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Solar desalination

Solar desalination is a sustainable water treatment process that utilizes solar energy to remove salts and impurities from seawater or brackish water, producing fresh water for human consumption, agriculture, and industry in water-scarce regions.^[1] This technology leverages abundant solar resources to drive desalination methods, addressing the global challenge where an estimated 2.7 billion people may face water scarcity by mid-century.^[1] Key approaches in solar desalination include photovoltaic (PV)-powered reverse osmosis (RO), the most prevalent method, where solar panels generate electricity to pressurize water through semi-permeable membranes, and solar thermal distillation, such as multi-effect distillation (MED) or humidification-dehumidification (HDH), which use concentrated solar heat to evaporate and condense water.^[1] Hybrid systems, combining PV with thermal energy or wind, enhance reliability by mitigating solar intermittency through energy storage like batteries or thermal reservoirs.^[1] Concentrated solar power (CSP) integrated with RO or MED enables 24/7 operation via thermal energy storage, consuming 3–4.5 kWh per cubic meter of water produced, depending on salinity levels.^[2] As of 2024, worldwide desalination capacity has reached approximately 109 million cubic meters per day, with over 85% of plants employing RO, though solar-enabled systems represent an emerging fraction aimed at decarbonization.^[1]^[3] These technologies offer significant environmental benefits, including reduced CO₂ emissions—potentially over 300,000 tons annually in large-scale deployments—and lower operational costs in sun-rich areas compared to fossil fuel-dependent alternatives.^[1] However, challenges persist, such as high upfront capital for PV panels and storage (e.g., 2–5 kWh/m³ energy needs for RO), brine disposal, and the need for policy incentives to scale adoption.^[1]^[2] Recent advancements emphasize decentralized systems for remote communities, including photovoltaic-reverse osmosis (PV-RO) units and innovative photothermal evaporators like Janus wood structures, with research peaking in 2024 to integrate renewables for zero-liquid-discharge applications that minimize waste.^[4]^[5] Despite no large-scale 100% solar plants yet operational, pilots like Dubai's Hassyan facility demonstrate efficiencies as low as 2.9 kWh/m³, signaling potential for widespread deployment amid rising global demand projected to grow significantly due to climate change.^[4]^[2]

Overview

Definition and Principles

Solar desalination is a water purification process that utilizes solar energy to remove salts and minerals from seawater or brackish water, thereby producing potable or usable fresh water without reliance on fossil fuels. This technique leverages renewable solar resources to drive either thermal or membrane-based separation mechanisms, addressing water scarcity in arid regions where traditional energy sources may be limited.^[6] The fundamental principles of solar desalination revolve around mimicking the natural water cycle through evaporation and condensation in thermal methods, or employing osmosis and diffusion in membrane-based approaches. In thermal processes, solar heat elevates the temperature of saline water to induce evaporation, leaving salts behind, after which the water vapor condenses into pure distillate; this parallels the solar-driven evaporation in oceans and condensation in the atmosphere. For membrane methods, such as reverse osmosis, solar-generated pressure or electrical fields force water molecules through a semi-permeable barrier, separating them from dissolved ions via selective diffusion. Key prerequisite concepts include salinity, typically measured as total dissolved solids (TDS) in parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L), with seawater averaging around 35,000 ppm.^[6]^[7] Solar energy input occurs in two primary forms: direct thermal collection, which captures sunlight as heat for evaporation processes, and photovoltaic conversion, which generates electricity to power pumps and membranes in systems like reverse osmosis. Thermal methods typically require 10–15 kWh equivalent per m³ of produced water, accounting for thermal energy (100–200 MJ/m³) and auxiliary electricity (2–4 kWh/m³), while reverse osmosis typically demands 2–5 kWh/m³, primarily electrical. These energy needs stem from the thermodynamic minimum for separation—around 1–3 kJ/kg for seawater—but practical efficiencies add losses from heat transfer and pumping. In thermal systems, solar irradiance (G, in W/m²) drives heat input, related to temperature rise via the equation:

Q = m c \Delta T

where Q is heat energy (J), m is mass (kg), c is specific heat capacity (J/kg·K), and ΔT is temperature change (K); this heat derives from absorbed solar flux, often modeled as Q = G \cdot A \cdot \eta, with A as collector area (m²) and η as efficiency.^[6]^[8]^[7]

