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Subterranean river

A subterranean river, also known as an underground river, is a natural watercourse that flows wholly or partly beneath the Earth's surface, typically through defined channels with beds and banks in caves, karst systems, lava tubes, or aquifers, distinguishing it from diffuse percolating groundwater.^[1] These rivers form primarily through the dissolution of soluble rocks like limestone by acidic water, creating extensive conduit networks in karst terrains that cover approximately 15% of the Earth's ice-free land surface.^[2] They play a critical role in hydrology by connecting surface streams, sinkholes, and springs, often transporting water rapidly over distances up to hundreds of kilometers while supporting unique subterranean ecosystems.^[1] Subterranean rivers exhibit diverse characteristics, including flows ranging from slow seepage (as low as 0.002 cm/s) to swift currents exceeding 3 m/s in larger conduits, with channel widths from narrow fissures to over 500 meters and depths reaching hundreds of meters.^[1] Formation processes are dominated by karst dissolution, where carbonic acid from rainwater erodes limestone at rates of about 0.07 mm per year, enhanced by high rainfall and geological structures like joints and fractures; in volcanic regions, they develop in drained lava tubes, while artificial ones arise from mining or canal construction.^[3] Water chemistry varies from fresh to mineral-rich, influenced by prolonged contact with surrounding rock, and these systems are highly permeable, with velocities in some channels reaching 1.2 cm/s or more in specific contexts like shallow solution paths.^[3] Notable examples include the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River in the Philippines, a 8.2 km navigable karst conduit designated a UNESCO World Heritage site, and the Río Camuy in Puerto Rico, one of the world's largest underground river systems spanning over 16 km through caves before emerging.^[1] In the United States, the Mammoth Cave system in Kentucky features the Echo River, spanning approximately 4.8 km with average widths of about 20 meters (65 feet), while the Edwards Aquifer in Texas hosts passages up to 3 meters in diameter that supply a significant portion of regional drinking water.^[1] Globally, the Timavo River in Italy and Slovenia extends 40 km underground as one of the longest such conduits.^[1] These rivers are vital for groundwater recharge and discharge but face vulnerabilities from pollution, overuse, and rapid flooding due to their interconnected surface-subsurface dynamics, which can lead to hazards like sinkholes.^[4] Ecologically, they harbor specialized fauna, such as blind fish in Mammoth Cave, and contribute to global water cycles by facilitating quick pollutant transport and nutrient cycling in karst aquifers.^[1]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

A subterranean river is a river or watercourse that runs wholly or partly beneath the Earth's surface, typically through defined channels in caves, karst systems, or other subsurface voids, distinguishing it from surface rivers that flow openly above ground.^[5] The term "subterranean" derives from the Latin subterraneus, combining sub- (under) and terra (earth), and entered English usage around 1600 to denote underground features; in geological literature, descriptions of such rivers emerged prominently in the 18th century as part of early hydrogeological studies of subsurface water movement.^[6]^[1] Unlike aquifers, which involve water percolating through porous rock or sediment in a diffuse manner without distinct bedding, subterranean rivers maintain channeled flow with hydraulic characteristics similar to surface streams.^[7] They also contrast with ephemeral underground streams, which flow only in direct response to precipitation, whereas subterranean rivers can exhibit perennial or intermittent flow regimes, supporting subsurface drainage that varies with hydrological conditions.^[8] Subterranean rivers integrate into groundwater systems by channeling precipitation-derived water below the surface, facilitating its transport and eventual discharge, often without direct exposure to atmospheric processes.^[4]

Physical and Hydrological Features

Subterranean rivers, prevalent in karst landscapes, exhibit distinct channel morphologies shaped by dissolution and flow dynamics. These channels often form dendritic networks with meandering and branching patterns, where cross-sections can range from rectangular to elliptical, and passage sizes increase downstream. Widths typically vary from a few meters to tens of meters, accommodating gravitational flow in vadose zones that produces canyon-like incisions or sub-horizontal conduits in phreatic zones.^[9]^[10] Sediment transport in these systems includes a spectrum from fine silts and clays to coarse gravels and boulders, derived primarily from allogenic inputs via sinking streams or autogenic breakdown within the karst. Clastic deposits such as silty sands and rounded limestone debris accumulate along channels, with particle sizes halving after transport distances of 10-50 km due to abrasion. These sediments can alter hydraulic conductivity by filling conduits or influencing erosion patterns.^[9]^[10] Water temperatures in subterranean rivers remain remarkably stable year-round, often reflecting the mean annual surface air temperature at depths of 10-25 meters, typically ranging from 10-15°C in temperate karst regions. This constancy arises from insulation by overlying rock and limited exchange with surface fluctuations, though slight gradients (e.g., 0.2-0.4°C per 100 m) may occur due to geothermal influences.^[10]^[11]^[12] Hydrologically, subterranean rivers display varied flow regimes, including perennial flows in phreatic zones of humid climates and intermittent flows in vadose zones or arid settings, where discharge responds rapidly to precipitation. Velocities in conduit-dominated quickflow exceed 0.001 m/s, contrasting with slower diffuse flows below this threshold, and overall transport can span hundreds to thousands of feet per day. Discharge rates in large systems may reach up to 100 m³/s during peaks, with base-to-peak ratios varying from 1:1 to 1:100 depending on recharge intensity.^[9]^[10] Primary recharge occurs via rainfall infiltration through epikarst and swallow holes, with diffuse autogenic inputs dominating steady flow and concentrated allogenic sources driving storm responses; epikarst contributions can account for up to 50% of peak discharge.^[9]^[13] Measuring flow in subterranean rivers poses significant challenges due to inaccessible conduits and variable subsurface paths, necessitating indirect techniques. Fluorescent dyes, such as Rhodamine WT or uranine, are injected as slugs to trace velocities, residence times, and connectivity, with detection limits as low as 10 μg/L for potable sources. Sonar profiling assesses channel geometry and bathymetry, while gauging stations at spring outlets monitor discharge via stage-height relations or continuous fluorometry. These methods reveal conduit networks but require multiple injections under varying hydrologic conditions to account for dilution and dispersion.^[9]^[10]^[11] Chemically, subterranean river waters are enriched in dissolved minerals from karst dissolution processes, particularly calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), with concentrations often ranging from 50-350 mg/L depending on residence time and CO₂ availability. Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) dominates anions, paired with Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ cations from limestone and dolomite, yielding hard waters that promote speleothem formation upon degassing. Sulfate (SO₄²⁻) levels may elevate in gypsum-influenced systems, and overall ion stability decreases during high-flow events due to shorter contact with bedrock.^[9]^[10]^[11]

