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Sunda pangolin

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) is a medium-sized, nocturnal mammal endemic to Southeast Asia, covered in overlapping keratin scales that form a protective armor except on its underbelly, and equipped with powerful claws for digging and a protrusible tongue up to 25 cm long for extracting ants and termites.^[1]^[2] Inhabiting diverse habitats including primary and secondary tropical forests, grasslands, and even modified agricultural landscapes such as oil palm plantations across Indonesia, peninsular Malaysia, and parts of Indochina, it relies on keen senses of smell and hearing to locate prey while curling into a defensive ball when threatened.^[3]^[1] Listed as critically endangered by the IUCN, the species has undergone severe population reductions—estimated at over 80% in some regions over the past two decades—primarily from poaching driven by demand for its scales in traditional Asian medicine and its meat as a delicacy, compounded by habitat fragmentation and degradation.^[4]^[5] As one of the most heavily trafficked wild mammals, with seizures of scales indicating tens of thousands of individuals killed annually, conservation efforts focus on enforcement against illegal trade, habitat protection, and anti-poaching measures, though challenges persist due to entrenched demand in consumer markets.^[6]^[7]

Taxonomy and Phylogeography

Taxonomic History and Classification

The Sunda pangolin, Manis javanica, was first scientifically described by French naturalist Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest in 1822, in the second volume of Mammalogie, ou Description des espèces de mammifères, based on specimens from Java.^[8] Desmarest placed it within the genus Manis, established earlier for scaly anteaters, distinguishing it from other pangolin species by features such as scale arrangement and body proportions.^[9] In modern taxonomy, M. javanica is classified in the order Pholidota, the sole order of scaly mammals, family Manidae (the only extant family in Pholidota), genus Manis (encompassing all Asian pangolin species), under class Mammalia, phylum Chordata, kingdom Animalia.^[10] This classification reflects its unique keratinous scales and myrmecophagous adaptations, with no recognized subspecies, though regional forms like the Palawan population have historically been debated as potential synonyms (Pholidotus culionensis Elera, 1895) but are now subsumed under M. javanica.^[11] Early classifications positioned Pholidota near Xenarthra (edentates like anteaters) due to convergent ant-eating traits, but 20th- and 21st-century morphological and molecular analyses have firmly allied it with Carnivora in the Ferae clade, diverging approximately 60-70 million years ago based on fossil-calibrated phylogenies.^[12] Within Manis, M. javanica forms a clade with other Asian species, distinct from African genera Phataginus and Smutsia, supported by mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences showing deep divergence from congeners around 10-15 million years ago.^[13] Recent phylogeographic studies using mitochondrial genomes have revealed intraspecific lineages within M. javanica, such as a distinct north Bornean clade diverging ~1.6 million years ago, yet these do not warrant taxonomic revision absent morphological or reproductive isolation evidence, maintaining its monotypic status.^[14]

Genetic Lineages and Evolutionary Insights

Phylogeographic analyses of the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) have revealed distinct mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages across its Southeast Asian range, reflecting historical population isolation. A comprehensive study of cytochrome b and control region sequences from multiple localities identified two major mtDNA clades: one encompassing west and south mainland populations (e.g., Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia), and a divergent lineage restricted to north Borneo, estimated to have separated approximately 1.6 million years ago based on Bayesian coalescent modeling with a relaxed molecular clock calibrated to fossil data.^[13] This Borneo lineage exhibits fixed diagnostic substitutions and a unique haplotype network, supporting its recognition as an evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) for conservation purposes, though not warranting taxonomic revision to subspecies status at present.^[13] Mitogenomic sequencing of full mitochondrial genomes from 48 Thai specimens further delineated regional genetic clusters within mainland populations, with four distinct haplogroups corresponding to northern, central-eastern, southern, and peninsular Thailand, characterized by low nucleotide diversity (π ≈ 0.001–0.003) and evidence of demographic expansion post-bottleneck around 10,000–20,000 years ago via mismatch distribution analysis.^[15] These clusters indicate restricted gene flow, likely shaped by topographic barriers such as mountain ranges and historical riverine systems, rather than recent anthropogenic factors alone. Complementing this, analysis of historical museum specimens has uncovered additional cryptic lineages in underrepresented regions like Java and Sumatra, expanding the known haplotype diversity and highlighting the value of ancient DNA for resolving phylogeographic gaps.^[16] Whole-genome sequencing of confiscated Thai pangolins has confirmed nuclear genetic structuring into three primary populations—western, central, and southern—with the western cluster showing elevated recent inbreeding (F_ROH = 18.50%) compared to others (F_ROH < 12.5%), attributed to small effective population sizes and poaching pressure via runs of homozygosity analysis.^[17] Phylogenetically, M. javanica nests within the Asian clade of Manidae, with interspecific divergence from Chinese (M. pentadactyla) and Indian (M. crassicaudata) pangolins dated to the late Miocene (≈10–12 million years ago) in broader pangolin phylogenies incorporating fossil-calibrated mtDNA and nuclear loci, underscoring convergent scale evolution as an ancient adaptation for myrmecophagous defense against predators.^[18] These intraspecific patterns align with Pleistocene refugia dynamics on the exposed Sunda Shelf, where cyclical glaciation drove vicariance and subsequent recolonization, fostering lineage diversification without morphological divergence.^[13] Such insights emphasize the need for lineage-specific management to preserve adaptive potential amid ongoing habitat fragmentation and illegal trade.^[17]

Physical Description

Morphology and Scales

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) exhibits a distinctive morphology characterized by an elongated, cylindrical body armored with overlapping keratinous scales that cover the dorsal surface, sides, and tail, excluding the ventral region, inner limbs, and parts of the face. These scales, the smallest among Asian pangolin species, are arranged in longitudinal rows and interspersed with sensory bristles, forming a flexible yet protective exoskeleton analogous to reptilian scutes but derived from mammalian epidermal structures.^[19]^[2]^[20] Composed primarily of α-keratins and β-keratins, the scales share compositional homology with primate nails and human fingernails, conferring high resistance to abrasion and mechanical stress. In juveniles, scales are initially soft and flexible, hardening progressively with maturity to enhance defensive capabilities against predators and the stings or bites of ants and termites during foraging. Predominantly dark brown, some individuals display white scales on the tail, though the adaptive significance remains unclear.^[21]^[22]^[2]

