | Lives & Legacies
Oct 19, 2016 · Sol Bloom (1870-1949) Sol Bloom was an entertainer, music publisher, and congressman from New York. He was the biggest producer of sheet ...Missing: song royalties<|separator|>
[71]
(PDF) Sol Bloom Celebrating George Washington - ResearchGate
Jun 16, 2021 · His real estate investments made him a fortune. Bloom soon switched ... San Francisco on June. 26, 1945. Sol Bloom continued in office ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[72]
American Wartime Indifference to the Plight of the European Jews
The hardening of warriors to the cries of downtrodden Jews in Europe represented America's flight from moral responsibility and a retreat from its own standards ...Missing: accusations | Show results with:accusations<|control11|><|separator|>
[73]
The Campaign for an American Response to the Nazi Holocaust ...
Chairman Sol Bloom, a Democrat from. New York and friend of Rabbi Wise, opposed the bill. Bloom had disliked Bergson since the Bermuda Conference when Bergson.Missing: era | Show results with:era<|control11|><|separator|>
[74]
Bermuda and the Abandonment of the Jews - Jewish Journal
Apr 12, 2023 · Bloom was a staunch defender of FDR's harsh policy toward Jewish refugees; Jewish leaders feared Bloom would serve as “an alibi” for the ...
[75]
AMERICAN JEWS AND THE HOLOCAUST - The New York Times
Apr 18, 1982 · The American delegation was graced by a token Jew -Democratic Representative Sol Bloom ... Jewish unity, to the campaign against the White Paper.<|separator|>
[76]
https://scholars.unh.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?params=/context/dissertation/article=2823/&path_info=9518489.pdf
[77]
Congressional conservatism and the New Deal - dokumen.pub
Roosevelt enjoyed reliable leaders and a host of lesser figures anxious to attract presidential favor in 1933-1934. To add to Roosevelt's good fortune, ...