Formation and Geology

Geological Processes

Subterranean rivers predominantly originate through karst processes, where the chemical dissolution of soluble bedrock such as limestone and dolomite creates extensive underground networks. Rainwater, upon absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil, forms carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), a weak acid that reacts with calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) in the rock according to the equation CaCO₃ + H₂CO₃ + H₂O → Ca²⁺ + 2HCO₃⁻ + H₂O, progressively enlarging fractures and voids into caves and channels.^[14]^[15] This dissolution is most effective along joints and bedding planes, where water flow concentrates, eventually allowing surface streams to infiltrate and form subterranean rivers.^[16] The rate of this chemical weathering can be approximated by the basic dissolution rate formula:

\text{Rate} = k \times [\text{H}^+] \times \text{surface area}

where k is a rate constant dependent on temperature and mineralogy, [\text{H}^+] is the hydrogen ion concentration, and surface area represents the exposed rock interface.^[17] This process, known as speleogenesis, unfolds over timescales ranging from tens of thousands to millions of years, influenced by factors like climate, hydrology, and rock solubility.^[18] In speleogenesis models, development in the vadose zone—above the water table—involves free-surface streams carving branchwork patterns with shafts and canyons, while phreatic conditions below the water table promote looping conduits under full submersion.^[19]^[20] Although karst dominates subterranean river formation, non-karst processes also contribute in specific geological settings. In volcanic terrains, lava tubes form when the outer layer of a molten lava flow solidifies while the interior continues to flow, leaving hollow tubes that later channel water as subterranean rivers.^[21] Tectonic activity creates underground channels through mechanical separation along fractures and faults, where bedrock is pulled apart by stress, allowing water to erode and widen the voids over time.^[22] These mechanisms typically operate on shorter timescales than karst dissolution, often tied to recent volcanic or seismic events.

Associated Landforms

Subterranean rivers are closely associated with distinct surface landforms that indicate subsurface drainage, primarily in karst terrains where soluble rocks like limestone predominate. Sinkholes, or dolines, are common depressions formed by the collapse of overlying material into underlying voids or by gradual bedrock dissolution, often serving as entry points for surface water into underground channels.^[23] Disappearing streams, also known as sinking or losing streams, occur where rivers or creeks abruptly vanish into sinkholes or fissures, transitioning from surface to subterranean flow without leaving a visible trace. Poljes represent larger-scale features, defined as extensive, flat-floored closed depressions resulting from the coalescence of multiple sinkholes, typically spanning several kilometers and facilitating episodic flooding or soil development in karst basins.^[24] Beneath the surface, subterranean rivers shape complex cave systems, including phreatic loops—sinuous, water-filled passages that meander below the water table in response to hydraulic gradients and structural controls like fractures. These systems often feature speleothems such as stalactites, which grow downward from ceilings, and stalagmites, which rise from floors, formed by the precipitation of dissolved calcium carbonate as water drips and degases in vadose (air-filled) zones above the river passages.^[15] Resurgence points, typically manifested as karst springs, mark the endpoints where subterranean rivers re-emerge at lower elevations, discharging accumulated groundwater to the surface and often forming the headwaters of larger streams.^[23] Karst landforms linked to subterranean rivers are globally distributed across regions underlain by carbonate rocks, covering approximately 15% of the Earth's ice-free land surface, or about 20 million square kilometers.^[25] They predominate in areas like the Dinaric Alps of southeastern Europe, where extensive coastal karst features along the Adriatic support intricate underground drainage networks, and the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, characterized by shallow, flat-lying limestone with numerous cenotes and submerged cave systems.^[25] These landforms arise primarily from dissolution processes that enlarge fractures in soluble bedrock, integrating subterranean rivers into broader hydrological landscapes.^[4] The configuration of these landforms significantly influences environmental dynamics, particularly flood risks and water table fluctuations. In karst settings, sinkholes and disappearing streams enable rapid infiltration of surface runoff into subterranean conduits, leading to quick rises in water tables and heightened flood hazards when aquifer storage is overwhelmed during heavy precipitation.^[26] Poljes and resurgences can exacerbate flooding by acting as temporary basins that overflow or by discharging pressurized groundwater, as seen in lowland karst where shallow water tables and high conduit diffusivity amplify inundation over large areas.^[4]

Types and Hydrology

Natural Subterranean Rivers

Natural subterranean rivers are classified based on their recharge origins and flow characteristics. Recharge origins distinguish between allogenic and autogenic inputs: allogenic recharge occurs when surface water from non-karst areas, such as sinking streams, enters the karst system, while autogenic recharge involves direct infiltration of precipitation through the karst landscape itself, often via diffuse flow through soil and epikarst.^[13]^[27] Flow types are categorized as phreatic or vadose; phreatic flow is fully submerged within the saturated zone below the water table, where water moves under pressure through conduits, whereas vadose flow features a free surface above the water table, allowing air-filled voids and gravity-driven movement.^[28] The hydrology of these rivers exhibits distinct behaviors, including significant contributions to surface river baseflow, where stable, low-velocity discharge sustains streamflows during dry periods. Seasonal variations influence flow regimes, with higher vadose contributions during wet seasons due to increased recharge and flood pulses, contrasted by dominant phreatic baseflow in drier periods from stored groundwater. Tracer studies, employing dyes or isotopes, reveal travel times ranging from hours for rapid allogenic flood routing to years for autogenic baseflow through diffuse networks, highlighting the dual conduit-matrix structure of karst aquifers.^[29]^[30]^[31] Globally, natural subterranean rivers are prevalent in karst terrains, which span 7–12% of Earth's continental surface, with major systems concentrated in carbonate rock regions like those in Europe, China, and Southeast Asia; their total mapped lengths exceed thousands of kilometers, as evidenced by over 13,000 km documented in Chinese karst alone. In non-karst settings, such as volcanic or alluvial environments, subterranean rivers occur less extensively, often as hyporheic flows beneath riverbeds rather than large conduit systems.^[32]^[33]^[34] These rivers play key environmental roles in nutrient transport, rapidly conveying dissolved and particulate matter through conduits from recharge areas to springs, potentially exacerbating downstream eutrophication if inputs are elevated. They also maintain baseflow in connected surface rivers, providing consistent water supply that buffers against seasonal droughts and supports overall hydrological connectivity in karst landscapes.^[35]^[36]