Size, Weight, and Adaptations

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) exhibits a head-body length ranging from 40 to 65 cm, with a tail length of 35 to 58 cm, resulting in a total length of up to 122 cm.^[1]^[23] Adults typically weigh between 3 and 10 kg, with males generally larger than females.^[1]^[24] These dimensions position it as a medium-sized species among pangolins, adapted for a semi-arboreal and terrestrial lifestyle in Southeast Asian forests.^[3] Key physical adaptations include a dorsal covering of overlapping keratin scales, which constitute approximately 20% of the animal's body weight and serve as primary defense against predators by allowing the pangolin to roll into a tight ball.^[25] The forelimbs bear thick, curved claws suited for excavating ant and termite nests, tearing into mounds, and climbing trees, while the hindlimbs provide support during these activities.^[23] Lacking teeth, the species relies on a protrusible tongue extending up to 25 cm, coated in sticky saliva to capture prey, anchored via specialized hyoid apparatus to the pelvis for maximal reach.^[26] A prehensile tail aids in arboreal locomotion and balance, complemented by reduced eyesight but an acute olfactory sense for locating food sources.^[27] These features underscore evolutionary specialization for myrmecophagy and evasion in dense habitats.^[28]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) inhabits a broad area across Southeast Asia, extending from southern China southward through mainland countries including Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, and eastward to island nations such as Malaysia (including Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo), Singapore, Brunei, and Indonesia (encompassing Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Mentawai Islands).^[4]^[29]^[1] This species represents the most widely distributed among Asian pangolins, with historical records indicating presence from sea level up to elevations of approximately 300 meters, primarily in lowland tropical forests and associated habitats.^[30]^[1] Population declines due to poaching and habitat loss have likely contracted its effective range in some areas, though comprehensive recent surveys are limited, and suitable habitat modeling in regions like Sabah, Malaysia, estimates about 39,530 km² of potential occupancy as of 2015.^[4]^[31]

Preferred Habitats and Environmental Requirements

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) inhabits a variety of tropical environments across Southeast Asia, including primary and secondary forests, thick bush, grasslands, and agricultural areas such as rubber and oil palm plantations.^[19] ^[32] It occurs from sea level to elevations of up to 1,700 meters, with a documented preference for lower elevations where forested cover predominates.^[19] ^[33] Essential environmental features include access to large tree hollows exceeding 50 cm in diameter for shelter and underground burrows dug in friable soil beneath rotten logs, tree stumps, or rocks, which facilitate resting and evasion from predators.^[19] Females particularly rely on mature trees with diameters at breast height over 50 cm for natal dens during reproduction, underscoring the importance of retaining old-growth structural elements even in secondary or modified habitats.^[34] Habitats must also sustain dense foliage for climbing and foraging, as well as abundant colonies of ants and termites—the species' exclusive diet—which thrive in undisturbed leaf litter and soil layers.^[19] While adaptable to human-altered landscapes like gardens and plantations near settlements, the Sunda pangolin's persistence depends on soil suitable for burrowing and minimal disruption to insect prey bases, with evidence of occupancy in oil palm areas where such conditions persist.^[29] ^[26] Its competence as a swimmer suggests tolerance for wetland fringes, but core requirements center on terrestrial features supporting solitary, nocturnal lifestyles.^[1]

Behavior and Ecology

Foraging and Diet

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) maintains a highly specialized diet consisting primarily of ants and termites, which comprise over 90% of its prey intake, reflecting its myrmecophagous adaptations.^[35] Observations indicate a foraging time allocation of approximately 67% to ants and 33% to termites, with preferences for specific ant species such as Polyrachis spp. and Anoplolepis gracilipes, while avoiding others like Philidris spp. and Myrmicaria spp.^[19] Supplementary items include insect larvae, bee pupae, flies, earthworms, and occasionally crickets, though these form minor components.^[36] Lacking teeth as adults, the species relies on a long, sticky tongue—capable of extending significantly to lap up insects—to consume prey, with estimates suggesting an individual ingests over 70 million insects annually.^[36] Foraging occurs nocturnally in both terrestrial and arboreal contexts, leveraging the pangolin's semi-arboreal lifestyle to access tree-dwelling ant nests.^[37] Olfaction serves as the dominant sensory modality, enabling detection and tracking of prey via scent trails, with experimental evidence showing successful localization through smell alone (P < 0.001) but negligible reliance on vision or audition.^[37] Individuals employ powerful foreclaws to rip open nests and excavate burrows, often sniffing the air audibly while navigating forest understory, which produces characteristic rustling sounds.^[19] Physiological adaptations support this diet, including a gut microbiome specialized for digesting chitin-rich exoskeletons of ants and termites, alongside elevated expression of acidic mammalian chitinase in the stomach for enzymatic breakdown.^[35] ^[36] The species ingests small stones and gravel to aid mechanical grinding in the stomach, compensating for the absence of dentition and facilitating nutrient extraction from a low-calorie, high-volume food source.^[36]

