Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Spindle checkpoint

The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), also known as the mitotic checkpoint, is a conserved surveillance mechanism in eukaryotic cells that ensures accurate chromosome segregation during mitosis by inhibiting the transition from metaphase to anaphase until every kinetochore is properly attached to microtubules of the mitotic spindle.^[1] This process prevents the premature separation of sister chromatids, thereby avoiding aneuploidy and maintaining genomic stability across cell divisions.^[2] The SAC achieves this by generating a diffusible "wait-anaphase" signal from unattached kinetochores, which blocks the activity of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), a ubiquitin ligase essential for degrading securin and cyclin B to initiate anaphase.^[3] At the core of SAC signaling is the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC), composed of Mad2, BubR1 (also known as Mad3), Bub3, and the APC/C co-activator Cdc20, which binds and inhibits APC/C to halt mitotic progression.^[1] Unattached kinetochores recruit key SAC components, including the Mad1-Mad2 complex, via the KMN network (comprising KNL1, Mis12, and Ndc80) and the Rod-Zw10-Zwilch (RZZ) complex, initiating MCC assembly through a templated conformational change in Mad2 from its open (O-Mad2) to closed (C-Mad2) form.^[2] The kinase Mps1 plays a pivotal role in activation by phosphorylating MELT motifs on KNL1, which recruit Bub1-Bub3 and subsequently Mad1, amplifying the signal; a single unattached kinetochore can sustain the checkpoint, with signal strength scaling proportionally to the number of unattached sites.^[3] Aurora B kinase further supports activation by phosphorylating kinetochore substrates, counteracting premature silencing and promoting error correction of improper attachments.^[1] SAC silencing occurs rapidly upon microtubule attachment, involving the stripping of SAC proteins like Mad1-Mad2 by dynein-mediated transport and the action of phosphatases such as PP1 and PP2A, which dephosphorylate key sites on KNL1 and Bub1 to disassemble checkpoint components.^[3] Accessory factors like p31^comet and TRIP13 facilitate MCC disassembly by reversing the Mad2 conformational change and promoting Cdc20 release, while APC15 ubiquitinates Cdc20 to enhance MCC turnover and ensure responsiveness to attachments.^[2] Intra-kinetochore tension from bi-orientation further displaces regulators like Mps1, reinforcing silencing and allowing APC/C activation to proceed with anaphase.^[1] Dysfunction in the SAC is implicated in chromosomal instability, contributing to tumorigenesis, as evidenced by mutations in SAC genes like BUB1B and MAD2L1 in various cancers, while its role extends to meiosis where relaxed checkpoint stringency accommodates rapid divisions.^[2] Overall, the SAC exemplifies a sophisticated feedback system that integrates microtubule dynamics with cell-cycle control, safeguarding genome integrity across diverse organisms from yeast to humans.^[3]

Biological Context

Cell Division and Chromosome Duplication

The foundations of understanding cell division trace back to the 19th century, when cell theory was formulated by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, establishing that cells are the fundamental units of life and arise from preexisting cells.^[4] Advancements in microscopy enabled early observations of division processes, with Walther Flemming's 1879 work providing the first detailed description of mitosis, noting the longitudinal splitting of thread-like chromosomes during cell division in animal cells.^[5] The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of four principal phases: G1 (first gap), S (synthesis), G2 (second gap), and M (mitosis), which collectively ensure orderly growth, replication, and division.^[6] In the G1 phase, the cell increases in size, synthesizes proteins, and evaluates external signals to commit to division, often entering a quiescent G0 state if conditions are unfavorable.^[6] The S phase follows, during which DNA replication doubles the genetic content, generating two identical copies of each chromosome known as sister chromatids, held together by cohesin proteins at the centromere; this phase typically lasts 8–10 hours in mammalian cells.^[6] The G2 phase then permits further cellular growth, organelle duplication, and DNA damage repair before entering the M phase, where nuclear division (mitosis) and cytoplasmic partitioning (cytokinesis) occur over about 1 hour.^[6] Central to chromosome structure are centromeres, specialized genomic regions marked by the histone variant CENP-A, which epigenetically define sites for kinetochore assembly and sister chromatid cohesion.^[7] Kinetochores, large multiprotein complexes that assemble on centromeres during mitosis, provide the structural interface for microtubule attachment, enabling the precise alignment and movement of chromosomes.^[7] These elements ensure that replicated chromosomes maintain structural integrity from S phase through division. Equitable distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells during mitosis is essential for genomic stability, as errors in segregation lead to aneuploidy—an imbalance in chromosome number that disrupts cellular function and is implicated in developmental disorders and tumorigenesis.^[8] This process relies on bipolar attachment of kinetochores to the mitotic spindle, which separates sister chromatids to opposite poles, thereby preserving the diploid genome across generations.^[8]

Mitosis and Spindle Attachment

Mitosis is the process by which eukaryotic cells divide their replicated chromosomes equally into two daughter cells, ensuring genomic stability. It is divided into five main stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During prophase, chromosomes condense into visible structures, and the mitotic spindle begins to assemble from microtubule organizing centers.^[9] In prometaphase, the nuclear envelope breaks down, allowing microtubules to interact with kinetochores—protein complexes assembled on centromeric DNA of each chromosome. This stage is critical for initial kinetochore-microtubule attachments, where microtubules dynamically search and capture kinetochores to establish connections.^[10] Prometaphase attachments are initially unstable and error-prone, requiring correction mechanisms to achieve proper alignment.^[9] The mitotic spindle is a bipolar apparatus composed primarily of microtubules, which are dynamic polymers of α- and β-tubulin subunits, along with associated motor proteins. Microtubules radiate from two spindle poles, forming astral, kinetochore, and interpolar bundles that facilitate chromosome movement and spindle positioning. Kinesins and dyneins, as plus- and minus-end-directed motor proteins respectively, generate forces for microtubule sliding, poleward flux, and chromosome congression. For instance, kinesin-5 motors cross-link and slide antiparallel microtubules to push poles apart, establishing spindle bipolarity, while cytoplasmic dynein contributes to initial kinetochore capture and spindle orientation.00044-1) These motors ensure the spindle's dynamic architecture supports efficient kinetochore engagement during prometaphase.^[11] Proper chromosome segregation requires bi-orientation, where sister chromatids attach to microtubules from opposite spindle poles via their kinetochores, known as amphitelic attachment. In this configuration, each kinetochore binds microtubules emanating from one pole, generating balanced pulling forces that align chromosomes at the metaphase plate. Erroneous attachments include syntelic, where both sister kinetochores connect to microtubules from the same pole, leading to potential missegregation of both chromatids, and merotelic, where a single kinetochore attaches to microtubules from both poles, risking lagging chromosomes. These errors are more common early in prometaphase but are minimized through microtubule depolymerization and reattachment trials. Sister chromatid cohesion is maintained during this alignment to counter pulling forces until metaphase completion.^[12] Upon establishment of amphitelic attachments in metaphase, tension arises at kinetochores due to microtubule polymerization/depolymerization dynamics and motor-driven pulling from opposite poles. This inter-kinetochore tension, typically on the order of piconewtons, stretches centromeric chromatin and stabilizes attachments by reducing Aurora B kinase activity at kinetochores, thereby inhibiting error correction. Tension generation signals successful bi-orientation, allowing progression to anaphase where microtubules shorten to separate chromatids. In anaphase, sister chromatids move to opposite poles, followed by telophase where nuclear envelopes reform and chromosomes decondense.^[13]^[14]