Artificial Subterranean Rivers

Artificial subterranean rivers are human-engineered underground watercourses designed to transport, manage, or utilize water flows beneath the surface, distinct from natural formations shaped by geological processes. These structures typically involve constructed channels, tunnels, or pipes that mimic river-like flows for practical applications, often integrating with surface hydrology to address urban, agricultural, or industrial needs.^[37] Creation methods for artificial subterranean rivers primarily include tunneling and diversion techniques. Tunneling involves excavating passages through rock or soil to form enclosed channels, as seen in ancient aqueducts where workers manually bored through bedrock using basic tools to access groundwater or convey surface water.^[38] In mining contexts, adits—horizontal or near-horizontal tunnels driven from the surface—serve as subterranean conduits to drain accumulated water from excavations, preventing flooding in deep workings.^[39] Diversion methods channel surface rivers or streams into underground systems, such as culverts, to redirect flows and mitigate flood risks in urban areas by enclosing waterways beneath infrastructure.^[40] These structures serve multiple purposes, including water supply, drainage, and hydropower generation. For water supply, ancient systems like Roman aqueducts delivered potable water over long distances via underground segments, supporting urban populations and agriculture.^[38] Drainage applications, such as the Cloaca Maxima in Rome—a vast sewer tunnel—managed wastewater and stormwater to prevent urban inundation, evolving into modern culverts that handle excess runoff. In hydropower, underground penstocks—pressurized pipes or tunnels—convey water from reservoirs to turbines, enabling efficient energy production in mountainous terrains where surface routing is impractical.^[41] Engineering artificial subterranean rivers presents significant challenges related to structural stability, water quality, and flow management. Ensuring stability against collapse requires robust linings and support systems to counter geological pressures and seepage forces, particularly in water-bearing strata where groundwater inflow can erode surrounding rock.^[42] Maintaining water quality involves preventing contamination from surrounding soils or sediments, often through impermeable coatings or filtration, to avoid degradation for supply or ecological purposes.^[37] Flow control is achieved via gates, valves, or pumps to regulate velocity and volume, addressing issues like pressure surges in long tunnels that could lead to structural failure.^[43] The historical evolution of artificial subterranean rivers traces from prehistoric mine drainage to advanced modern projects. Early instances include adits in ancient mining operations, such as those in Roman gold mines at Dolaucothi, where horizontal drains facilitated extraction by removing seepage without mechanical pumps.^[39] Over centuries, these developed into sophisticated aqueduct networks in civilizations like Persia and Rome, emphasizing gravity-fed tunneling for reliable supply.^[37] By the 20th century, large-scale initiatives like the Lesotho Highlands Water Project incorporated extensive tunneling—such as a 45-kilometer conduit from Katse Dam—to divert rivers for interstate water transfer and hydropower, marking a shift toward integrated resource management using mechanized boring techniques.^[44]

Notable Examples

Prominent Natural Examples

One of the most renowned natural subterranean rivers is the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River in the Philippines, located within the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park on the island of Palawan. This 8.2 km long underground river flows through a limestone cave system and emerges directly into the South China Sea, featuring a unique transition from mangrove forests at the entrance to dramatic cave interiors with towering stalactites and stalagmites. Approximately 4.3 km of the river is navigable by small boats, allowing visitors to experience its brackish lower sections influenced by tidal movements. The site was proclaimed a national park in 1971 and inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999 under criteria (vii) for its outstanding natural phenomena and (x) for its biodiversity significance.^[45]^[46] Conservation efforts face threats from deforestation and agricultural expansion in surrounding catchment areas, as well as increasing tourism pressures that could degrade water quality and habitats.^[45] In southern Germany, the Danube Sinkhole represents a striking example of a partially subterranean river course within the Upper Danube Nature Park. Here, the Danube River disappears into karst fissures near the town of Immendingen, traveling approximately 12 km underground through limestone aquifers before re-emerging at the Aachtopf spring near Tüttlingen, where it forms the Radolfzeller Aach River flowing into Lake Constance. This underground segment captures about 6 m³/s of the river's flow, demonstrating active stream capture processes across the European watershed divide. The phenomenon was scientifically documented in the late 19th century through dye-tracing experiments conducted in 1878, confirming the hydrological connection.^[47]^[48]^[49] As part of a protected nature park, the site is monitored for karst stability, though broader Danube basin threats like pollution and climate-induced low flows pose risks to its hydrological integrity.^[50]