Reproduction and Development

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) exhibits aseasonal reproduction, with breeding occurring year-round in both wild and captive conditions.^[38] Observations of mating behavior in captivity reveal that males pursue females and adopt a side-riding position for copulation, with intromission preceded by an adjustment period averaging 4.98 minutes and post-ejaculation quiescence lasting about 47 seconds; matings occur 1–5 times per day, predominantly nocturnally.^[39] Females typically produce a single offspring per litter, though twins have been documented in rare cases.^[19] Gestation lasts approximately 5–7 months, with captive records indicating a range of 154–203 days across 22 conceptions involving wild-sourced females.^[40] Newborns emerge with soft, pliable scales that harden within days, and they are immediately dependent on maternal care. Mothers provide exclusive parental investment, carrying the pup on their back or grasping it with the tail during foraging; this intensive care phase endures for 3–4 months, during which the mother's home range contracts significantly to accommodate the young.^[41] Pups nurse for up to 5–6 months, with lactation peaking in the first 4–5 months; they begin transitioning to solid foods, including ants and termites supplemented by artificial diets in captivity, around 3–4 months of age.^[42] Weaning is recommended at 4–5 months (120–150 days) to optimize growth and survival, as delayed induction beyond 130 days correlates with higher mortality (66.7% in non-early feeders).^[42] Growth follows a cubic trajectory, with pups reaching sexual maturity weights of about 3.3 kg and 72 cm by 7–9 months in females under captive conditions; full physical maturity occurs around 15–16 months at 5.4 kg and 86 cm.^[42] Sexual maturity is attained as early as 6–7 months but typically by 1 year of age.^[38] The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) maintains a largely solitary social structure, with adults interacting minimally outside of breeding seasons or maternal-offspring bonds. Encounters between individuals are infrequent, typically limited to transient pairs observed during mating, after which separation occurs. Females provide extended care to dependent young, transporting them clinging to the base of the tail or back for several months post-weaning, fostering independence thereafter; no evidence supports group living or cooperative behaviors among unrelated adults.^[26]^[43]^[32] Activity patterns are strictly nocturnal, with individuals emerging from burrows, tree hollows, or dense vegetation cover shortly after dusk—often between 18:00 and 00:00—and retreating to shelter by dawn, typically 22:00 to 04:00. Telemetry studies in Vietnam document peak foraging and movement activity centered around 03:00–04:00, aligning with heightened prey availability of ants and termites; daylight hours are spent immobile and concealed to evade predation and thermoregulate in humid tropical environments. Arboreal tendencies supplement terrestrial locomotion, enabling prolonged suspension via prehensile tail during rest or evasion, though ground-based burrowing predominates for shelter. Captive observations under red-light conditions corroborate wild patterns, showing minimal diurnal activity and emphasizing reliance on olfaction and audition over vision for orientation.^[44]^[45]^[46]

Human Interactions

Cultural Significance and Traditional Uses

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) holds significance in certain Southeast Asian and Chinese cultural practices primarily through its utilization in traditional medicine and as a food source, rather than in folklore or symbolic roles. In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), its scales, known as Squama Manitis, have been prescribed since at least AD 480 for purported treatments of ailments including rheumatic arthritis, poor blood circulation, and postpartum lactation issues, often ground into powders or incorporated into pills.^[47] However, systematic reviews of clinical evidence indicate no reliable medicinal efficacy for these scales, which consist of keratin similar to human fingernails and hair, with low-quality studies failing to demonstrate benefits beyond placebo effects.^[48] ^[49] In regions of its range such as Indonesia, Vietnam, and Malaysia, where the species is native, Sunda pangolin meat is consumed as a delicacy, particularly among Chinese diaspora communities, valued for its purported nutritional or tonic properties in local traditions.^[50] ^[32] The animal's skin and tongue are also harvested for similar culinary or medicinal applications, with scales occasionally repurposed for handicrafts prior to heightened TCM demand.^[51] These uses persist despite legal protections, driven by cultural beliefs in the animal's therapeutic value rather than empirical validation, contributing to poaching pressures documented in wildlife trade records from the early 20th century onward.^[52]

Trade, Poaching, and Economic Drivers

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) faces intense pressure from illegal international trade, primarily involving its scales, meat, and live specimens, with the bulk of demand concentrated in China and Vietnam. Scales are sought for use in traditional medicine, purportedly to treat conditions such as arthritis and cancer despite scant empirical support for efficacy, while meat serves as a status-symbol delicacy among affluent consumers.^[53] ^[54] This commerce operates through clandestine networks spanning Southeast Asia, with pangolins poached from habitats in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam, then trafficked via land, sea, and air routes to processing hubs.^[6] In Indonesia, a primary source, up to 10,000 individuals are estimated to be removed annually for export, often concealed in shipments disguised as other goods.^[6] Poaching targets the species opportunistically or systematically in forested areas, exploiting its nocturnal, solitary habits and low population densities, which render detection and capture feasible for local hunters using basic tools like snares or spotlights.^[55] Economic drivers predominate, as impoverished rural communities in range countries view pangolins as a high-value resource yielding quick cash—far exceeding income from legal alternatives like agriculture—amid limited enforcement and corruption facilitating syndicates.^[56] ^[57] High black-market premiums, with scales fetching premiums in end markets, incentivize escalation despite risks, contributing to an estimated global poaching of over one million pangolins (across species) in the past decade.^[58] Seizure records underscore the trade's scale: in Indonesia, 52 large confiscations exceeding 75 pangolins each occurred over two decades on Java and Sumatra alone, averaging over 500 per incident.^[59] China's pangolin scale interceptions, including Sunda origins, peaked in 2018 before declining post-domestic bans, yet smuggling persists via porous borders.^[60] The species' 2017 up-listing to CITES Appendix I, banning commercial trade, correlated with reduced seizure volumes in source regions—from 3,000–4,000 equivalents pre-2013 to 400–600 by 2021–2022—though underreporting suggests actual volumes remain substantial, as seizures capture perhaps only 10% of flows.^[59] ^[61]

Conservation and Threats

Current Status and Population Trends

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) is classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, a status reflecting severe population reductions driven primarily by illegal wildlife trade and habitat degradation.^[62] In June 2025, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service listed it as endangered under the Endangered Species Act, citing ongoing poaching pressures and low genetic diversity indicative of historical bottlenecks from overexploitation.^[62] The species is also protected under CITES Appendix I, prohibiting international commercial trade.^[62] Global population estimates remain elusive due to the animal's nocturnal and elusive nature, but indirect evidence from trade seizures and local surveys points to drastic declines. Trade data and community reports suggest an approximately 80% reduction in populations across Southeast Asia from 1998 to 2019, spanning roughly one generation.^[1] Over one million pangolins of all species, including Sunda pangolins, have been poached worldwide since 2000, with no signs of stabilization in trafficking volumes as of 2025.^[63] In specific locales, such as protected areas in Malaysia, densities are critically low, with one 2024 study estimating just 0.013 individuals per km² in surveyed habitats.^[64] Population trends indicate continued downward trajectories without effective interventions, as genetic analyses reveal reduced diversity and potential recent bottlenecks across Indochina and Sundaland.^[16] Singapore hosts one of the few potentially stable subpopulations, estimated at around 1,046 individuals in 2019, bolstered by urban green spaces and enforcement, though even this faces risks from cross-border trade.^[65] Elsewhere, extirpation looms in heavily trafficked regions like parts of Indonesia and Vietnam, underscoring the urgency for verifiable monitoring data beyond anecdotal or seizure-based inferences.^[66]