Sister Chromatid Cohesion and Segregation

Sister chromatid cohesion ensures that replicated chromosomes remain paired until their proper alignment on the mitotic spindle, facilitating equal segregation to daughter cells. The cohesin complex, a ring-shaped protein assembly comprising the structural maintenance of chromosomes (SMC) proteins SMC1 and SMC3, the kleisin subunit SCC1 (also known as Rad21), and regulatory factors such as stromal antigen (SA/STAG), encircles pairs of sister chromatids to physically link them.^[15] This topological embrace is essential for maintaining cohesion from the completion of DNA replication in S phase through metaphase of mitosis.^[15] Cohesion is established specifically during S phase, coinciding with DNA replication, when newly synthesized sister chromatids are generated. The cohesin ring, pre-loaded onto chromatin in G1 phase by the loader complex Scc2-Scc4, captures these sisters as the replication fork progresses, a process dependent on the acetyltransferase Eco1 (Esco1/2 in vertebrates) that modifies SMC3 to stabilize the association.^[15] Without this acetylation, cohesin binds chromosomes but fails to generate cohesive linkages, as demonstrated in yeast mutants lacking Eco1 activity.^[15] In G2 and early M phases, established cohesion is actively maintained to prevent premature dissociation despite ongoing cellular processes that could destabilize the complex. The protein sororin binds to cohesin in S and G2 phases, counteracting the anti-cohesin factor WAPL to promote stable chromatin occupancy and preserve sister pairings.^[16] This maintenance is crucial for generating the tension sensed at kinetochores upon bipolar spindle attachment, which signals the spindle assembly checkpoint to permit progression.^[15] At the onset of anaphase, cohesion is abruptly dissolved to enable sister chromatid segregation. The spindle checkpoint satisfaction activates the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), which targets securin for degradation, thereby releasing and activating the protease separase.^[17] Separase then proteolytically cleaves the SCC1/Rad21 subunit, opening the cohesin ring and allowing the sisters to separate toward opposite spindle poles.^[15] This cleavage event is highly regulated to ensure it occurs only after all chromosomes are properly attached.^[17] Dysfunction in cohesin-mediated cohesion, such as mutations impairing complex integrity or establishment, leads to premature sister chromatid separation, disrupting balanced chromosome distribution and resulting in aneuploidy.^[18] For instance, defects in cohesin subunits cause random chromatid loss or gain during division, a hallmark of genomic instability associated with diseases like cancer.^[19]

Meiosis and Checkpoint Relevance

Meiosis consists of two successive divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II, that follow a single round of DNA replication, reducing the diploid chromosome number to haploid gametes while promoting genetic diversity through recombination. In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair and undergo recombination, forming bivalents that align at the metaphase plate; these homologs then segregate to opposite poles during anaphase I, with centromeric cohesion between sister chromatids preserved to enable segregation of sister chromatids in the subsequent division. Meiosis II resembles mitosis, where sister chromatids separate without further replication, yielding four haploid cells.^[20] A key distinction from mitosis lies in the regulation of sister chromatid cohesion during meiosis. Cohesin complexes along chromosome arms are removed in anaphase I to allow homologous chromosome separation, while centromeric cohesin is protected to maintain sister chromatid pairing until anaphase II. This protection is mediated by shugoshin proteins, such as shugoshin-2 (Sgo2) in mammals, which recruit protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) to counteract cohesin cleavage by separase at centromeres during meiosis I. In meiosis II, the remaining centromeric cohesin is fully removed, paralleling mitotic segregation but with distinct timing due to meiotic-specific cohesin variants like Rec8.^[21] The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) operates in meiosis to ensure proper kinetochore-microtubule attachments before anaphase onset, but its stringency varies between divisions. In meiosis I, the SAC is highly stringent, arresting cells with even a single unattached kinetochore to prevent nondisjunction of homologs, as observed in insect spermatocytes where univalents trigger prolonged metaphase arrests. In contrast, meiosis II exhibits reduced stringency, tolerating merotelic attachments—where a single kinetochore binds microtubules from both spindle poles—allowing progression despite potential misalignment errors, which contributes to higher aneuploidy rates in oocytes. This differential response reflects adaptations to the unique bivalent attachments in meiosis I versus monovalent kinetochores in meiosis II.^[20]^[22] Evolutionarily, the SAC's role in meiosis underscores its importance in balancing genetic diversity with fidelity in reproduction. Recombination and homologous segregation in meiosis I generate variability essential for adaptation and species survival, while the SAC minimizes errors that could lead to aneuploid gametes, which are often inviable or cause disorders like Down syndrome in humans. Defects in meiotic SAC components elevate aneuploidy risks, highlighting its conserved function in preventing reproductive failures across eukaryotes.^[23]