Importance and Global Context

Solar desalination plays a critical role in addressing the global water crisis, particularly in regions plagued by scarcity. As of 2024, approximately 2.1 billion people worldwide lack access to safely managed drinking water services, a figure that underscores the urgency of sustainable solutions in water-stressed areas.^[9]^[10] Desalination, powered by solar energy, holds significant potential in arid regions such as the Middle East and Australia, where abundant sunlight coincides with high demand for freshwater; the Middle East alone accounts for about 39% of the world's desalination capacity, much of which could transition to solar integration to meet growing needs.^[11] These technologies offer a viable pathway to convert seawater into potable water without relying on scarce freshwater resources, especially in coastal and inland desert zones.^[12] Compared to conventional desalination methods, solar-powered systems provide substantial environmental and economic advantages. Traditional plants, often fueled by fossil sources, emit 2.1 to 3.6 kg of CO₂ per cubic meter of produced water, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions.^[13] In contrast, solar desalination achieves near-zero operational carbon emissions, avoiding up to 3 kg CO₂ per m³ depending on the scale and integration, thereby reducing the overall carbon footprint of water production.^[14] Additionally, in remote or off-grid areas, solar systems yield cost savings of 40% to 70% on water production expenses by eliminating fuel and grid electricity costs, making them particularly suitable for isolated communities.^[15] Solar desalination aligns closely with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6), which aims to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by promoting clean water access.^[16] This alignment drives investment and policy support, with the global solar desalination market projected to reach around $3 billion by 2025, fueled by declining solar costs and rising water demands.^[17] Despite these benefits, solar desalination faces challenges from the intermittency of sunlight, which can disrupt continuous operation; however, this is often mitigated through energy or water storage solutions to maintain reliability.^[18]

History

Early Innovations

The utilization of solar energy for water treatment dates back to ancient civilizations, where passive evaporation techniques were applied primarily for salt production rather than potable water distillation. In ancient Egypt, around 2000 BCE, communities harvested salt through solar evaporation in shallow ponds and lakes along the Mediterranean coast and in the Natron Valley, concentrating brine from seawater and soda lakes to yield natron and common salt essential for preservation, mummification, and trade.^[19] These methods relied on natural solar heating to drive evaporation, leaving salt crystals behind, and represented an early conceptual foundation for solar-driven separation processes, though focused on concentration rather than desalination for drinking water. Early distillation techniques, including rudimentary solar methods, were described by Arab and Persian alchemists as early as the 9th century, though structured solar stills emerged later in alchemical texts.^[20] In the 19th century, solar desalination transitioned from conceptual sketches to practical inventions and field experiments. The first U.S. patent for a solar still was granted on May 3, 1870, to inventors Norman W. Wheeler and Walton W. Evans, describing a box-like apparatus with a glass-covered top to capture solar heat, evaporating liquid in troughs while facilitating air circulation for condensation and collection of distillate.^[21] This design emphasized sun-tracking mechanisms and glass covers to enhance efficiency, producing small-scale outputs suitable for distilling water or alcohol. Concurrently, large-scale applications were tested; in 1872, Swedish engineer Charles Wilson constructed the world's first commercial solar still plant in Las Salinas, Chile, comprising 64 basins totaling approximately 4,700 m² to supply fresh water to a remote mining community. The facility utilized sloped glass roofs over black-lined basins to maximize evaporation and condensation, achieving yields of around 4 L/m²/day under optimal sunny conditions, though average outputs hovered near 1-2 L/m²/day due to variable weather and material limitations.^[22]^[23] These innovations illustrated the conceptual evolution from passive, open-air evaporation in ancient salt ponds to enclosed, engineered stills that controlled the distillation cycle, laying the groundwork for scalable solar desalination while highlighting challenges like low productivity and dependence on clear skies.^[24]