Primary Threats Including Habitat Loss and Illegal Trade

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) is primarily threatened by illegal poaching and international trade, driven by demand for its scales in traditional Asian medicine and its meat as a delicacy, resulting in its classification as Critically Endangered by the IUCN in 2019 with ongoing assessments confirming persistent declines.^[67] Estimates indicate that Indonesia, a key stronghold, loses up to 10,000 individuals annually to this trade, based on seizure data and market surveys from 2010–2017, with underreporting likely inflating actual figures.^[68] CITES records document over 500,000 Sunda pangolins in legal and seized trade between 1975 and 2018, but illegal channels evade monitoring, exacerbating local extirpations across Southeast Asia.^[1] Poaching intensifies in accessible areas, where hunters target gravid females and juveniles, disrupting reproduction and leading to inferred population reductions exceeding 80% over three generations.^[29] Habitat loss compounds these pressures through deforestation for palm oil plantations, logging, and agriculture, fragmenting forests across the species' range in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Indochina. Approximately 38% of its suitable forested habitat—equating to 15,021 km²—has been lost in recent decades, per satellite-derived mapping, pushing pangolins into human-dominated landscapes where poaching risk escalates.^[4] In Malaysia, nearly 30% of forest cover vanished since 2000, correlating with increased human-pangolin encounters and vulnerability to snares.^[66] While the species exhibits some tolerance to degraded habitats, such as secondary forests, cumulative fragmentation reduces foraging grounds for ants and termites, indirectly amplifying trade impacts by concentrating survivors in harvestable pockets.^[29] These threats interact causally: habitat degradation facilitates hunter access via logging roads, while trade economics incentivize conversion of pangolin ranges to cash crops, yielding projected wild population crashes without enforcement. Seizure trends post-2017 CITES uplisting show sustained trafficking, including recent detections in India and China, underscoring enforcement gaps despite bans.^[6] Empirical hunter interviews in Peninsular Malaysia report 95% perceiving local declines since the 2000s, attributable to combined hunting and land-use changes rather than isolated factors.^[69]

Conservation Efforts and Their Outcomes

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) has been protected under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since October 2017, prohibiting international commercial trade in wild specimens and aiming to curb the primary driver of its decline. National legislation in range states such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam has similarly classified the species as fully protected since the early 2000s, with zero-export quotas for wild-caught individuals established under CITES in 2000 for Asian pangolins.^[70] Complementary initiatives include anti-poaching patrols and monitoring programs, such as those implemented in Cambodia's eastern plains since 2023, which have documented increased detection rates of pangolin signs through camera traps and ranger surveys.^[71] Community-led efforts in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, employing community-based social marketing since 2018, have targeted local poachers by addressing barriers to compliance, resulting in reported reductions in opportunistic hunting incidents.^[72] Regional conservation strategies, outlined in the 2018–2028 Sunda Pangolin Conservation Strategy by the IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group, emphasize demand reduction, habitat protection, and research to fill knowledge gaps on population dynamics.^[73] In Singapore, the Pangolin Specialist Group—chaired by Mandai Wildlife Reserve since 2021—focuses on rehabilitation and reintroduction, with over 50 confiscated individuals treated annually, though release protocols remain experimental due to poor post-release survival data.^[74] Thailand's monitoring projects, supported by the Zoological Society of London since 2022, integrate pangolin tracking with consumer awareness campaigns in source and demand countries like Cameroon, yielding preliminary data on burrow occupancy but limited scalable impact.^[75] Despite these measures, outcomes have been largely ineffective at halting population declines, with the species retaining its IUCN Critically Endangered status as of 2025 due to ongoing illegal trade and insufficient enforcement.^[63] Seizure data from Indonesia indicate a decline in detected pangolin equivalents from 3,000–4,000 annually in 2011–2012 to 400–600 in 2021–2022 following the Appendix I uplisting, but this likely reflects shifted underground trafficking rather than cessation, as underreporting and weak inter-agency coordination persist.^[59] Global reporting gaps, highlighted in a 2025 IUCN assessment, underscore data deficiencies that impede adaptive management, with wild population estimates remaining below 10,000 mature individuals across fragmented habitats.^[76] Local successes, such as stabilized sightings in protected Cambodian sites, contrast with broader trends of rarity in Sumatra and Java, where habitat loss compounds poaching pressures and precludes recovery without intensified demand-side interventions.^[33]^[77]