Discovery and Development

Early Observations in Cell Biology

In the late 19th century, cytological studies began to reveal the intricacies of chromosome behavior during cell division. Edouard van Beneden, using light microscopy on the eggs of the parasitic nematode Ascaris megalocephala, provided one of the first detailed accounts of chromosome distribution in 1883. His observations during fertilization and early cleavages demonstrated that the sperm nucleus contributes an equal number of chromosomes to the egg's set, forming a diploid complement that undergoes precise segregation in subsequent mitoses. Van Beneden also noted unequal chromosome distribution in meiotic divisions, where polar bodies receive a reduced complement, highlighting the potential for imbalanced allocation under specific developmental conditions.^[24] Early 20th-century experiments further illuminated errors in chromosome segregation. Theodor Boveri, in his 1902 studies on sea urchin (Arbacia punctulata) embryos, induced abnormal divisions by allowing dispermic fertilization, which introduced extra centrosomes and formed multipolar spindles. These multipolar configurations caused random and unequal partitioning of chromosomes to daughter cells, resulting in aneuploidy and severe developmental defects, such as fragmented embryos or arrested cleavage. Boveri's work established a causal link between spindle abnormalities and segregation failures, emphasizing that equitable chromosome distribution is essential for viability.^[25] The 1930s introduction of colchicine as an experimental agent advanced understanding of spindle-dependent segregation. Pierre Dustin reported in 1934 that colchicine binds tubulin and inhibits microtubule polymerization, disrupting spindle assembly and arresting cells at metaphase. Prolonged exposure often led to faulty progression through division, manifesting as chromosome bridges, lagging chromosomes, or nondisjunction, which produced cells with unequal chromosome numbers and polyploidy. This chemical perturbation tool vividly demonstrated how spindle disruption precipitates segregation defects, prompting inquiries into cellular safeguards against such errors.^[26] By the 1960s, investigations into environmental stressors revealed phenomena suggestive of regulatory delays in abnormal cells. Ronald C. Rustad's 1960 experiments on sea urchin eggs exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation showed dose-dependent mitotic delays, with sensitive periods in the cell cycle where UV damage prolonged progression from interphase to division. Similar delays were observed with X-ray irradiation, leading to hypotheses that cells possess mechanisms to pause division in response to perturbations, potentially averting segregation errors in compromised states. These findings built on prior observations, indicating intrinsic controls that monitor division readiness.^[27]

Identification of the SAC Components

The identification of the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) components began in the early 1990s through genetic screens in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, focusing on mutants defective in mitotic arrest following microtubule disruption. In 1991, Li and Murray isolated three mitotic arrest-deficient (MAD) genes, MAD1, MAD2, and MAD3, by screening for mutants that failed to halt cell cycle progression at metaphase when treated with the microtubule-depolymerizing agent benomyl. These genes were found to be essential for blocking anaphase initiation in cells with unattached kinetochores, thereby preventing premature chromosome segregation.^[28] Concurrently, in the same year, Hoyt, Totis, and Roberts identified three budding uninhibited by benzimidazoles (BUB) genes, BUB1, BUB2, and BUB3, using a similar genetic approach targeting benomyl hypersensitivity and loss of checkpoint-mediated arrest. These BUB genes complemented the MAD pathway, as double mutants exhibited even more severe defects in spindle-dependent arrest, indicating overlapping but distinct roles in sensing kinetochore-microtubule attachments. Further characterization in 1994 by Roberts, Farr, and Hoyt revealed that BUB1 encodes a protein kinase, providing early insight into its regulatory function.^[29]^[30] Homologs of these yeast SAC components were subsequently identified in humans, confirming the checkpoint's evolutionary conservation. In 1996, Li and Benezra cloned hsMAD2 (human MAD2), demonstrating its necessity for mitotic arrest in HeLa cells via antibody microinjection experiments that bypassed the checkpoint. Similarly, human MAD1 and BUB1 were isolated around the same period, with BUB1 shown to localize to kinetochores. A key human homolog, BUBR1 (also known as BUB1B), was identified in 1998 by Cahill et al. as a close relative of BUB1, featuring both kinase and pseudokinase domains, and essential for SAC signaling. These proteins, along with MAD1, MAD2, BUB1, and BUBR1, are conserved across eukaryotes, from yeast to mammals, underscoring a universal mechanism for mitotic fidelity.^[31]^[32] Initial biochemical evidence for the SAC emerged from yeast studies showing it acts as a diffusible inhibitor of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C). In the 1991 work by Li and Murray, cytoplasmic extracts from checkpoint-activated cells inhibited cyclin B degradation in untreated extracts, indicating a soluble factor prevents APC/C-mediated ubiquitination until all kinetochores are attached. This diffusible nature was further supported by mixing experiments, distinguishing the SAC from direct spindle components.^[28]

Key Experimental Milestones

In the mid-1990s, experiments using Xenopus egg extracts provided key evidence for the diffusible nature of the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) inhibitor. Chen et al. demonstrated that the checkpoint component XMAD2 localizes to unattached kinetochores and, through microinjection of sperm chromatin into CSF-arrested extracts, showed that the presence of even a few unattached kinetochores generates a diffusible inhibitor that prevents cyclin B degradation and anaphase onset across the entire extract system. Subsequent microinjection studies by Chen and Murray further characterized this process, revealing that the inhibitor's diffusion allows a small number of defective kinetochores to impose a global mitotic arrest, with the checkpoint response scalable to the number of unattached sites.^[33] These findings established the SAC as a soluble signaling mechanism rather than a localized kinetochore-specific block. During the 2000s, advances in live-cell imaging techniques in mammalian cells quantified the SAC's response dynamics and sensitivity. Rieder and colleagues employed time-lapse microscopy and micromanipulation in PtK1 cells to isolate the effect of individual monooriented chromosomes, demonstrating that a single unattached kinetochore delays anaphase onset by 30-60 minutes, sufficient to allow microtubule capture and alignment. This work highlighted the SAC's "one kinetochore rules all" principle, where the inhibitory signal from unattached kinetochores propagates cell-wide, with the delay duration reflecting the time needed for error correction and underscoring the checkpoint's role in preventing aneuploidy.^[34] RNA interference (RNAi) screens in human cells during the early 2000s confirmed the essentiality of core SAC genes by directly testing their loss-of-function effects. In a seminal study, Kops et al. used RNAi to deplete MAD2 in HeLa cells, resulting in rapid override of the SAC under nocodazole-induced spindle disruption, leading to premature anaphase and chromosome missegregation without mitotic arrest. This approach validated MAD2's indispensable role in generating the diffusible wait-anaphase signal and extended yeast-based discoveries to mammalian systems, showing that partial or complete knockdown compromises checkpoint fidelity and promotes genomic instability.^[35] Post-2015 structural biology breakthroughs using cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) elucidated the atomic details of SAC inhibition at the molecular level. Alfieri et al. resolved the structure of the human mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC)—comprising MAD2, BUBR1, BUB3, and CDC20—bound to the APC/C, revealing how MCC sterically blocks APC/C substrate recruitment and ubiquitinates key sites to enforce inhibition until all kinetochores attach. Complementary cryo-EM work by Lu et al. showed the MCC-APC/C interface in near-atomic detail, demonstrating conformational changes in APC/C that prevent CDC20 activation and cyclin B ubiquitination, thus providing a mechanistic basis for SAC-mediated mitotic delay. These structures have refined models of checkpoint silencing and informed therapeutic targeting of SAC dysregulation in cancer.^[36]^[37]