Key Artificial Examples

One prominent artificial subterranean river system is the Derwent Valley Aqueduct in the United Kingdom, constructed in the early 20th century as part of the Derwent Valley Water Board's efforts to supply water to industrializing cities in Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, and Leicestershire.^[51] This 19th-century-inspired canal tunnel network spans approximately 16 km across six tunnel sections, each with a 1.9 m diameter, utilizing cast iron and steel pipes for conveyance.^[51] Designed for gravity-fed flow, it transports up to 200 million liters per day (about 2.3 m³/s) of treated water from the Upper Derwent reservoirs to urban distribution points, supporting water security for around 590,000 residents in a region historically reliant on textile and manufacturing industries.^[51] Maintenance challenges include age-related wear on the century-old infrastructure, such as corrosion and structural fatigue, necessitating periodic inspections and reinforcements to prevent siltation buildup and ensure long-term reliability.^[51] In South Africa, the delivery tunnel of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) forms a critical component of the international engineering initiative launched in the 1980s to transfer water from Lesotho's highlands to the arid Vaal River system.^[52] This 45 km-long tunnel, linking the Katse Dam to the Ash River outfall, represents the largest underground water transfer scheme in Africa, with a concrete-lined structure designed to handle flows of up to 72 m³/s under gravity.^[52]^[53] The project's Phase 1A infrastructure, including this tunnel, was completed in the late 1990s to address chronic water shortages, delivering over 780 million m³ annually to support irrigation, industry, and urban needs.^[54] A scheduled six-month shutdown from October 2024 to March 2025, extended to May 2025, was conducted for inspections and repairs to combat siltation and lining degradation, ensuring operational integrity in basalt-heavy geology; water flow was restored in May 2025.^[52]^[55]^[56] Socioeconomically, it bolsters water security for more than 10 million people in Gauteng Province, including Johannesburg, by mitigating drought risks and enabling economic growth in mining and manufacturing sectors.^[54] A more contemporary example is the Muddy River culvert conversion in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, undertaken by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as part of a flood risk management and restoration project authorized in 1999.^[57] This initiative transformed restrictive 19th-century culverts into larger subterranean channels to alleviate urban flooding, with Phase 1 construction beginning in 2012 and completing in 2016, followed by full project completion in 2023.^[57] Key upgrades include replacing twin 1.8 m (72-inch) diameter culverts under Brookline Avenue with a single 3 m by 7.3 m (10 ft by 24 ft) reinforced concrete box culvert, alongside daylighting 213 m of the river to enhance flow.^[58]^[57] The system now accommodates a 20-year storm event (approximately 100 m³/s peak flow in the watershed), reducing flood damage to over 400 properties in the Emerald Necklace park system.^[57] Maintenance focuses on periodic sediment dredging—approximately 90,000 cubic yards (69,000 m³) removed during Phase 2—to prevent siltation, with local sponsors handling ongoing monitoring for water quality and structural integrity.^[57]^[59] These enhancements provide socioeconomic benefits by protecting residential and commercial assets valued at millions, while improving resilience in a densely populated coastal urban area prone to intense rainfall.^[57]

Ecology and Biology

Cave Ecosystems

Cave ecosystems associated with subterranean rivers are characterized by extreme abiotic conditions that profoundly influence biological communities. Perpetual darkness prevails throughout these environments, eliminating photosynthetic activity and fostering adaptations to lightless conditions. Temperatures remain remarkably stable, often reflecting mean annual surface temperatures with minimal fluctuations, which can range from 10–20°C in temperate karst systems depending on regional climate. Nutrient scarcity is a dominant feature due to limited influx from surface sources, while oxygen levels can be low in certain zones, such as stagnant pools or hyporheic areas where water flow is minimal and organic decomposition consumes available dissolved oxygen. These factors create a highly selective habitat, with physical isolation enhancing fragmentation and endemism.^[60]^[61]^[62] Energy sustaining these ecosystems derives from two primary bases: chemoautotrophic processes and allochthonous organic inputs. Chemoautotrophic bacteria, which oxidize reduced compounds like sulfides or methane, form the foundation in some systems, generating biomass through chemosynthesis in the absence of sunlight; notable examples include sulfide-rich caves where epsilonproteobacteria dominate primary production. In contrast, most subterranean river habitats rely on allochthonous organic matter, such as bat guano, flood debris, or percolating surface detritus, which enters via sinkholes or fractures and supports heterotrophic communities. This dual energy dynamic varies by hydrological connectivity, with more isolated aquifers favoring autotrophy and surface-linked systems depending on external subsidies.^[63]^[64]^[65] Trophic structures in these ecosystems are typically truncated, lacking robust primary production and herbivores, and are dominated by detritivores that process imported organic matter. Primary consumers, such as amphipods (e.g., species in the genus Niphargus), feed on detritus and microbial films, serving as key links in nutrient cycling. Predators are sparse, often limited to specialized invertebrates like planarians or insects that prey on smaller fauna, reflecting the overall low biomass and energy availability. This simplified food web underscores the fragility of these communities to disruptions in organic input.^[66]^[67] Subterranean river systems represent biodiversity hotspots due to their isolation, promoting high levels of endemism where species evolve in confined habitats without gene flow from surface populations. Globally, approximately 7,000 known aquatic cave species (stygobionts) are tied to these environments, with many restricted to single river segments or aquifers, exemplifying narrow-range endemism. Such hotspots, like those in the Dinaric Karst or Edwards Aquifer, harbor diverse assemblages adapted to local geochemistry, contributing significantly to overall subterranean biodiversity despite the ecosystems' apparent simplicity.^[62]^[68]

Adaptations and Biodiversity

Organisms inhabiting subterranean rivers have evolved distinctive morphological adaptations to cope with perpetual darkness and limited resources, a phenomenon known as troglomorphism. A prominent example is the loss of pigmentation and eyes in cave-dwelling fish. In the Mexican tetra (Astyanax mexicanus), cave populations exhibit albinism resulting from loss-of-function mutations in the oca2 gene, as observed in the Pachón and Molino cave forms, which has been confirmed through genetic sequencing and functional assays.^[69] Eye degeneration in these fish involves reduced eye size and regression, driven by increased DNA methylation upstream of key developmental genes such as opn1lw1, gnb3a, and crx, reflecting both selective pressures and pleiotropic effects.^[69] Physiological adaptations further enable survival in these oligotrophic environments. Subterranean aquatic species often develop enhanced chemosensory organs to detect food and navigate in the absence of light; for instance, blind cavefish like Astyanax mexicanus possess an expanded number of taste buds and heightened olfactory sensitivity, mediated by pleiotropic effects of enhanced Hedgehog signaling, which improves prey detection in darkness.^[70] Additionally, low metabolic rates are a widespread trait for energy conservation amid sporadic nutrient availability, allowing organisms such as stygofauna to endure prolonged starvation; this reduction in basal metabolism is evident across troglomorphic invertebrates and vertebrates, minimizing energetic demands in food-scarce subterranean rivers.^[71]^[72] Biodiversity patterns in subterranean rivers distinguish between stygobionts—obligate subterranean dwellers confined to aquatic cave environments—and trogloxenes, which are surface species that occasionally visit but do not complete their life cycles underground.^[73] These ecosystems harbor high levels of endemism, particularly in tropical hotspots where karst formations support diverse assemblages; for example, the Areias cave system in Brazil contains 28 endemic subterranean species, while other tropical sites like the Toca do Gonçalo system host 22, underscoring the concentration of unique stygobionts in such regions.^[74] Conservation of subterranean river biodiversity faces severe threats from habitat fragmentation and pollution, which disrupt connectivity and water quality in these isolated systems. Pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and sewage infiltrate aquifers, causing toxicity to sensitive stygofauna and altering macroinvertebrate communities, with 24% of conservation interventions addressing pollution as a threat in subterranean ecosystems.^[68] In European caves, the olm (Proteus anguinus), a stygobiont amphibian, has experienced population declines due to water pollution and habitat fragmentation from urbanization and mining, rendering it vulnerable as individuals remain sedentary in contaminated waters for extended periods.^[75]^[68]