Post-20th Century Developments

Following World War II, international organizations such as the United Nations and World Health Organization promoted initiatives to combat water scarcity in arid regions, fostering early advancements in desalination technologies during the 1950s, with solar methods gaining attention as sustainable options for remote communities.^[25] These efforts aligned with broader global peace and development goals, emphasizing low-cost, renewable approaches to potable water production.^[26] In the 1960s and 1970s, amid global energy concerns, research expanded to include improvements in solar still designs and early explorations of photovoltaic applications for desalination.^[27] During the 1980s and 2000s, solar desalination integrated with thermal collectors advanced, enabling indirect methods like multi-effect distillation powered by concentrated solar energy, which improved energy efficiency over passive stills.^[12] In the 2000s, researchers at MIT advanced prototypes for humidification-dehumidification (HDH) systems, mimicking the natural water cycle to achieve higher productivity in small-scale setups using solar-heated air streams.^[28] These innovations focused on enhancing still performance through material modifications, such as wick integrations that boosted distillate quality and yield. The 2010s saw the rise of photovoltaic-reverse osmosis (PV-RO) hybrids, combining solar electricity with membrane filtration for scalable operations in off-grid locations.^[29] A landmark project was Saudi Arabia's Al-Khafji plant, operational since 2017, with a capacity of 90,000 cubic meters per day (upgraded from 60,000) powered by 20 MW of PV, reducing emissions by over 90% compared to fossil-fuel alternatives and serving over 100,000 residents as of 2024.^[30]^[31] Since around 2018, nanomaterials like silica-carbon composites in interfacial evaporators have achieved evaporation efficiencies exceeding 90%, yielding 20-30% gains in output for high-salinity brines through enhanced photothermal conversion and salt rejection.^[32] Organizations like IRENA have documented these trends, highlighting PV-RO and nano-enhanced thermal systems as key to global adoption, with installed capacities growing rapidly in the Middle East and North Africa.^[12]

Thermal Desalination Methods

Direct Methods

Direct methods of solar desalination involve the direct use of solar heat to evaporate water within a single device, typically a solar still, without intermediate energy conversion steps. In these systems, brackish or seawater is placed in a basin where solar radiation heats the water, causing evaporation that rises to a cooler transparent cover, condenses, and collects as fresh water. This process mimics natural hydrological cycles but is confined to a controlled enclosure for efficient potable water production.^[33] Solar stills come in various designs, including basin types such as single-slope, double-slope, and stepped configurations; tilted variants optimized for latitude-specific angles; and spherical or hemispherical forms for enhanced collection. Single-slope basin stills, often tilted at 20–30 degrees, are the most common due to their simplicity. Spherical designs, like tubular solar stills, offer portability and improved condensation efficiency in certain setups.^[33] These methods are classified as passive or active. Passive single-slope stills rely solely on ambient solar energy for evaporation and condensation, suitable for remote, low-maintenance applications. Active variants incorporate external heat sources, such as flat-plate collectors or electric heaters, to boost nighttime or low-sunlight productivity. In sunny climates, passive stills typically yield 3–5 L/m²/day, while active enhancements can increase this by up to 50–100% under optimal conditions.^[33] Key design elements include blackened absorbers to maximize solar absorption, insulation materials like corkboard or polystyrene to minimize heat loss, and wick materials such as cotton or jute to increase the evaporative surface area and promote capillary action. These features enhance thermal efficiency by retaining heat in the basin and facilitating vapor transport. Early innovations, such as patents by Wheeler and Evans in 1870, laid the foundation for these basin designs.^[33]^[34] The theoretical daily yield Y (in kg/day) of a solar still can be approximated using the equation:

Y = \frac{I \cdot 86400 \cdot A \cdot \eta}{L_v \times 1000}

where I is the average solar irradiance (W/m²), 86400 is the number of seconds in a day, A is the basin area (m²), \eta is the overall thermal efficiency (typically 0.3–0.5), and L_v is the latent heat of vaporization (approximately 2257 kJ/kg). This simplified model highlights the direct proportionality to solar input and efficiency, though actual yields depend on environmental factors like wind and humidity.^[35] Advantages of direct methods include their mechanical simplicity, requiring no moving parts or electricity, and low operational costs, often $0.01–0.05 per liter produced, making them ideal for small-scale, off-grid use in arid regions. However, limitations persist, such as inherently low output compared to larger systems and vulnerability to scaling and fouling from salt accumulation, which reduces efficiency over time without regular maintenance.^[33]^[36]