Mechanism of Action

Checkpoint Activation Signals

The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is activated primarily by unattached kinetochores, which serve as the initial sensors of microtubule attachment errors during mitosis.^[3] These structures recruit key checkpoint proteins to generate an inhibitory signal that prevents anaphase onset until all chromosomes are properly aligned. Specifically, the MAD1-MAD2 complex is targeted to the outer kinetochore of unattached kinetochores through interactions mediated by BUB1 and BUB3. BUB1, in complex with BUB3, binds to phosphorylated MELT motifs on the kinetochore protein KNL1, and BUB1's C-terminal domain then directly interacts with a coiled-coil region of MAD1 (residues 365–495) via its RLK motif, facilitating the localization of the MAD1-MAD2 heterodimer.^[38] This recruitment is essential for initiating SAC signaling and is disrupted by mutations in the BUB1-MAD1 interface, such as L777K/N781K in BUB1 or D423A in MAD1, which abolish kinetochore localization and checkpoint function.^[38] SAC activation also involves sensing two distinct aspects of kinetochore-microtubule interactions: microtubule occupancy and inter-kinetochore tension. Lack of microtubule occupancy at a kinetochore sustains the recruitment of SAC components, as unattached kinetochores maintain high levels of BUB1-BUB3 and MAD1-MAD2 binding, stabilizing precursors of the inhibitory signal.^[39] Similarly, improper attachments without stable end-on connections prevent the displacement of checkpoint kinases like Mps1 from KNL1, thereby preserving the signaling platform even if some microtubules are attached.^[40] These dual sensing mechanisms ensure that the checkpoint responds to either incomplete attachment or unstable connections, with the absence of either condition promoting the persistence of SAC activation signals.^[3] Upon recruitment to unattached kinetochores, MAD2 undergoes a critical conformational change from its open (O-MAD2) to closed (C-MAD2) form, which is pivotal for signal transduction. The kinetochore-bound MAD1-C-MAD2 complex acts as a template, inducing dimerization with cytosolic O-MAD2 and stabilizing the closed conformation through structural mimicry of the MAD2-CDC20 interface.^[41] This transition exposes MAD2's binding sites and enhances its affinity for CDC20, a co-activator of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C).^[42] The catalytic model of SAC activation posits a template-directed assembly where kinetochore-localized MAD1-C-MAD2 facilitates the rapid formation of CDC20-C-MAD2 complexes in the cytosol. MAD1 serves as a scaffold, positioning O-MAD2 and CDC20 in proximity and accelerating the conformational conversion and binding by up to 100-fold compared to spontaneous rates, thereby amplifying the diffusible inhibitory signal from even a single unattached kinetochore.^[43] This process involves partial unfolding of MAD2's safety belt domain and assistance from MAD1's RWD domain in unfurling CDC20's N-terminal tail, ensuring efficient catalysis without depleting the MAD1-MAD2 pool at kinetochores.^[44]

Mitotic Checkpoint Complex Assembly

The mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC) is the primary effector of the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), composed of the proteins MAD2, BUBR1, BUB3, and CDC20.^[45] These components assemble in a stoichiometry of approximately one each, forming a stable tetrameric structure that sequesters CDC20 and thereby inhibits the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C).^[1] BUB3 binds to BUBR1 via its GLEBS-like domain, stabilizing the BUBR1-BUB3 subcomplex, while MAD2 directly engages CDC20 through its closed conformation.^[3] Assembly of the MCC begins with kinetochore-catalyzed dimerization of MAD2, where unattached kinetochores recruit the MAD1-MAD2 complex to template the conformational switch of cytosolic open-MAD2 (O-MAD2) to closed-MAD2 (C-MAD2).^[46] This dimerization facilitates C-MAD2 binding to CDC20's MAD2-interacting motif, sequestering CDC20 into the MAD2-CDC20 subcomplex, which is the rate-limiting step in MCC formation.^[47] The MAD2-CDC20 dimer then rapidly associates with the preformed BUBR1-BUB3 subcomplex, completing MCC assembly at the kinetochore.^[3] The assembled MCC binds directly to the APC/C, inducing an allosteric inhibition that prevents the ubiquitination of key substrates such as securin and cyclin B.^[45] This inhibition occurs through BUBR1's KEN-box and D-box motifs acting as pseudosubstrates, which occupy the APC/C's coactivator and substrate-binding sites, respectively, while the TPR domain of BUBR1 further stabilizes the inhibitory conformation.^[1] Consequently, APC/C^CDC20 activity is suppressed, halting the metaphase-to-anaphase transition until all chromosomes achieve proper bipolar attachment.^[3] Once formed, the MCC diffuses from kinetochores into the cytoplasm, enabling global inhibition of soluble APC/C throughout the cell and amplifying the SAC signal beyond local kinetochore events.^[1] This diffusible nature ensures that even a single unattached kinetochore can sustain widespread APC/C suppression, maintaining mitotic arrest.^[3]