Debates on Policy Effectiveness and Alternatives

Despite the 2016 listing of the Sunda pangolin under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which prohibits international commercial trade, illegal trafficking persists at scale, with an estimated 600,000 pangolins of all species illegally traded between 2016 and 2019, primarily to meet demand for scales and meat in East Asia.^[78] Seizure data from select markets show a decline in detected volumes post-listing, dropping from 3,000–4,000 pangolin equivalents annually in 2011–2012 to 400–600 in 2021–2022, yet experts attribute this partly to improved concealment techniques rather than eradication of demand.^[59] In source countries like Indonesia and Malaysia, national protections exist, but enforcement remains inconsistent due to corruption, limited resources, and porous borders, allowing domestic and cross-border trade to continue unabated.^[79] Critics of strict trade bans argue they inflate black market prices, incentivizing poachers and organized crime without addressing root causes like cultural demand in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), where pangolin scales are prized despite lacking empirical efficacy beyond placebo effects in historical claims.^[80] Conservation organizations such as the Environmental Investigation Agency maintain that bans represent a necessary deterrent, but empirical evidence indicates they often drive trade underground, evading detection and complicating population monitoring, as seen in persistent seizures in Vietnam and China post-2016.^[81] ^[56] Proponents of bans, including IUCN specialists, emphasize that without them, legal trade quotas could exacerbate overexploitation, given the species' low reproductive rate (one offspring per year) and vulnerability to rapid depletion.^[82] Proposed alternatives include commercial farming to supply scales and meat, potentially reducing pressure on wild populations by meeting demand legally; however, peer-reviewed assessments conclude pangolins are poorly suited to captive breeding due to their solitary nature, specialized ant diet, and high stress-induced mortality, rendering farms economically unviable and likely to serve as laundering fronts for wild-caught animals indistinguishable via morphology or isotopes.^[83] ^[84] Synthetic scale substitutes, manufactured from keratin analogs, have been prototyped to mimic TCM properties without wildlife harvest, showing promise in reducing demand if marketed effectively, though consumer skepticism toward non-natural products hinders adoption.^[85] Plant-based TCM alternatives, such as Dioscorea species for purported anti-inflammatory effects, offer a non-animal substitute but face resistance from traditionalists valuing "authentic" ingredients.^[86] CITES decisions at the 2019 Conference of the Parties (CoP18) and beyond have narrowed policy options by rejecting sustainable use proposals, potentially foreclosing regulated harvest models that could fund enforcement in range states; range country advocates argue this overlooks context-specific incentives, like community-based monitoring tied to limited off-take, which might outperform blanket prohibitions where enforcement capacity is low.^[87] Empirical gaps persist, with calls for randomized trials on demand-reduction campaigns versus regulated trade pilots, as current bans correlate with ongoing declines but lack causal isolation from confounders like habitat loss.^[88] Prioritizing enforcement capacity-building and habitat restoration over trade-focused interventions may yield higher returns, given that illegal trade volumes exceed habitat threats in driving the species' critically endangered status.^[89]

Health and Physiology

Physiological Vulnerabilities

The Sunda pangolin exhibits a highly specialized myrmecophagous diet reliant on ants and termites, rendering it physiologically vulnerable to malnutrition when deprived of live prey sources, as captive individuals often refuse artificial substitutes and suffer digestive disorders due to mismatched gut microbiota and nutritional deficiencies.^[90]^[91] This dependency stems from the absence of teeth and reliance on a protrusible tongue for prey capture, compounded by the need for formic acid and specific chitin-digesting enzymes obtained from natural forage, leading to rapid weight loss and organ failure in non-optimal conditions.^[92] High mortality rates in captivity, often exceeding 60% within months, are primarily attributed to such dietary inadequacies rather than infectious causes alone.^[93]^[94] Acute stress responses represent another critical vulnerability, triggering physiological shutdowns including feeding cessation, immunosuppression evidenced by reduced white blood cell counts and neutrophil levels, and elevated serum markers of inflammation such as alanine phosphatase.^[20]^[90] In rescued or captive settings, immobilization, handling, or environmental novelty induces hypercortisolemia and metabolic depression, exacerbating dehydration and starvation, with fatalities frequently occurring from capture myopathy or self-induced inanition rather than direct trauma.^[92]^[90] This stress sensitivity aligns with the species' solitary, nocturnal lifestyle, where physiological adaptations prioritize energy conservation over resilience to anthropogenic disturbances. Thermoregulation poses further risks, as the Sunda pangolin maintains a subnormal body temperature averaging 32–35°C with daily fluctuations of 1.2–1.9°C, reflecting limited endothermic capacity and reliance on behavioral thermoregulation via burrowing or scale insulation.^[95] Exposure to temperatures below 20°C increases susceptibility to hypothermia and respiratory infections, necessitating supplemental heating in rehabilitation to mitigate pneumonia risks, while elevated terrains correlate with population declines due to cold intolerance and reduced prey availability.^[96]^[4] Conversely, ambient temperatures exceeding 33°C can induce heat stress, though the scale-covered integument offers partial protection; however, prolonged exposure disrupts foraging and heightens dehydration vulnerability given water intake primarily from prey.^[97] Additional vulnerabilities include heightened parasitic susceptibility, such as gastritis from nematodes like Gendrespirura sp., which erode gastric mucosa and impair nutrient absorption in compromised individuals.^[98] Baseline serum biochemistry in healthy specimens shows elevated parameters indicative of chronic physiological strain even in wild-caught but unstressed animals, underscoring an inherent fragility to perturbations in habitat or health status.^[99] These traits collectively amplify the species' peril under intensified human pressures, where physiological resilience is outpaced by rapid environmental shifts.

Diseases and Zoonotic Concerns

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) is susceptible to various parasitic infections, including gastrointestinal nematodes such as Gendrespirura sp., which cause parasitic gastritis characterized by mucosal erosions, inflammation, and hyperplasia in the stomachs of wild individuals. ^[100] Confiscated specimens frequently harbor acanthocephalans and additional nematodes, with internal parasites detected alongside ectoparasites like ticks in rescued animals from southern China. ^[101] Ectoparasite infestations are prevalent, with Amblyomma javanense ticks found on 68.8% of examined pangolins, showing no significant variation by age, sex, or maturity stage, though intensity may correlate with host condition. ^[102] A novel Ancylostoma sp. hookworm has also been identified via mitochondrial genome sequencing from Sunda pangolin samples, indicating potential for undescribed helminth diversity. ^[103] Viral infections include Sendai virus and coronaviruses detected through metagenomic analysis of lung tissues from deceased individuals, with evidence of respiratory tropism. ^[13] Bacterial and protozoan pathogens are less documented but encompassed in broader checklists for pangolins, including M. javanica, featuring genera like Salmonella and Trypanosoma. ^[104] Captive and rehabilitated pangolins exhibit lower parasite burdens due to deworming protocols, such as albendazole administered tri-monthly, underscoring environmental and stress-related vulnerabilities in wild and traded populations. ^[105] Zoonotic risks arise primarily from illegal trade facilitating human-wildlife contact, with ticks on Sunda pangolins potentially vectoring pathogens like rickettsiae or pestiviruses, as detected in Amblyomma spp. from Java. ^[106] SARS-CoV-2-related sarbecoviruses have been identified in smuggled Sunda pangolins, including sequences from Malaysian seizures in 2019 showing receptor-binding domain similarities to the human virus, prompting hypotheses of intermediate host roles. ^[107] ^[108] Serological surveys indicate exposure to sarbecoviruses along trade routes, with antibodies in trafficked individuals suggesting susceptibility, though binding affinity of pangolin ACE2 to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is lower than in humans. ^[109] However, wild Sunda pangolins entering trade via Malaysia tested negative for SARS-CoV-2 or other zoonotic coronaviruses, and population-level evidence exonerates them as primary reservoirs for the pandemic strain. ^[110] ^[111] These findings highlight trade-amplified risks rather than inherent wild pathogenicity, with no confirmed direct transmissions to humans documented.^[112]