Indirect Methods

Indirect solar desalination methods employ solar thermal collectors to capture and concentrate solar energy, heating a working fluid that is subsequently used to drive conventional thermal desalination processes, such as multi-stage flash (MSF) distillation or multi-effect distillation (MED).^[37] These systems decouple the solar heating from the evaporation process, allowing for higher operating temperatures and greater efficiency compared to direct methods. Parabolic trough collectors (PTCs) or flat-plate collectors (FPCs) are commonly used to heat heat transfer fluids (HTFs) like water or thermal oils to temperatures ranging from 80°C to 120°C, which are then fed into the desalination unit to evaporate seawater.^[38] For instance, in solar-assisted MED systems, the heated fluid preheats the feedwater or generates steam for the first effect, enabling multi-stage vaporization where latent heat from one stage drives evaporation in the next.^[39] These methods can operate in single-phase or multi-phase configurations. Single-phase processes, such as mechanical vapor compression (MVC), involve compressing vapor to raise its temperature and reuse it for heating, typically requiring 7-12 kWh/m³ of energy.^[38] In contrast, multi-phase processes like flash evaporation in MSF involve heating seawater under pressure and releasing it into lower-pressure stages, where it flashes into vapor; this demands 13.5-25.5 kWh/m³ for MSF or 6.5-11 kWh/m³ for MED.^[38] Efficiency in these systems is often quantified by the gain output ratio (GOR), defined as the ratio of distillate mass produced to the heat input required:

\text{GOR} = \frac{\text{distillate mass}}{\text{heat input}}

Typical GOR values range from 9.3 to 14 for solar-integrated MED, indicating effective heat reuse across multiple effects.^[37] Performance metrics for indirect solar desalination generally yield 5-15 liters per square meter of collector area per day, depending on solar irradiance and system design; for example, a solar-preheated MED plant in Abu Dhabi achieves about 80 m³/day with a GOR of 12.4.^[37] These systems are scalable for large-scale applications, supporting capacities up to 10,000 m³/day, as seen in hybrid solar-MED-MVC configurations producing 4,545 m³/day.^[39] However, brine disposal remains a key consideration, with concentrated brine (e.g., salinity increasing from 42,000 ppm to 84,000 ppm) discharged from the final stage, necessitating environmental management to mitigate marine impacts.^[39]

Membrane and Electrochemical Methods

Reverse Osmosis Systems

Reverse osmosis (RO) systems in solar desalination utilize semi-permeable membranes to separate salt from water under high pressure, powered primarily by solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays. The process involves high-pressure pumps, typically operating at 50-80 bar, that force feedwater through the membrane, where it rejects up to 99% of dissolved salts, producing permeate as fresh water while concentrating brine on the reject side.^[40]^[41] Energy recovery devices, such as pressure exchanger (PX) units, capture hydraulic energy from the high-pressure brine and transfer it to the incoming feedwater, significantly reducing overall energy demands.^[42] Solar integration in RO systems commonly employs PV arrays to generate direct current (DC) electricity for driving the pumps, either directly without batteries for variable operation or with storage to ensure continuous production during low sunlight periods. Hybrid configurations may incorporate solar thermal elements to preheat feedwater, enhancing membrane flux and reducing electrical needs. Specific energy consumption for these solar-powered RO systems typically ranges from 2 to 4 kWh per cubic meter of produced water, lower than many thermal alternatives which often exceed 10 kWh/m³ due to heat requirements.^[43]^[44]^[45] Advancements by 2025 have focused on improving efficiencies through thin-film composite membranes, which offer higher permeability and salt rejection while minimizing fouling, enabling levelized costs as low as $0.50 per cubic meter in optimized large-scale plants. Pretreatment steps, such as microfiltration or antiscalant dosing, are essential to prevent membrane fouling from particulates and scaling, extending system lifespan and maintaining performance. These systems achieve recovery rates of 20-50%, making them particularly suitable for brackish water sources where higher recoveries are feasible compared to seawater.^[46]^[47]^[48]

Electrodialysis and Ion Exchange

Electrodialysis (ED) is an electrochemical desalination process that employs alternating anion- and cation-exchange membranes separated by spacers to form dilute and concentrate compartments, through which a direct current (DC) electric field of 0.5-2 volts per cell pair drives selective ion migration.^[49] The process achieves ion separation as positively charged cations move toward the cathode through cation-exchange membranes and anions toward the anode through anion-exchange membranes, resulting in desalinated water in the dilute stream and concentrated brine in the adjacent stream. Current efficiency in ED, which measures the fraction of electrical current used for ion transport rather than parasitic losses, is given by the equation:

\eta = \frac{t \cdot z \cdot F \cdot \Delta C}{I \cdot t}

where t is time, z is the ion valence, F is Faraday's constant, \Delta C is the change in ion concentration in the dilute stream, and I is the applied current; this simplifies to \eta = \frac{z \cdot F \cdot \Delta C}{I} for steady-state conditions.^[50] In solar desalination applications, ED is powered by photovoltaic (PV) panels that provide the low-voltage DC supply directly compatible with the process's requirements, enabling off-grid operation without energy storage for brackish water sources typically ranging from 1,000 to 5,000 ppm total dissolved solids.^[51] This integration leverages PV's variable output by adjusting ED current dynamically, maintaining efficiency during fluctuating solar irradiance and achieving energy consumption as low as 0.7-1.2 kWh/m³ for brackish feeds. ED's suitability for brackish water stems from its lower energy demands compared to seawater desalination, making it ideal for remote or arid regions with abundant sunlight but limited grid access.^[52] Ion exchange complements ED in solar desalination by using charged resin beads—cationic for positive ions and anionic for negative ions—that are initially saturated and regenerated using solar-powered electrolysis to produce acids or bases for the regeneration cycle.^[53] In solar setups, PV-driven electrolytic cells generate regenerants like HCl or NaOH on-site, allowing resins to undergo repeated cycles (up to 1,000) with minimal chemical input, treating flows of 15 L/hour while reducing total dissolved solids from around 1,885 mg/L to 27 mg/L.^[53] This process is particularly effective for polishing ED effluent or standalone brackish treatment, with energy use of 1.2-1.8 kWh/m³ and recovery ratios near 0.8.^[53] ED systems in solar desalination typically achieve water recovery rates of 50-90%, depending on feed salinity and membrane selectivity, with higher rates possible in brackish applications due to reduced scaling risks.^[54] Recent 2025 advances, such as bipolar membrane ED (BMED), enhance purity by integrating water-splitting membranes to produce acids and bases in situ, enabling over 95% ion removal and supporting zero-liquid discharge configurations for sustainable brine management.^[55] These developments improve overall system efficiency, reducing operational costs by 20-30% in PV-ED integrations compared to conventional setups.^[56]

Hybrid and Emerging Technologies

Humidification-Dehumidification Systems

Humidification-dehumidification (HDH) systems represent a thermal desalination method that replicates the natural hydrological cycle, utilizing solar energy to drive evaporation and condensation processes. In these systems, saline water is heated using solar collectors to temperatures typically between 40°C and 80°C, which facilitates its evaporation into a carrier gas, usually air, within a humidifier. The resulting humid air is then directed to a dehumidifier, where it is cooled to condense pure water vapor, producing fresh water while leaving behind concentrated brine. This closed-loop air-vapor cycle enhances energy efficiency by leveraging the latent heat of vaporization, analogous to how solar radiation evaporates ocean water to form clouds and subsequent rainfall in nature.^[57]^[58] HDH configurations vary to optimize performance, with single-stage systems featuring a basic setup of one humidifier and one dehumidifier, while multi-stage designs incorporate multiple units in series to progressively increase humidity levels and improve overall yield. Heat recovery is commonly achieved through packed beds—such as those filled with cellulose, plastic mesh, or honeycomb structures—which facilitate countercurrent flow between the incoming dry air and outgoing humid air, or between cooling water and humid air, thereby minimizing thermal losses. For instance, packed bed humidifiers are among the most utilized due to their high contact surface area, enabling effective mass and heat transfer. Productivity in solar HDH systems generally ranges from 10 to 20 liters per square meter per day under typical solar insolation, though values can reach up to 41.8 L/m²/day in optimized multi-stage setups with enhanced airflow.^[57]^[59]^[58] Solar components in HDH systems primarily include evacuated tube collectors (ETCs) or solar ponds to provide the necessary heating for the saline water feed, ensuring consistent operation even during intermittent sunlight. These collectors can achieve water temperatures suitable for the low-grade heat requirements of HDH, with ETCs offering higher efficiency in moderate climates. The gained output ratio (GOR), a measure of thermal efficiency defined as the ratio of distillate produced to the heat input, typically reaches 5 to 10 in well-designed solar HDH systems, reflecting effective energy utilization through heat recovery mechanisms.^[57]^[59]^[58] A key advantage of HDH systems is their ability to operate at relatively low temperatures (40–80°C), which aligns well with abundant solar thermal resources and reduces material stress compared to higher-temperature desalination methods. Their modular design further supports scalability for decentralized applications, making them ideal for small communities or remote areas with limited infrastructure, where they can produce sufficient fresh water for drinking or irrigation without relying on large-scale grids.^[57]^[59]^[60]