Exploration and Human Impact

Discovery and Study Methods

The discovery and study of subterranean rivers, primarily within karst landscapes, began with pioneering speleological efforts in the late 19th century. Édouard-Alfred Martel, often regarded as the father of modern speleology, conducted groundbreaking explorations using rudimentary equipment such as ropes, ladders, folding canoes, and magnesium lamps to navigate dark, inaccessible underground waterways.^[76] In 1888, Martel organized the first systematic exploration of the underground river at Bramabiau in France, employing these tools to document flow paths and cavern geometry, which laid foundational principles for understanding subterranean hydrology.^[76] His work emphasized direct physical access and manual surveying, marking a shift from anecdotal reports to scientific documentation of karst conduits.^[77] Modern approaches integrate geophysical and hydrological techniques to locate and characterize subterranean rivers without always requiring direct entry. Remote sensing methods, such as LiDAR for surface karst feature detection and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) for subsurface void identification, enable non-invasive mapping of potential river pathways.^[78] Geophysical surveys, including seismic refraction tomography, reveal low-velocity anomalies indicative of water-filled conduits by analyzing wave propagation through fractured rock.^[79] Tracer injection tests, commonly using fluorescein-based dyes like uranine, trace underground connections and flow velocities by injecting the dye at recharge points and monitoring its emergence at springs or outlets with fluorimeters.^[32] Recent advances include autonomous underwater vehicles equipped with semantic guidance systems, such as the CavePI platform demonstrated in 2025, which enable independent exploration of submerged cave sections, and solar-powered lighting and monitoring tools for extended deep-cave operations.^[80]^[81] These methods collectively delineate catchment areas and conduit networks in karst systems.^[82] Mapping subterranean rivers relies on specialized tools to create accurate 3D representations. Software like Compass processes survey data from cave explorations to generate detailed models of conduit geometry and river paths, integrating compass bearings, inclinometer readings, and distance measurements.^[83] For submerged sections, diver-deployed sonar systems provide bathymetric data, enabling high-resolution imaging of underwater passages and depths in low-visibility conditions.^[84] These tools facilitate the construction of comprehensive hydrological models from field-collected data. Studying subterranean rivers presents significant challenges, including physical accessibility risks from flooding, narrow passages, and structural instability, which demand specialized training and equipment for safe exploration.^[82] Ethical considerations arise in protected karst areas, where invasive methods must balance scientific needs with ecosystem preservation to avoid contamination or disturbance.^[85] Additionally, integrating data from diverse disciplines—such as geophysics, hydrology, and speleology—poses difficulties due to varying resolutions and scales, often requiring advanced modeling to reconcile inconsistencies.^[32]

Cultural and Mythological Roles

In ancient Greek mythology, subterranean rivers such as the Styx and Acheron served as symbolic boundaries separating the world of the living from the underworld of Hades, representing the irrevocable transition into death while evoking themes of sorrow and passage to the afterlife.^[86] The Styx, often depicted as a dark, swirling stream invoked in oaths by the gods, underscored the finality of mortality, with souls ferried across by Charon, emphasizing rebirth only through heroic or divine intervention.^[87] Similarly, in Mayan cosmology, cenotes—natural sinkholes connected to underground rivers—functioned as portals to Xibalba, the underworld realm of death and trials, where rituals and sacrifices were performed to navigate spiritual journeys and ensure cosmic balance. Subterranean rivers have profoundly shaped literary imaginations, blending adventure with existential exploration. In Jules Verne's 1864 novel Journey to the Center of the Earth, an expansive underground sea, fed by subterranean waterways, symbolizes humanity's quest to uncover hidden geological truths, reflecting 19th-century fascination with Earth's interior as a realm of wonder and peril.^[88] This motif persists in modern eco-fiction, where underground rivers often depict environmental vulnerabilities, portraying cave systems as fragile ecosystems threatened by pollution and overexploitation, thereby critiquing anthropogenic disruption of hidden natural balances.^[89] Cultural practices among indigenous groups highlight reverence for subterranean waters as life-sustaining and sacred entities. In Aboriginal Australian Dreamtime narratives, the Rainbow Serpent emerges from underground to carve rivers and springs, embodying creation and the interconnected flow between surface and subsurface realms, with sites like mound springs treated as ancestral custodians demanding sustainable stewardship.^[90] Likewise, the Grotto of Lourdes in France, where a spring emerges from subterranean aquifers, holds profound religious significance in Christianity as a site of miraculous healings, drawing millions in pilgrimage to venerate its waters as divine conduits of grace and renewal.^[91] Historical perceptions of subterranean rivers evolved from dread to inquiry. During the medieval period, Christian theology often viewed them through a hellish lens, as in Dante's Divine Comedy, where the Styx and Acheron evoke infernal torment and separation from the divine, mirroring scriptural ideas of underground flows from Eden twisted into abyssal punishments.^[1] By the Enlightenment, however, figures like Leonardo da Vinci and René Descartes reframed these features with scientific curiosity, proposing mechanistic models of subterranean circulation driven by thermal forces or gravitational cycles, transforming them into objects of empirical study and geological enlightenment.^[1] Human impacts on subterranean rivers have intensified in recent decades, with activities such as urbanization, agriculture, and tourism leading to pollution and overuse. For instance, in the Yucatán Peninsula, subterranean river systems supplying drinking water to millions are vulnerable to surface contaminants, with microbial communities in underwater caves reflecting changes from climate variability and human development as of 2024.^[92] Excessive groundwater extraction has caused subsidence and sinkhole formation in karst regions, while climate-driven alterations to the global water cycle exacerbate flooding risks in connected surface-subsurface systems, as reported in 2025 assessments.^[93] Conservation efforts, including protected area designations and sustainable tourism practices, aim to mitigate these threats, particularly in UNESCO sites like the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River.^[94]