Checkpoint Deactivation Processes

Once all kinetochores achieve stable end-on attachments to microtubules, the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) must be silenced to permit anaphase onset. A key aspect of this deactivation involves protein phosphatases PP1 and PP2A counteracting the error-correction kinase Aurora B, which destabilizes improper attachments by phosphorylating kinetochore substrates such as Ndc80 and Dsn1. PP1, recruited to the outer kinetochore via motifs on the KMN network protein Knl1 (e.g., SILK/RVxF sequences), dephosphorylates these Aurora B targets, thereby stabilizing microtubule-kinetochore interactions and reducing recruitment of SAC components like Mad1-Mad2. Similarly, PP2A-B56, targeted to kinetochores through the BubR1 KARD domain, opposes Aurora B activity by dephosphorylating sites on Knl1's MELT repeats, which prevents Bub1/BubR1 binding and downstream SAC signaling. This phosphatase-mediated reversal ensures that bi-oriented attachments are reinforced while erroneous ones are selectively corrected.^[48] In parallel, deactivation requires the progressive disassembly of the pre-existing mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC), which inhibits the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C). This process is driven by the ATP-dependent action of the AAA+ ATPase TRIP13 and its adaptor p31^comet, which extract Cdc20 from the inhibitory Mad2-Cdc20 subcomplex within the MCC. p31^comet first binds the closed-Mad2 (C-Mad2) conformation in the MCC, facilitating TRIP13-mediated ATP hydrolysis to convert C-Mad2 to open-Mad2 (O-Mad2), thereby releasing Cdc20 and disassembling the complex without needing new MCC formation. This extraction occurs even during active SAC signaling but accelerates upon attachment satisfaction, freeing APC/C^Cdc20 to ubiquitinate securin and cyclin B for degradation. Studies in human cell extracts demonstrate that TRIP13-p31^comet synergy is essential for timely MCC disassembly, as depletion prolongs metaphase arrest.^[49] Feedback mechanisms further reinforce SAC silencing by minimizing new error signals from attached kinetochores. EB1, a microtubule plus-end-tracking protein (+TIP), plays a critical role in this by cometing along growing microtubule ends to recruit Aurora B away from kinetochores upon stable attachment. This relocation reduces local Aurora B-mediated phosphorylation at attached kinetochores, limiting detachment events and preventing reactivation of SAC signaling. In vertebrate cells, such as human HeLa lines, EB1's plus-end tracking thus establishes a negative feedback loop that stabilizes the metaphase plate. Overall, these processes culminate in SAC satisfaction within 20-30 minutes of complete kinetochore alignment in vertebrate cells, allowing full APC/C activation and progression to anaphase. This timing, observed in mammalian systems, reflects the coordinated action of phosphatases, MCC disassembly, and feedback loops, ensuring robust yet timely checkpoint reversal.^[50]

Emerging Models of Regulation

Recent theoretical models have refined the classical understanding of the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) as a binary "wait-anaphase" signal, where unattached kinetochores generate a diffusible inhibitor to prevent anaphase onset until all chromosomes achieve bipolar attachment. Post-2010 developments, including spatial-temporal simulations, emphasize a more nuanced "stop-and-go" dynamic, incorporating switch-like transitions driven by feedback loops in Mad2-Cdc20 interactions and timely silencing via p31^comet-TRIP13-mediated disassembly of the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC). These refinements highlight how partial kinetochore attachments can modulate signal strength, allowing graded responses rather than absolute arrest, as modeled in ordinary differential equation frameworks that integrate SAC activation with microtubule occupancy.^[51]^[52] In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the mechanical switch model posits that kinetochores function as tension-sensitive regulators of SAC silencing, where end-on microtubule attachment physically separates the Mps1 kinase from its substrate Spc105 (the KNL1 ortholog), thereby inhibiting phosphorylation required for MCC recruitment. Studies from 2015 onward, including updates in 2018-2020, reveal that tension generation at bi-oriented kinetochores promotes MCC release through conformational changes in the Ndc80 complex and Dam1 ring, which shields Spc105 from Mps1; however, dynein-mediated stripping of MCC components plays a minimal role in yeast compared to metazoans, relying instead on Aurora B/Ipl1 kinase relocation under tension. This model underscores a direct mechanical linkage between microtubule pulling forces and checkpoint deactivation, ensuring rapid signal cessation upon proper attachment.^[53]^[54]^[55] Updates to the template model of SAC activation emphasize the role of MELT motifs in BUB1 for signal amplification, where Mps1-phosphorylated MELT repeats on KNL1 recruit Bub1-Bub3 complexes that position the Mad1-Mad2 template in proximity to Cdc20 and BubR1. This spatial organization enhances the conformational conversion of open Mad2 to its closed, inhibitory form bound to Cdc20, amplifying MCC production exponentially; variations in MELT motif copy number and affinity across species tune this amplification, with higher numbers correlating to stronger checkpoint responses. In the template framework, Bub1's conserved domain 1, phosphorylated at Thr461, further stabilizes Mad1 binding near MELT sites, boosting local Cdc20 capture efficiency by up to 10-fold in kinetic assays.^[56]^[57] Species-specific variations reveal a stricter SAC in yeast, where complete microtubule attachment at each single-microtubule kinetochore is required for full signal satisfaction, enforcing an all-or-nothing arrest. In contrast, mammalian systems exhibit partial satisfaction, with kinetochores silencing the SAC at 20-50% microtubule occupancy (approximately 4-8 of 20 microtubules), enabling a sensitive, switch-like response that tolerates incomplete attachments while still achieving rapid Mad1 depletion. Single-molecule imaging studies, such as from 2019, on Mad2 dynamics at mammalian kinetochores demonstrate high turnover rates (half-life ~60-190 seconds depending on occupancy), with conformational switching and MCC assembly occurring in ordered bursts facilitated by kinetochore catalysis, highlighting evolutionary adaptations for error correction in complex spindles. A 2023 review highlights the SAC's dynamic signaling as integrating attachment status with graded inhibitor production, emphasizing phosphatase roles in rapid silencing across species.^[58]^[59]^[60]