Photovoltaic-Integrated and Novel Approaches

Photovoltaic (PV) systems have been increasingly integrated with desalination processes to harness solar energy for powering mechanical components, particularly in reverse osmosis (RO) and electrodialysis (ED) setups. Direct coupling of PV panels to pumps eliminates the need for grid electricity, enabling off-grid operation in remote areas, while battery storage addresses solar intermittency by providing consistent power during low-light periods. Recent advancements have achieved overall system efficiencies of 15-20% in PV-RO hybrids, with specific energy consumption reduced to around 3-4 kWh/m³ through optimized PV array sizing and energy recovery devices.^[61]^[62] Emerging technologies extend beyond traditional PV integrations to include microbial desalination cells (MDCs), which utilize solar-powered bacteria to facilitate ion removal through bio-electrochemical processes. In MDCs, solar panels drive microbial fuel cells that generate electricity from organic matter while simultaneously desalinating brackish water, achieving salt removal rates of up to 90% without external energy inputs beyond sunlight.^[63] Similarly, thermohaline solar stills leverage natural salt gradients induced by solar heating to create density-driven convection, promoting evaporation and condensation without mechanical aids; these systems have shown productivity increases over conventional stills in arid climates.^[64] Nanotechnology innovations, such as photocatalytic membranes, enable direct solar-driven osmosis by embedding semiconductor nanoparticles like TiO₂ into polymer matrices, which generate reactive oxygen species under sunlight to degrade fouling and enhance water flux. These membranes facilitate forward osmosis powered solely by solar irradiance, with reported permeance values exceeding 20 L/m²·h·bar and rejection rates above 95% for salts.^[65] Hybrid solar-wind systems further amplify reliability by combining PV with wind turbines to power desalination units, achieving near-continuous operation; pilots demonstrate scalability for coastal communities. As of 2025, advancements in PV-thermal hybrids integrated with CSP have improved reliability for 24/7 operation in regions like the Middle East.^[66] These novel approaches underscore a shift toward sustainable, multi-energy desalination paradigms, with pilots demonstrating scalability for coastal communities.^[11]

Challenges and Solutions

Technical and Operational Issues

One of the primary technical challenges in solar desalination is the intermittency of solar energy, characterized by diurnal fluctuations that limit continuous operation and lead to underutilization of capital-intensive equipment. These variations, driven by day-night cycles and weather patterns, can exacerbate issues like membrane degradation in reverse osmosis (RO) systems or scaling in heat exchangers during intermittent runs. To address this, thermal energy storage (TES) systems are integrated, with sensible heat storage using molten salts enabling the capture of high-temperature solar heat for off-peak desalination, thereby improving system reliability and reducing levelized costs compared to water storage alternatives. Battery storage supports photovoltaic (PV)-driven processes but incurs higher expenses, making solar-thermal approaches more economical for intermittency mitigation. Fouling and scaling further complicate operations across both membrane and thermal methods. In RO systems powered by solar energy, membrane clogging occurs due to the accumulation of particulates, organic matter, inorganic salts, and biological foulants, which decrease permeability, elevate operating pressures, and shorten membrane lifespan. Solar stills face biological fouling from algae growth in open basins exposed to sunlight and nutrients, reducing evaporation efficiency. Mitigation involves pretreatment like coagulation and ultrafiltration, alongside chemical antiscalants—such as organophosphonates and polyacrylic acids—that distort crystal formation to prevent scaling in RO. For biofouling control, UV irradiation enhances cleaning by disinfecting feedwater and disrupting microbial adhesion in both RO and thermal setups. Efficiency barriers remain a core limitation, particularly in thermal desalination, where overall system efficiencies typically fall below 10% without advanced latent heat recovery due to parasitic losses from conduction, convection, and radiation. The total efficiency is conceptualized as the product of solar collection efficiency and desalination process efficiency:

\eta_{\text{total}} = \eta_{\text{solar}} \times \eta_{\text{desal}}

Here, \eta_{\text{solar}} encompasses solar absorptivity and thermal conversion (often up to 90% in optimized interfacial systems), while \eta_{\text{desal}} is gauged by metrics like the gained output ratio (GOR) in multi-effect distillation, which can exceed 15 in large-scale thermal plants to boost productivity. Operational challenges include high initial capital expenditures (CAPEX) for durable components and storage integration, alongside corrosion risks in humid, saline environments that degrade heat exchangers, pipes, and structural elements. In humidification-dehumidification (HDH) systems, saline mist accelerates electrochemical corrosion in copper-aluminum alloys, while coastal installations amplify pitting and crevice corrosion from salt spray. Solutions employ corrosion-resistant alloys like titanium, cupronickel (CuNi 90/10), or stainless steels, combined with protective coatings and cathodic protection to extend component life and minimize maintenance downtime.