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characteristic of the hydrology of a karst basin. Geographic ... Bogli, A., 1980, Karst hydrology and physical speleology: New York, Springer ...
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[PDF] Karst hydrology and physical speleology - rexresearch1
The focal point in karst hydrology lies in the description of subter- ranean water with its physical and chemical properties, whereas physical speleology de-.
[10]
12.3 Karst Hydrogeology - Environmental Geology
At the broad landscape level, karst is recharged in two ways – by water falling directly onto the karst landscape (autogenic recharge), and by water that that ...12.3 Karst Hydrogeology · Components Of A Karst... · Water Storage, Movement, And...
[11]
Hydrological Modeling of Karst Watershed Containing Subterranean ...
The Daotian River watershed has a temperate monsoon climate, with an average multiyear temperature of 13.8 °C and average multiyear precipitation of 910.84 mm.<|separator|>
[12]
3.1 Karst Drainage System – Introduction to Karst Aquifers - GW Books
Karst aquifers are one major component of a complex natural drainage system composed of many surface and subsurface hydrologic components.
[13]
Solution Caves - Caves and Karst (U.S. National Park Service)
Apr 27, 2022 · Solution caves are most often found in rock types such as limestone, marble, dolomite (both, close relatives of limestone), gypsum and halite, ...
[14]
How caves form | Caves and karst | Foundations of the Mendips
Caves form when rainwater, made acidic by carbon dioxide, dissolves limestone. Water flows through 'swallets' and finds new routes, leaving some caves dry.
[15]
12.1 Karst Landscapes and Systems - Environmental Geology
Karstification is a process dominated by chemical dissolution of soluble bedrock (Figure 12.1.1). It starts as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere dissolves ...
[16]
[PDF] A COMPILATION OF RATE PARAMETERS OF WATER-MINERAL ...
In this case, magnesite dissolution rates are catalyzed by H+, and at low pH the mineral surfaces become saturated with H+ so that further decrease in pH does ...
[17]
Timescales of speleogenesis in an evolving syngenetic karst
Feb 15, 2022 · These data confirm previous suggestions that extensive karstification can occur rapidly, within a few tens to hundreds of thousands of years ...
[18]
The pattern of caves: controls of epigenic speleogenesis
Nearly all are formed by periodic floodwaters fed by sinking streams or by rapid infiltration through a bare karst surface. Network caves are angular grids of ...
[19]
[PDF] A quantitative study of 3D karst conduits - eScholarship
(1) The vadose zone (above the water-table) is characterized by branchwork patterns with tree-like ramifications. Shafts and canyons, with free-surface ...
[20]
Cave Geology in Depth - National Park Service
Tectonic caves tend to be relatively small and can form in almost any type of rock that has been highly fractured. Lava tubes are the fastest forming type of ...Missing: subterranean volcanic
[21]
Cave - Volcanic, Tectonic, Formations | Britannica
Tectonic caves are formed by a mass movement of the bedrock. The rocks separate along joints or fractures, and are pulled apart mechanically. The resulting ...Missing: non- subterranean
[22]
Karst Landscapes - Caves and Karst (U.S. National Park Service)
Apr 27, 2022 · Karst is a type of landscape where the dissolving of the bedrock has created sinkholes, sinking streams, caves, springs, and other characteristic features.Introduction · Geological MonitoringMissing: subterranean | Show results with:subterranean
[23]
[PDF] A Glossary of Karst Terminology
polje. (Slavic word for field.) In areas of karst topography, a very large closed depression, in some places several kilo-.<|control11|><|separator|>
[24]
Global distribution of carbonate rocks and karst water resources
Apr 21, 2020 · ... regions. About 151,400 km or 15.7% of the global coastlines are formed by carbonate rocks. The coast of the Dinaric Karst, the Yucatan Peninsula ...Missing: Alps | Show results with:Alps<|separator|>
[25]
[PDF] Groundwater flood hazards and mechanisms in lowland karst terrains
Dec 11, 2017 · Karst terrains are uniquely susceptible to flooding from groundwater sources due to a combination of the low storage and high diffusivity ...
[26]
12.3: 12.03- Karst Hydrogeology - Geosciences LibreTexts
Jun 3, 2025 · Typically, autogenic recharge is where the water falls onto soil or epikarst, becomes enriched in CO2 and provides a primary source for diffuse ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
[27]
[PDF] Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology
In Chapter 2 we review pertinent features of the medium, that is the karst rocks and their geological structure. In the following two chapters we attempt.
[28]
Seasonal recharge and mean residence times of soil and epikarst ...
May 11, 2015 · This paper focuses on investigating the seasonal recharge and mean residence time (MRT) of soil water and epikarst water in a small karst catchment of ...
[29]
Tracking flowpaths in a complex karst system through tracer test and ...
Jan 14, 2024 · A tracer test has been carried out on the Vitella d'Oro spring, fed both by the regional aquifer and by a local system exposed to karst features.
[30]
[PDF] Baseflow in karst regions is significantly higher than the - EGUsphere
Jul 28, 2025 · Using natural tracers and. 608 calibrated analytical filter to highlight baseflow contribution to mountainous Mediterranean rivers. 609 in a.
[31]
Karst water resources in a changing world: Review of hydrological ...
Apr 8, 2014 · In karst caves, drip water containing dissolved calcium and bicarbonate can precipitate calcium carbonate to form speleothems that contain ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
Karst Groundwater Management through Science and Education
Aug 6, 2025 · The underground rivers in China are accounted in the region, there are 2836 listed subterranean rivers with a total length of 13,919 km and a ...
[33]
Subterranean river gravels - Manaaki Whenua
Subterranean river gravels are found mainly beneath braided rivers and can be divided into two intergrading zones. The hyporheic zone is the saturated ...In This Section · Notable Flora And Fauna · Where Do They Occur?
[34]
[PDF] Streamflow and Nutrients from a Karst Watershed with a ...
For analyses of surface and subsurface flows in this karst- dominated watershed, all flows were summed from the surface stream tributaries draining SL1, SL2 ...
[35]
[PDF] Subterranean environments contribute to three-quarters of classified ...