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Due to overexploitation and habitat loss, the pangolin population has declined dramatically and it is now widely considered extinct in most areas.
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Indonesia, one of the last strongholds of the Sunda Pangolin, currently loses up to 10,000 pangolins a year to illegal trade. Indonesia's pangolin trade.Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
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Sep 17, 2020 · Pangolin scale seizures at all-time high in 2019, showing illegal trade still booming ... Despite increased protections, the scaly mammals ...
[8]
Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822 - GBIF
Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822. Dataset; GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Rank; SPECIES: Published in; Mammalogie, in Encycl. Méth. vol.2 p.377 ...
[9]
Manis javanica - NCBI
Manis javanica. Taxonomy ID: 9974 (for references in articles please use NCBI:txid9974). current name. Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822.Missing: history | Show results with:history
[10]
CLASSIFICATION - ADW: Manis javanica - Animal Diversity Web
Manis javanicaMalayan pangolin · Vertebrata: information (1) · Vertebrata: pictures (15168) · Vertebrata: specimens (6827) · Vertebrata: sounds (709).Missing: synonyms | Show results with:synonyms
[11]
Assessing the Taxonomic Status of the Palawan Pangolin Manis ...
The Palawan pangolin was 1st listed as a species distinct from M. javanica under Pholidotus culionensis (Elera 1895). However, most of the subsequent literature ...
[12]
Pholidota - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Pangolins (Order Pholidota) have a chaotic taxonomic history. As discussed in Chapter 1, earlier studies proposed that Pholidota were closely related to ...
[13]
Phylogeography of the Sunda pangolin, Manis javanica ...
Aug 15, 2023 · Pangolins are a group of scaly mammals belonging to Manidae, the only extant family of Pholidota. All eight species of extant pangolin are ...Abstract · INTRODUCTION · METHODS · DISCUSSION
[14]
Phylogeography of the Sunda pangolin, Manis javanica
Aug 15, 2023 · The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) is the most widely distributed Asian pangolin species, occurring across much of Southeast Asia and in ...
[15]
Mitogenomic analysis of Thai Sunda pangolins reveals regional ...
Apr 23, 2025 · Phylogenetic reconstruction revealed six lineages, with clear separation north and south of the Kangar-Pattani biogeographic line in southern ...
[16]
Uncovering new lineages in the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica ...
Sep 10, 2025 · The two Sunda Pangolin West and East lineages, referred as 'MJA'/ 'mainland' and 'MJB'/'island' in [28] have been estimated to diverged ca 300 ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
[17]
Genomic Population Structure of the Sunda Pangolin (Manis ...
Oct 6, 2025 · Pangolins are the most heavily trafficked mammal globally, yet the population structure and genetic diversity remain poorly understood for many ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
[18]
Pangolin Genomes Offer Key Insights and Resources for the World's ...
Oct 5, 2023 · The phylogeny consists of 13 individuals from all eight species and is rooted with two representatives of the sister order Carnivora.
[19]
[PDF] husbandry guidelines - Pangolin Specialist Group
With the exception of their neck and belly, they are covered with protective overlapping scales that have bristles in between them. They are terrestrial but ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[20]
Hematology and serum biochemistry of captive Sunda pangolin ...
Pangolins or scaly anteaters are placental mammals from the order Pholidota. Pangolins are characterized by their unique overlapping epidermal scales [11].<|separator|>
[21]
Immunohistochemical Demonstration of Keratins in the Epidermal ...
These scales, which are soft on newborn pangolins but harden as the animal matures, are formed by α-keratins and β-keratins, guaranteeing a high abrasive wear ...
[22]
[PDF] autecology of the sunda pangolin (manis javanica) in singapore
1.1 Pangolin species and taxonomy. Pangolins are members of the only family (Manidae) in the order Pholidota and there are only eight extant species in the ...<|separator|>
[23]
Sunda Pangolin - Manis javanica - Ecology Asia
Its other common name is Scaly Anteater: it feeds wholly on ants and termites, which it locates by its strong sense of smell. It possesses thick, powerful claws ...
[24]
Manis javanica Desmarest 1822 - Plazi TreatmentBank
Nov 26, 2024 · A mediumsized pangolin, with rounded,olive to reddish-brown scales and pads on forefeet. One pair of mammae. Males larger than females. Head ...
[25]
Safeguarding the Sunda Pangolin: RER's Commitment to Wildlife ...
Jul 6, 2023 · Its body is covered in hard, keratin scales, which make up about 20 percent of its body weight. When threatened, it can curl into a ball, using ...
[26]
Manis javanica (Malayan pangolin) - Animal Diversity Web
Manis javanica ; Class, Mammalia mammals ; Order, Pholidota pangolins ; Family, Manidae pangolins ; Genus, Manis pangolins ; Species, Manis javanica Malayan pangolin ...
[27]
Pangolin Facts - David Shepherd Wildlife Foundation
They have the smallest scales of all of the Asian pangolins and their claws are a similar length in both front and back legs. They have a fully prehensile tail ...What Is A Pangolin? · Chinese Pangolin · Philippine Pangolin
[28]
Sunda Pangolin (Selected Mammals Of Borneo) - iNaturalist
They have significant adaptations to account for their enormous tongue which passes through the chest cavity and anchors to the pelvis. These include lack of a ...
[29]
[PDF] Sunda pangolin, Manis javanica - EDGE of Existence programme
Hunters in Viet Nam have consistently reported that Manis javanica is a more arboreal species than Manis pentadactyla, and that they are adept climbers with ...Missing: first | Show results with:first