Economic, Environmental, and Scalability Factors

Solar desalination systems exhibit favorable economic profiles, with the levelized cost of water (LCOW) typically ranging from $0.50 to $2 per cubic meter, depending on system scale, location, and integration with photovoltaic (PV) or thermal technologies.^[67]^[68] This cost structure benefits from declining PV electricity prices, which reached a global weighted average LCOE of $0.043 per kWh in 2024 and has continued to decline modestly in 2025, remaining below $0.05 per kWh as of mid-2025 due to technological advancements and economies of scale.^[69]^[70] Government subsidies, including grants covering 30-70% of capital costs and tax credits from programs like the U.S. Department of Energy's Solar Desalination initiative, further enhance viability, often yielding payback periods of 5-10 years for installations in water-scarce regions.^[71]^[72]^[73] Environmentally, solar desalination significantly reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, achieving up to 80-90% lower emissions compared to grid-powered conventional desalination, which typically emits 1.5-2.5 kg CO₂ equivalent per cubic meter due to fossil fuel reliance.^[74]^[14] Operational emissions approach near-zero when fully solar-powered, addressing the water-energy nexus by minimizing energy-intensive processes' carbon footprint while producing freshwater sustainably.^[75] Brine disposal impacts are mitigated through techniques like mixing diffusion dilution, where hypersaline effluent is dispersed into ocean currents to prevent localized salinity spikes and protect marine ecosystems.^[76]^[77] Scalability varies by application, with small-scale systems like household solar stills proving highly deployable for remote or off-grid communities, producing 4-6 liters per day at low cost and minimal infrastructure needs.^[78] In contrast, mega-plants face challenges in achieving utility-scale output (over 1,000 m³/day), currently limited to pilot levels due to land requirements and solar resource variability.^[79] Grid integration poses additional hurdles, including intermittency management and the need for energy storage to match desalination's continuous demand, though modular designs facilitate distributed deployment over centralized facilities.^[80]^[81]^[82] Policy incentives play a crucial role in adoption, aligning with goals such as the Global Clean Water Desalination Alliance's target of powering 20% of new desalination capacity with renewables by 2025—though progress remains limited, with renewable share under 2% as of 2025—and the international commitment to tripling overall renewable capacity by 2030 to support sustainable water production.^[83]^[84] These frameworks emphasize subsidies and regulatory support to overcome economic barriers and integrate solar desalination into national water security strategies.^[85]