Moreover, groundwater provides essential baseflow to rivers, particularly during dry seasons, sustaining river flow and influencing nutrient cycling and ...
[36]
(PDF) Underground aqueducts: Past, present, and future trends
tubes or channels, made of stone slabs or terracotta (Malacrino 2010). Qanat is a very well-known underground hydraulic work based on tunneling. A qanat is a ...Missing: artificial | Show results with:artificial
[37]
Aqueducts: Quenching Rome's Thirst - National Geographic
Roman aqueducts were a network of pipes, channels, and bridges, mainly underground, using gravity to transport water for drinking, fountains, and baths.The Lifeline Of Empire · Keeping The Water Running · A Titanic Enterprise
[38]
ANCIENT MINING - Earth Science Australia
Drainage adits, also called cross-cuts, are found at some sites such as Dolaucothi and Rio Tinto [Davies, p. 24]. Water drained from upper workings into the ...Missing: prehistoric | Show results with:prehistoric
[39]
Many urban rivers are hidden underground – 'daylighting' them ...
Dec 9, 2019 · The Victorians placed rivers in underground culverts to contain the smell and create new land for buildings.<|separator|>
[40]
Underground Hydropower - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The use of underground power stations combined with tunnels to transport water gives high flexibility in locating power plants and makes it possible to build ...
[41]
Chapter 11 Managing groundwater in the engineering design and ...
Jun 20, 2025 · This chapter addresses the significant challenges encountered in constructing engineering works below groundwater level, particularly in ...
[42]
[PDF] Engineering Monograph No. 3, “Welded Steel Penstocks”
This monograph assists designers in safe penstock design and construction, presenting modern methods for pressure vessels based on 40 years of experience.Missing: hydropower | Show results with:hydropower
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Lesotho Highlands Water Project - NASA Earth Observatory
Aug 5, 2006 · The Lesotho Highlands Water Project diverts water from Lesotho to South Africa, using the Katse Dam and tunnels, and provides electricity. It ...
[44]
Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park
Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park encompasses one of the world's most impressive cave systems, featuring spectacular limestone karst landscapes.Gallery · Maps · Videos · DocumentsMissing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[45]
Management by objectives: the Puerto Princesa Underground River ...
Jan 27, 2020 · Puerto Princesa Underground River (PPUR) was proclaimed as national park in 1971 and included in the seven wonders of nature in 2012.<|control11|><|separator|>
[46]
The Danube: Secrets of its origin in the Black Forest
The vanished Danube water travels a distance of approximately 12 kilometers underground, crossing the main European watershed. After about 60 hours, it ...
[47]
The Danube River is associated with the Danube-Aach karst system ...
The Danube loses about 6 m 3 s −1 of its flow into river bed sinks and this water rises from the Aach Spring, 12-18 km away and 135-175 m lower.Missing: distance discovery
[48]
[PDF] Tracing Techniquein Geohydrology
May 16, 2023 · dium hydroxide solution in the Danube sinkholes (KNop 1878). The water in the. Aach spring, 12 km away, displayed a 'brilliant green luminance' ...
[49]
Heuneburg: The upper Danube - Archäologie an der oberen Donau
One of the geological highlights of the upper Danube is the Danube sinkhole. Over a length of approx. 12 km, the Danube seeps into the fissure-rich White ...
[50]
Karst geomorphology along the Nam Ou, northern Lao PDR
Aug 7, 2025 · Along the main axis of the Nam Ou drainage corridor active cave stream passages are generally confined within ~10 m of the present river level, ...Missing: segments | Show results with:segments
[51]
[PDF] NAM OU RIVER BASIN PROFILE
Lying in the far north of Lao PDR with its source near the Lao-Chinese border (Figure 1), the Nao Ou is 485 km1 long and flows from north to south through three ...Missing: underground | Show results with:underground
[52]
[PDF] nam ou river basin profile - World Bank Documents
The Profile provides analysis of environmental and social trends in the Nam Ou over time and recommendations on how to address management challenges from ...
[53]
[PDF] Derwent Valley Aqueduct - Water Projects Online
Treated water flows by gravity alone, and the aqueduct conveys 200Ml/d of drinking water from Bamford Water Treatment Works. (WTW) in North Derbyshire to ...Missing: length | Show results with:length
[54]
(PDF) Lesotho Highlands Water Project -Mohale Tunnel
Jul 25, 2021 · The Lesotho Highlands Water Project Phase 1A, commissioned in 1998, consists of the Katse and 'Muela Dams, a 45km Transfer Tunnel (TT) to ...<|separator|>
[55]
[PDF] PERISA Case Study 4 on Infrastructure: Lesotho Highlands - ECDPM
Aug 4, 2013 · The feasibility study established the economic viability of the project to deliver about 70m³/s of water from the highlands of Lesotho to the ...
[56]
[PDF] LESOTHO HIGHLAND WATER PROJECT PHASE (LHWP II)
The project entails harnessing the waters of the Senqu/Orange River in the Lesotho Highlands through the construction of a series of dams for the mutual benefit ...
[57]
LHWP tunnel maintenance on track - Engineering News
Nov 18, 2024 · Progress is being made on the maintenance and repair of the Lesotho Highlands water tunnel, which was shut down more than a month ago.Missing: Orange capacity
[58]
New England District > Missions > Projects/Topics > Muddy River
Jan 27, 2020 · The Muddy River is a small waterway located in the Boston metropolitan area. Most of the 5.6 square mile watershed is located in the city of Boston and the ...Missing: specs | Show results with:specs
[59]
[PDF] Commonwealth of Massachusetts - Boston.gov
Jan 15, 2008 · The flood damage reduction project is designed to address flooding issues caused by undersized twin 72-inch culverts through which the Muddy ...Missing: 2014 benefits
[60]
Subterranean Environment - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Subterranean environments are characterized not only by continuous darkness but also by a reduced variability in the number of specific abiotic conditions ...
[61]
Cavefish cope with environmental hypoxia by developing more ...
Dark caves lacking primary productivity can expose subterranean animals to hypoxia. We used the surface-dwelling (surface fish) and cave-dwelling (cavefish) ...
[62]
[PDF] Subterranean Ecosystems: A Truncated Functional Biodiversity