Implications in Disease and Therapy

SAC Defects and Genomic Instability

Defects in the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) compromise its ability to inhibit the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), allowing cells to proceed into anaphase despite the presence of unattached kinetochores.^[61] This weakened surveillance mechanism results in premature chromatid separation and chromosome missegregation, often manifesting as lagging chromosomes during anaphase that fail to segregate properly to daughter cells.^[62] In experimental models, such as Mad2 haploinsufficient cells, SAC impairment leads to a significantly elevated rate of chromosome missegregation, with cells entering anaphase faster in the presence of spindle poisons compared to wild-type controls.^[62] Consequently, these defects drive chromosomal instability (CIN), characterized by ongoing gains and losses of chromosomes across cell divisions.^[61] The resulting aneuploidy from SAC defects triggers diverse cellular responses, including p53-mediated apoptosis or senescence to eliminate unfit cells, though some cells survive and propagate with persistent CIN. For instance, in Mad2+/- mice, splenocytes exhibit increased aneuploidy, reflecting moderate CIN levels that allow cell survival but increase genomic heterogeneity. High CIN burdens often exceed cellular tolerance, leading to mitotic catastrophe and cell death, whereas lower levels enable adaptation and proliferation. These outcomes underscore the SAC's role as a guardian against genomic perturbations, with defects predisposing cells to oncogenic transformation through accumulated aneuploidy.^[63] Beyond cancer, SAC dysfunction contributes to non-malignant conditions such as aging and developmental disorders. In BubR1 hypomorphic mice, reduced SAC activity causes elevated aneuploidy in fibroblasts and tissues, accelerating progeroid phenotypes like cataracts, lordokyphosis, and shortened lifespan, mimicking aspects of natural aging. Similarly, mutations in BUB1B (encoding BubR1) underlie mosaic variegated aneuploidy (MVA) syndrome, a rare developmental disorder featuring high rates of constitutional aneuploidy (>50% in affected cells), growth retardation, and intellectual disability due to impaired kinetochore-microtubule attachments and SAC signaling. These examples illustrate how SAC defects disrupt tissue homeostasis, promoting mosaicism and functional decline in non-oncogenic contexts.^[64]

Genetic Mutations Linked to Cancer

Mutations in core components of the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), such as MAD2 and BUB family proteins, have been identified in various human cancers, contributing to chromosomal instability. Overexpression of MAD2, a key SAC effector, is frequently observed in colorectal cancers, where it disrupts mitotic fidelity and promotes aneuploidy by overriding checkpoint signals.^[65] Similarly, loss-of-function alterations in BUB1 and BUBR1, which are essential for SAC kinase activity and kinetochore recruitment, occur in leukemias, including acute myeloid leukemia, leading to weakened checkpoint responses and increased segregation errors.^[66]^[67] These mutations exert aneuploidy-promoting effects by altering mitotic timing and chromosome segregation. For instance, MAD2 amplification in cancer cells accelerates mitotic progression, reducing the duration of mitosis and allowing premature anaphase onset, which heightens the risk of missegregation events.^[68] Such deregulation fosters genomic instability, manifesting as chromosomal instability (CIN), a hallmark outcome linked to tumor evolution.^[69] Beyond traditional SAC genes, mutations involving crosstalk with tumor suppressors like TP53 further impair checkpoint function. TP53 mutations, prevalent in over 50% of cancers, disrupt SAC regulation by failing to induce cell cycle arrest in response to spindle defects, thereby enabling the survival of aneuploid cells.^[70] Additionally, alterations in AURKB (Aurora B kinase), which supports SAC silencing and error correction, are common in breast cancers, where overexpression correlates with aggressive phenotypes and resistance to therapy.^[71] Deregulation of the SAC pathway has been observed in various solid tumors through amplifications or deletions in SAC-related loci that drive oncogenic progression. These findings underscore the pathway's role as a mutational hotspot in carcinogenesis.

Therapeutic Strategies Targeting the SAC

Microtubule poisons, such as paclitaxel and nocodazole, represent a cornerstone of cancer chemotherapy by activating the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) to induce prolonged mitotic arrest and subsequent apoptosis in rapidly dividing tumor cells. Paclitaxel stabilizes microtubules, preventing their dynamic instability required for proper kinetochore attachment, while nocodazole promotes depolymerization, both triggering SAC-mediated inhibition of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) and accumulation of cyclin B1 to halt progression from metaphase. This arrest sensitizes cancer cells to death pathways, with higher rates of apoptosis observed with paclitaxel compared to nocodazole via degradation of the anti-apoptotic protein Mcl1 during prolonged mitosis. These agents are widely used in treating breast, ovarian, and lung cancers, where their SAC activation exploits the high proliferative index of tumors.^[72] Aurora kinase inhibitors, exemplified by alisertib (MLN8237), target SAC components to weaken checkpoint function, thereby exacerbating chromosomal instability (CIN) in cancer cells and enhancing therapeutic efficacy, particularly in combination regimens. Alisertib selectively inhibits Aurora A kinase (IC50: 1.2 nM), disrupting bipolar spindle formation and kinetochore-microtubule attachments, which impairs SAC signaling and promotes aneuploidy leading to mitotic catastrophe and apoptosis. This weakening of the SAC is leveraged to exploit CIN vulnerabilities in tumors, as seen in preclinical models of esophageal adenocarcinoma and peripheral T-cell lymphoma, where alisertib synergizes with microtubule poisons like paclitaxel to amplify cell death without excessive toxicity to normal cells. Clinical trials, including phase III studies (e.g., NCT01482962), have demonstrated alisertib's activity in relapsed/refractory peripheral T-cell lymphoma, though challenges like neutropenia have prompted combination strategies to optimize outcomes in CIN-high cancers.^[73] Inhibitors of CDC20 and APC/C, such as apcin and tosyl-L-arginine methyl ester (TAME), prolong SAC activation by directly blocking APC/C-mediated ubiquitination of cyclin B1 and securin, delaying anaphase onset and inducing mitotic arrest in cancer cells. Apcin binds the D-box and KEN-box motifs on CDC20, stabilizing the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC) and enhancing SAC surveillance, which has shown preclinical efficacy in suppressing proliferation in hepatocellular carcinoma and lymphoma models by inhibiting CDC20-substrate interactions. TAME (and its cell-permeable derivative proTAME) similarly prevents APC/C activation by CDC20, leading to cyclin B1 accumulation and apoptosis in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and mantle cell lymphoma cells (IC50: 2.5–19.2 µM), with synergistic effects when combined with apcin or doxorubicin. These inhibitors remain primarily in preclinical stages, highlighting their potential to overcome resistance in CDC20-overexpressing cancers without broad cytotoxicity.^[74] Synthetic lethality approaches targeting SAC vulnerabilities have emerged as promising strategies, particularly in p53-mutant cancers where weakened checkpoint responses confer selective toxicity. In p53-deficient cells, SAC inhibition resensitizes tumors to chemotherapy by promoting catastrophic CIN; for instance, CRISPR/Cas9 screens in TP53-null human embryonic stem cells identified 137 genes, enriched for SAC components like ZNF207/BuGZ, whose loss enhances cisplatin sensitivity through defective chromosome organization and alignment. Recent CRISPR-based genetic screens have further pinpointed SAC sensitizers, such as Aurora B inhibitors combined with SUV4-20H blockers, which induce synthetic lethality in p53-null models by overwhelming mitotic error correction and triggering apoptosis. These findings support clinical translation, as SAC-targeted agents exploit p53 mutations—prevalent in over 50% of cancers—to selectively eliminate tumor cells while sparing normal p53-proficient tissues. As of 2025, MPS1 inhibitors targeting the SAC are in clinical trials for solid tumors (e.g., NCT02792465).^[75]