Applications and Future Outlook

Real-World Implementations

One notable implementation of solar desalination in remote areas is the photovoltaic-powered reverse osmosis (PV-RO) systems developed for Australian outback communities, such as the Reverse Osmosis Solar Installation (ROSI) trialed in White Cliffs, New South Wales, during the early 2000s. These systems treat high-salinity bore water to produce up to 10,000 liters of drinking water per day, addressing water scarcity in off-grid locations with populations around 250 residents.^[86] The technology combines ultrafiltration and RO membranes, achieving specific energy consumption of 2–8 kWh/m³, and has been adapted for similar remote island settings in the Pacific region through Australian-led initiatives.^[87] In India, a PV-RO desalination plant was commissioned in Jamnagar, Gujarat, in 2023 as part of effluent treatment facilities integrated with solar PV parks, processing brackish water at a capacity of approximately 4.7 million gallons per day (17,800 m³/day). This project supports industrial and community water needs in the arid coastal region, leveraging Gujarat's high solar irradiance to power the RO process without grid reliance.^[88] Earlier pilots in the state, such as feasibility studies leading to operational units around 2020, demonstrated economic viability for scaling PV-RO in saline groundwater areas, producing freshwater for local agriculture and domestic use.^[89] The United Arab Emirates has advanced large-scale integration with the Hassyan Seawater Desalination Plant in Dubai, where phase 1 development advanced under a 30-year agreement signed in 2023, incorporating solar PV to supply a significant portion of the energy for reverse osmosis processes, with operations scheduled to begin in 2026 and full capacity by 2027. The facility has a phase 1 capacity of 180 million imperial gallons per day (approximately 681,000 m³/day), with solar contributions reducing reliance on fossil fuels and supporting Dubai's water security strategy.^[90]^[91] A prominent case study is Saudi Arabia's Al-Khafji Solar Desalination Plant, operational since 2017 and expanded through 2023, which uses PV arrays across 90 hectares to power a 60,000–90,000 m³/day RO system, achieving high reliability with emissions reductions of up to 91% compared to conventional plants. The facility has produced over 7 million m³ of potable water, supplying daily needs for approximately 150,000 residents in the Eastern Province.^[92] Performance metrics highlight its robustness, including consistent output during peak demand and surplus solar energy storage for nighttime operations.^[93] In Africa, community-scale solar desalination has gained traction, exemplified by the GivePower Solar Water Farm in Mtwapa, Kenya, launched in late 2024 following pilots, which employs PV-RO to desalinate brackish coastal water at 75,000 liters per day. This system provides water to thousands of residents, providing safe drinking water to mitigate health risks from contaminated sources and supporting local fisheries.^[94] Collectively, these projects have supplied clean water to over 100,000 people across arid and coastal regions, with notable integration into agriculture at sites like Australia's Sundrop Farms in Port Augusta, where solar desalination produces desalinated seawater for hydroponic tomato greenhouses on 20 hectares of arid land, yielding 17,000 tonnes annually without soil or freshwater inputs.^[95] Such outcomes demonstrate solar desalination's role in enhancing food security by enabling irrigation in water-scarce areas.^[96] Key lessons from these implementations emphasize site-specific adaptations to local climate conditions, such as incorporating corrosion-resistant materials and enhanced cooling for PV panels in high-humidity tropical environments like Kenya's coast, where relative humidity exceeds 80% and can reduce system efficiency by 10–15% without mitigation. In arid climates like Australia's outback or the UAE's deserts, designs prioritize dust-resistant membranes and thermal storage to maintain output during variable sunlight.^[97] These adjustments ensure operational resilience, with overall uptime often exceeding 90% in optimized setups.^[3]

Recent Advances and Prospects

In 2025, advancements in artificial intelligence have optimized photovoltaic-reverse osmosis (PV-RO) systems for solar desalination, with algorithms like SHO-P&O maximum power point tracking (MPPT) enabling high-performance operation and improved energy utilization in single-stage setups integrated with battery storage.^[98] Similarly, perovskite materials have enhanced solar evaporators, such as inverse-L-shaped architectures using La_0.7Sr_0.3MnO₃ perovskite oxides, which achieve superior light absorption across broader spectra and boost evaporation rates for efficient hypersaline water treatment.^[99] These innovations address intermittency challenges, with perovskite-based floating PV systems showing promise for direct seawater desalination under varying irradiance conditions.^[100] Prospects for solar desalination include expanded integration with green hydrogen production, where solar-powered reverse osmosis or multi-effect distillation provides purified water for electrolysis, creating synergies that reduce overall energy demands and enable carbon-free fuel generation at scales up to gigawatts.^[101] Projections suggest solar-powered desalination capacity could reach 500,000 cubic meters per day globally by 2030, driven by declining photovoltaic and storage costs, positioning it as a key contributor to sustainable water supply in water-scarce regions.^[102] The global solar desalination market is forecasted to expand from $1.2 billion in 2024 to $7.6 billion by 2033, reflecting accelerated adoption in arid coastal areas through hybrid renewable systems.^[103] Research and development trends emphasize zero-energy systems leveraging advanced materials, such as graphene oxide films and phase-change composites, which enable passive evaporation without external power inputs while achieving zero liquid discharge in high-salinity feeds.^[104] Innovations like MIT's battery-free solar desalination device further demonstrate stable freshwater output under fluctuating sunlight, using thermal storage to maintain productivity.^[105] However, barriers to broader adoption persist, including high capital costs and the absence of standardized designs, though ongoing efforts in material scalability and process integration hold potential for up to 50% reductions in levelized cost of water through photovoltaic cost declines and system modularization.^[79]^[106]

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