[30]
Phylogeography of the Sunda pangolin, Manis javanica - PubMed
Aug 15, 2023 · To conduct phylogenetic and population genetic analyses of Sunda pangolins across their range, we integrated these newly generated mitochondrial ...
[31]
Endangered Species Status for Seven Species of Pangolin
Jun 17, 2025 · The introduction of zero annual—export quotas in 2000 caused a decline in reported trade of Sunda pangolin skins (Challender et al., 2020, p.<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
Sunda pangolin | Manis javanica - EDGE of Existence
Order: Pholidota ; Family: Manidae ; Population: Unknown ; Size: 45-52cm ; Weight: 4.2-7.5kg ...
[33]
Save This Species: Sunda Pangolin - The Revelator
Apr 11, 2025 · The Sunda pangolin is a medium-sized mammal in the order Pholidota. Adults weigh 14-17 pounds and their bodies typically measure 15-26 inches in length.
[34]
[PDF] Home range, activity cycle and natal den usage of a female Sunda ...
Jun 20, 2007 · The strict use of hollows of big trees (>50 cm DBH) as natal dens by the female MJ6 suggests that Manis javanica might require reasonably mature ...Missing: elevation soil
[35]
The gut microbiome of the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) reveals ...
Jun 2, 2021 · The gut microbiome of the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) reveals its adaptation to specialized myrmecophagy. Research Article.<|separator|>
[36]
To Save Pangolins: A Nutritional Perspective - PMC - PubMed Central
Nov 14, 2022 · The pangolin has no teeth in adulthood and mainly captures ants and termites with a long tongue. It is estimated that an adult pangolin can eat ...
[37]
Investigating the use of sensory information to detect and track prey ...
Jun 17, 2020 · The current study specifically investigates the foraging behaviour of the semi-arboreal Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), one of the most ...
[38]
Reproductive parameters of the Sunda pangolin, Manis javanica
Aug 1, 2015 · Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica) belong to the mammalian order Pholidota and are one of eight extant species of pangolin (Nowak 1991, Corbet & ...
[39]
Specific mating behavior of Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica) in ...
May 26, 2023 · The research on mating behavior of pangolins is an important content to understand its reproductive characteristics and develop breeding ...Missing: gestation | Show results with:gestation
[40]
Successful captive breeding of a Malayan pangolin population to the ...
Oct 21, 2021 · Our data showed that 22 offspring were conceived by mating with wild female pangolins with a gestation range of 154–203 days (n = 22; Fig. 4 and ...
[41]
Secrets of a Sunda Pangolin
Nov 21, 2011 · Based on their findings, the researchers believe young Sunda pangolins receive maternal care for about three to four months. At first, they ...Missing: parental | Show results with:parental
[42]
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272020
[43]
[PDF] Sunda Pangolin (Manis javanica)
Sunda Pangolins are myrmecophegous feeding primarily on several species of ants and termites, but also on the larvae of other insects, as well as flies, worms, ...
[44]
Home ranges and activity patterns of Sunda pangolins Manis ...
Sep 1, 2023 · As a result, the Sunda pangolin is currently listed as critically endangered (CR) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) ...
[45]
Characteristics, location, and usage patterns of resting burrows in ...
Activity patterns showed that pangolins typically exited their burrows between 6:00 PM and 12:00 AM and entered their burrows between 10:00 PM and 4:00 AM. To ...Missing: diurnal | Show results with:diurnal<|separator|>
[46]
[PDF] Time-Budgets and Activity Patterns of Captive Sunda Pangolins ...
This is the first assessment of Manis javanica behavior in captivity. The aim of the investigation was to assess behavior in order to suggest ways of improving ...Missing: structure | Show results with:structure
[47]
Knowledge and attitudes about the use of pangolin scale products in ...
Sep 25, 2020 · The use of pangolin scales in TCM can be traced back to AD 480 when prescriptions containing this ingredient were documented in the Bencao jing ...Missing: efficacy | Show results with:efficacy
[48]
Evidence for the medicinal value of Squama Manitis (pangolin scale)
There is no reliable evidence that Squama Manitis has special medicinal value. The removal of Squama Manitis from Pharmacopoeia is rational.
[49]
Evidence for the medicinal value of Squama Manitis (pangolin scale)
There is no reliable evidence that Squama Manitis has special medicinal value. The removal of Squama Manitis from Pharmacopoeia is rational.
[50]
THE SUNDA PANGOLIN (MANIS JAVANICA): SWEET IN NAME ...
Feb 28, 2019 · This species is traded for its body parts, such as meat, tongue, skin, and scales, which are believed to be effective as traditional medicine for the Chinese ...
[51]
Sunda Pangolin (Manis javanica): Has a sweet Name, unfortunately ...
Mar 1, 2019 · Before it was known as a raw material for traditional Chinese medicine, pangolin scales were used as raw materials for making handicrafts, ...
[52]
Poaching is sending the shy, elusive pangolin to its doom
May 14, 2019 · Typically dried, ground into powder, and put into pills, pangolin scales are used in a range of traditional Chinese remedies, from treatments to ...
[53]
Where did all the pangolins go? International CITES trade in ...
The pangolin is greatly sought after for its various body parts, largely driven by demand from China. The mammal has been driven to the edge of extinction ...
[54]
Buyers of Pangolin Scales | PoachingFacts
There are two primary countries responsible for driving demand in pangolin scales, meat, and other parts. · Like China, Vietnam has consumers who view pangolin ...
[55]
Experts convene to save one of world's most trafficked mammals
Jul 7, 2017 · The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) lives in Southeast Asia, and is classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Photo: Wildlife ...