References

[1]
https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(12)01189-X
[2]
The Molecular Biology of Spindle Assembly Checkpoint Signaling ...
Oct 19, 2015 · The spindle assembly checkpoint is a safeguard mechanism that coordinates cell-cycle progression during mitosis with the state of chromosome attachment to the ...
[3]
Spindle assembly checkpoint activation and silencing at kinetochores
The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a surveillance mechanism that promotes accurate chromosome segregation in mitosis. The checkpoint senses the attachment ...
[4]
Eukaryotic Cells and their Cell Bodies: Cell Theory Revised - PMC
This Cell Theory has been influential in shaping the biological sciences ever since, in 1838/1839, the botanist Matthias Schleiden and the zoologist Theodore ...
[5]
Mitosis: wisdom, knowledge, and information - PMC - NIH
Mitosis research can be separated by at least three distinct periods: the conceptual era from Flemming until 1980s/1990s where the major microscopical events ...
[6]
An Overview of the Cell Cycle - Molecular Biology of the Cell - NCBI
G1, S, and G2 together are called interphase. In a typical human cell proliferating in culture, interphase might occupy 23 hours of a 24 hour cycle, with 1 hour ...
[7]
Functions of the centromere and kinetochore in chromosome ...
Centromeres play essential roles in equal chromosome segregation by directing the assembly of the microtubule binding kinetochore and serving as the cohesion ...
[8]
Mechanisms of Aneuploidy - PMC - NIH
Errors in chromosome segregation lead to aneuploidy, a state where the number of chromosomes in a cell or organism deviates from multiples of the haploid genome ...Missing: distribution | Show results with:distribution
[9]
Mitosis | Learn Science at Scitable - Nature
Mitosis consists of five morphologically distinct phases: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Each phase involves characteristic steps ...
[10]
Mitosis - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
In prometaphase (D), the spindle MTs (red) gain access to the chromosomes (blue) and attach to the kinetochores (yellow) that will subsequently govern most ...
[11]
How Kinesin Motor Proteins Drive Mitotic Spindle Function
Some kinesins (and all dyneins) walk toward the minus ends of microtubules. This predicts a potential utility in anaphase chromosome movement, focusing anastral ...
[12]
Chromosome bi-orientation on the mitotic spindle - PMC - NIH
Syntelic attachment: both sister kinetochores attach to microtubules extending from one spindle pole. Amphitelic attachment: each sister kinetochore attaches to ...Missing: review | Show results with:review
[13]
Tension can directly suppress Aurora B kinase-triggered release of ...
Apr 20, 2022 · Proper attachments come under tension and are stabilized, but defective attachments lacking tension are released, giving another chance for ...
[14]
Tension promotes kinetochore–microtubule release by Aurora B ...
Apr 27, 2021 · Tension provides a signal to discriminate attachment errors from bi-oriented kinetochores with sisters correctly attached to opposite spindle ...
[15]
The cohesin complex and its roles in chromosome biology
(1999) Yeast cohesin complex requires a conserved protein, Eco1p(Ctf7), to establish cohesion between sister chromatids during DNA replication. Genes & Dev ...Cohesin-Binding Sites In... · Loading Of Cohesin Onto Dna · The Prophase Pathway Of...
[16]
Sororin Is Required for Stable Binding of Cohesin to Chromatin and ...
Apr 3, 2007 · We show that sororin is dispensable for the association of cohesin with chromatin but that sororin is essential for proper cohesion during G2 phase.
[17]
DNA-dependent cohesin cleavage by separase - PMC - NIH
A protease called separase is activated and completely dissolves the cohesion by cleaving SCC1, a subunit of the cohesin complex.
[18]
Sister Chromatid Cohesion - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Without cohesion, sister chromatids could therefore not be segregated symmetrically between the forming daughter cells, resulting in aneuploidy. For the same ...
[19]
Role of chromosomal cohesion and separation in aneuploidy and ...
Feb 22, 2024 · It is important to recognize that the removal of cohesin, and consequently the separation of sister chromatids, is an irreversible step.
[20]
https://doi.org/10.1111/febs.13166
[21]
https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.475308
[22]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2011.07.031
[23]
https://doi.org/10.1038/35066065
[24]
Nematode chromosomes - PMC - PubMed Central
univalens with 2N = 2). Van Beneden (1883) used Parascaris to observe and describe the processes of gametogenesis, including the reductive divisions of meiosis ...
[25]
Theodor Boveri and the natural experiment - ScienceDirect.com
Apr 8, 2008 · These multipolar configurations show variation in attachment, and from this Boveri concluded that attachment must be random. This randomness of ...
[26]
A Brief History of Research on Mitotic Mechanisms - PubMed Central
Dec 21, 2016 · It had been known for years that colchicine disrupted mitotic spindle structure and function but had little effect on a cell's progression ...
[27]
Changes in the sensitivity to ultraviolet-induced mitotic delay during ...
These data indicate that the mitotic delay results from damage to a single system which functions during approximately 15 per cent of the cell division cycle of ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[28]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1651172/
[29]
A Bub1–Mad1 interaction targets the Mad1–Mad2 complex to ...
Feb 24, 2014 · A Bub1–Mad1 interaction targets the Mad1–Mad2 complex to unattached kinetochores to initiate the spindle checkpoint.
[30]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7969164/