habitats will help explain how major abiotic factors, masked or acting in synergy in more complex ecosystems, may in- fluence general biodiversity patterns.
[63]
Cave Life - Great Basin National Park (U.S. National Park Service)
Some limestone caves have bacterial colonies that are chemoautotrophic, or "rock eating". These bacteria can derive all their necessary food and energy from ...
[64]
The geomicrobiology of limestone, sulfuric acid speleogenetic, and ...
Chemoheterotrophic microbial communities, whose sustenance depends on nutrients supplied from outside, are prevalent in limestone and volcanic caves, while ...
[65]
Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula Reveals a Cryptic Methane-Fueled ...
Nov 28, 2017 · The study was conducted in the Ox Bel Ha cave network of the northeastern Yucatan, which is described as a subterranean estuary because the ...Missing: low | Show results with:low
[66]
[PDF] Recovery Plan for the Kauai Cave Arthropods - ECOS
The cave amphipod is a detritivore, feeding on plant material, especially roots that penetrate into the caves, while the cave wolf spider is a predator which ...
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Aquatic subterranean food webs: A review - ScienceDirect.com
The current review provides an updated description of aquatic subterranean food webs, based on the latest findings from various types of habitats.
[68]
Towards evidence‐based conservation of subterranean ecosystems
Subterranean ecosystems are among the most widespread environments on Earth, yet we still have poor knowledge of their biodiversity.
[69]
evolutionary, adaptive, and translational genetic insights from cavefish
The fish Astyanax mexicanus, consisting of surface and cave ecotypes, is an ideal emerging model to study the genetic basis of adaptation to new environments.
[70]
Behaviors of cavefish offer insight into developmental evolution - PMC
The pleiotropic effects of enhanced Hedgehog signaling promote eye degeneration as well as increases in jaw size and number of taste buds in Astyanax cavefish ...
[71]
The biomimetic potential of novel adaptations in subterranean animals
Physiological adaptations include enhanced non-visual sensory systems, erratic or a complete lack of circadian rhythms and lower metabolic rates (Hervant ...
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Reduction in the metabolic levels due to phenotypic plasticity in the ...
Oct 12, 2020 · In the subterranean organisms, a reduction in the metabolic rate is considered by many authors as an adaptative character to cave life that can ...Missing: chemosensory | Show results with:chemosensory
[73]
An Overview of Subterranean Biodiversity Hotspots - MDPI
No hotspot caves are reported from Africa, but Deharveng and Bedos, in an ongoing study, have reported 30 troglobionts and 3 stygobionts known from an Algerian ...
[74]
The first two hotspots of subterranean biodiversity in South America
Jul 19, 2016 · The two hotspots of subterranean biodiversity are the Toca do Gonçalo cave (22 spp.) and Areias cave systems (28 spp.).Missing: per | Show results with:per
[75]
Olm - ZSL
This means olms are especially vulnerable to the threat of water pollution ... Habitat loss and fragmentation are cited as the main factors in the species decline ...Missing: subterranean | Show results with:subterranean
[76]
Édouard-Alfred Martel - Gouffre de Padirac
At the age of 20, he descended the Adelsberg Grotto in Slovenia, then, in 1888, he organised an initial exploration of the underground river at Bramabiau, on ...Missing: contributions | Show results with:contributions
[77]
Édouard-Alfred Martel - E.A.Martel Karst and Geology Institute
Édouard-Alfred Martel (July 1, 1859 – June 3, 1938), “The Father of Modern Speleology”, was a world pioneer in the study, mapping and documentation of caves.Missing: contributions subterranean
[78]
Ground-Penetrating Radar Detection of Hydrologic Connectivity in a ...
Sep 26, 2022 · Using LiDAR, aerial imagery, and ground-penetrating radar, this study investigates the subsurface characteristics of a draw and a series of geographically ...
[79]
[PDF] Application of Seismic Refraction Tomography to Karst Cavities
The results of these studies indicate that refraction tomography is able to resolve karst features under some conditions. The analysis of field data acquired ...
[80]
Overview of Methods Applied in Karst Hydrogeology - ResearchGate
Jun 10, 2016 · This chapter outlines the “karst hydrogeology toolbox”, consisting of geological, geophysical and speleological methods, hydrologic and hydraulic techniques.
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Compass Cave Survey and Mapping Software - Home Page
COMPASS is a cave mapping software package designed to edit, process, analyze and view cave survey data using any Windows-based computer.
[82]
3D mapping of underwater caves - ResearchGate
Aug 5, 2025 · Early work in 3D underwater mapping dates back more than a decade to the use of diver-held sonar devices that utilized an inertial measurement ...
[83]
Perspectives and pitfalls in preserving subterranean biodiversity ...
Jan 16, 2024 · Establishing protected areas for subterranean ecosystems is challenging. First, there are technical obstacles in mapping three-dimensional ...Biodiversity Data And... · From Theory To Practice · Author Information
[84]
[PDF] Underworld
If the watery boundary of the underworld is a river (Styx or, in other sources, Acheron), then a simple ferry, rather than an ocean-going vessel like ...
[85]
Chapter 2. Greece and the Garden - The Center for Hellenic Studies
... Styx, flow into Acheron (Odyssey 10.513–515). It is here that the dread ... underworld's rivers. Further, for all its sketchiness, the scenery on this ...
[86]
Jules Verne's geological novels, from the 19th to the 21st century
This study, based on a selection of novels wherein geology is very present as well as on contemporary or current scientific publications,
[87]
The uncanny underground: Psychological and cultural associations ...
These associations frequently draw from cultural narratives and symbolic meanings such as burial and the underworld, subterranean adventure stories (e.g., Jules ...
[88]
None
### Summary of Aboriginal Australian Dreamtime Stories Involving Underground Waters and Cultural Reverence
[89]
Groundwater ecosystem services: a review | Freshwater Science
In many places, ground water feeds springs that are of high spiritual importance, such as the sacred spring in the Grotto of Massabielle in Lourdes, France; ...Missing: religious | Show results with:religious