[31]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8824189/
[32]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9521327/
[33]
Accumulation of Mad2–Cdc20 complex during spindle checkpoint ...
The Mad2 exchange model proposes that Mad1 recruits open Mad2 (O-Mad2) at the kinetochore and changes its conformation from O-Mad2 to closed Mad2 (C-Mad2). C- ...
[34]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7737561/
[35]
Basis of catalytic assembly of the mitotic checkpoint complex - NIH
Jul 19, 2017 · Two crucial predictions of the MAD2 template model, that MAD1:C-MAD2 is a catalyst, and that O-MAD2:C-MAD2 dimerization is required for ...Figure 2. Catalytic Assembly... · Mad1:C-Mad2 And Bub1:Bub3... · Extended Data
[36]
Checkpoint inhibition of the APC/C in HeLa cells is mediated by a ...
The mitotic checkpoint prevents cells with unaligned chromosomes from prematurely exiting mitosis by inhibiting the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) ...
[37]
CDC20 assists its catalytic incorporation in the mitotic checkpoint ...
Jan 1, 2021 · We discovered that CDC20 is an impervious substrate for which access to MAD2 requires simultaneous docking on several sites of the catalytic complex.
[38]
Protein Phosphatase 1 inactivates Mps1 to ensure efficient Spindle ...
May 2, 2017 · ... PP2A-B56 opposes Mps1 phosphorylation of Knl1 and thereby promotes spindle assembly checkpoint silencing ... Aurora B is implicated in spindle ...
[39]
p31comet promotes disassembly of the mitotic checkpoint ... - PNAS
Using extracts from checkpoint-arrested cells and MCC isolated from such extracts, we now show that p31comet causes the disassembly of MCC and that this process ...
[40]
Mitosis in vertebrate somatic cells with two spindles - PNAS
We found that anaphase onset in a mature spindle was not delayed by one or more unattached kinetochores in an adjacent spindle. Indeed, as in controls ...
[41]
Dynamics of spindle assembly and position checkpoints: Integrating ...
Jan 10, 2025 · This review primarily focuses on checkpoint mechanisms studied in yeast models, which have been instrumental in elucidating fundamental ...
[42]
https://rupress.org/jcb/article/174/1/39/53691/Accumulation-of-Mad2-Cdc20-complex-during-spindle
[43]
The kinetochore encodes a mechanical switch to disrupt spindle assembly checkpoint signalling - Nature Cell Biology
### Summary of Mechanical Switch Model for SAC in the Kinetochore
[44]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5448665/
[45]
Spindle assembly checkpoint activation and silencing at kinetochores
The SAC activates when unattached kinetochores block APC/C, and silences when microtubules attach, through mechanisms like dynein-mediated stripping and ...Review · 2. Overview Of Checkpoint... · 4. Catalysis Of Mad2-Cdc20...
[46]
Bub1 positions Mad1 close to KNL1 MELT repeats to ... - Nature
Jun 12, 2017 · Here we show that conserved domain 1 (CD1) in human Bub1 binds directly to Mad1 and a phosphorylation site exists in CD1 that stimulates Mad1 binding and SAC ...
[47]
The copy-number and varied strengths of MELT motifs in Spc105 ...
Jun 1, 2020 · We propose that the necessity of balancing SAC strength and responsiveness drives the dual evolutionary trend of the amplification of MELT motif ...Missing: template | Show results with:template
[48]
Mammalian kinetochores count attached microtubules in a sensitive ...
Sep 6, 2019 · The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) prevents anaphase until all kinetochores attach to the spindle. Each mammalian kinetochore binds many ...
[49]
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1100023108
[50]
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.94.10.5107
[51]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11782880/
[52]
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04218-2
[53]
Mad2 and p53 expression profiles in colorectal cancer and its ... - NIH
RESULTS: Mad2 was significantly overexpressed in colorectal cancer compared with corresponding normal mucosa (P < 0.001), and it was not related to the ...Missing: frequency | Show results with:frequency
[54]
BubR1 is frequently repressed in acute myeloid leukemia and its re ...
The mitotic checkpoint protein BubR1 is frequently deregulated and to a lesser extent mutated in neoplasias, pre-neoplastic lesions and the human cancer ...
[55]
Expression of the checkpoint kinase BUB1 is a predictor of response ...
Feb 23, 2024 · Dysregulation of BUB1 has been described in a variety of tumours, including T-cell leukaemia, adenoid cystic carcinoma, bladder cancer, liver ...
[56]
Mad2 overexpression promotes aneuploidy and tumorigenesis in mice
We observed cells in which lagging chromosomes and/or chromosome bridges gave way to two presumably aneuploid ... Fifty percent of Mad2 overexpressing mice ...
[57]
The two sides of chromosomal instability: drivers and brakes in cancer
Mar 29, 2024 · This phosphorylated CUEDC2 promotes spindle checkpoint inactivation by promoting MCC dissociation from the APC/C, leading to premature ...
[58]
Aurora Kinase B Inhibition: A Potential Therapeutic Strategy for Cancer
Apr 1, 2021 · Deregulation of AURKB is observed in several tumors and its overexpression is frequently linked to tumor cell invasion, metastasis and drug ...
[59]
PIGN spatiotemporally regulates the spindle assembly checkpoint ...
Sep 24, 2021 · PIGN could play a vital role in the spindle assembly checkpoint to suppress chromosomal instability associated with leukemic transformation and progression.
[60]
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41580-023-00593-z
[61]
Aurora kinases signaling in cancer: from molecular perception to ...
Jun 18, 2025 · This review summarizes the biology of Aurora kinases in the context of cancer, integrating both preclinical and clinical data.Missing: weakening | Show results with:weakening