[56]
Dissecting the illegal pangolin trade in China - Nature Conservation
Jan 14, 2022 · The reported illegal trade involved pangolins (live, scales, meat) with 7 species in 326 seizures from 26 of the 34 provinces.
[57]
The Realities of Community-Led Conservation in Protecting Pangolins
Nov 12, 2024 · While some communities have expressed interest in increasing pangolin populations, poaching of Sunda pangolins continues, driven by economic ...Missing: methods | Show results with:methods
[58]
A PANGOLIN IS HUNTED ILLEGALLY EVERY THREE MINUTES
In the last 10 years alone, an estimated 1,000,000 pangolins were poached globally to feed illegal wildlife trade. In just over 30 years, the status of Sunda ...<|separator|>
[59]
Effect of CITES Appendix I listing on illegal pangolin trade as ...
Oct 5, 2023 · Over the last two decades, there were 52 very large seizures of 75 pangolins or more (mean 529 ± 98 pangolins) on Java, Sumatra, and Indonesian ...
[60]
China's pangolin scale trade declines, study shows, but smuggling ...
Feb 14, 2025 · A study of Chinese court records from 2010 to 2023 found that pangolin scale seizures peaked in 2018 and have since declined.
[61]
[PDF] English CoP19 Inf. 39 CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL ... - CITES
Nov 14, 2022 · As few as 10% of all illicit shipments may be seized, suggesting that as many as 8,506,020 pangolins were removed from the wild in West and ...
[62]
Endangered Species Status for Seven Species of Pangolin
Jun 17, 2025 · The Sunda pangolin ( Manis javanica ) was historically distributed ... The Indian pangolin is classified as critically endangered by the IUCN, ...
[63]
Sunda Pangolin - Global Conservation
Jan 15, 2025 · ... Manis javanica. IUCN Red List Status: Critically Endangered. Population: Virtually no population estimates – regional or global (IUCN Red List ...
[64]
Insights into Population Status and Habitat Patches of Conservation ...
Sep 16, 2024 · Of the total area studied, 210 km2 (12.01%) were highly suitable and 238 km2 (13.61%) were moderately suitable habitat for the Indian pangolin.
[65]
[PDF] Species Status Assessment for Seven Species of Pangolins
Singapore may be home to the only stable population of Sunda pangolin which was estimated to include roughly 1046 individuals in 2019 (Chong et al., 2020, p ...
[66]
DR. CHONG JU LIAN - Biji Alam Awards
Once widespread across Malaysia and Southeast Asia, the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) is facing a rapid decline, with its population now on the brink of ...
[67]
[PDF] The Ongoing Illegal Pangolin Trade in the Philippines - Traffic.org
In December 2019, the species was assessed globally as Critically Endangered with its primary threat from poaching and illegal trade, both for domestic and ...Missing: loss | Show results with:loss
[68]
Scaly Nexus mapping Indonesian pangolin trade - Traffic.org
Dec 21, 2017 · Scaly Nexus mapping Indonesian pangolin trade ; Up to 10,000. Sunda pangolins are lost annually to illegal trade ; 83%. of the 111 seizures ...Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
[69]
[PDF] ON THE BRINK - Pangolin Specialist Group
Nine- ty-four percent believe pangolin poaching is common, with trafficking on the rise (93%). The same majority agrees that these animals are endangered, and ...
[70]
[PDF] Ex Situ Conservation Assessment and planning for the sunda pangolin
Nov 14, 2022 · Indirect threats include habitat loss and degradation. These threats, combined with inadequate conservation action, are negatively affecting the ...Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
[71]
Signs of Hope for Sunda Pangolins in Cambodia - Wild Earth Allies
Aug 28, 2023 · Successful pangolin conservation requires regular monitoring and sustained anti-poaching patrols. In support of increased capacity, we ...
[72]
https://www.speciesconservation.org/small-grant/sunda-pangolin/30616
[73]
[PDF] ZSL36 Sunda pangolin strategy-P4.indd
Conduct research to gain a better understanding of Sunda pangolin ecology and behaviour, in order to develop a comprehensive understanding of Sunda pangolin ...
[74]
Singapore's Research and Rescue Conservation Efforts for the ...
Aug 24, 2021 · The aim of the group, chaired by Mandai Nature, is to increase awareness and drive the conservation and protection of the Sunda Pangolin. PLAN.
[75]
New hope for Thailand's Sunda pangolins - ZSL
The project aims to monitor and protect important pangolin populations in Thailand and Cameroon, and reduce demand for pangolins and pangolin products in ...
[76]
Lack of data and reporting gaps hamper global efforts to protect ...
Aug 27, 2025 · The full “Report on the conservation status of pangolins (Manis spp.) in the wild, and trade controls in place in Parties Prepared by the ...
[77]
Saving the world's most trafficked animal - BBC Earth
According to assessment by the IUCN Pangolin Specialist Group , Sunda pangolins will be extinct in the wild if we don't stop illegal poaching and trade. “10 ...
[78]
United States Finds China's Pangolin Trade Undermines Wildlife ...
Sep 12, 2023 · Despite CITES' ban on international pangolin trade, approximately 600,000 pangolins were illegally traded between 2016 and 2019 alone.
[79]
Conservation, trade and (lack of) management of Sunda pangolins ...
This trade occurs despite international bans of the species' trade through CITES, and legal protection through varying levels of laws at national levels ...
[80]
Are Wildlife Trade Bans Backfiring? - Earth Island Institute
Nov 17, 2020 · Conservation organizations hailed the pangolin ban as a big win in the war against the multibillion-dollar wildlife trade. But some ...
[81]
Saving pangolins from extinction - EIA
Global illegal trade from Africa to Asia has increased significantly since 2008. As many as one million pangolins have been illegally traded within Asia in the ...
[82]
What does the new trade ban mean for pangolin conservation? - IUCN
Oct 14, 2016 · Pangolins gained the highest levels of protection under CITES with the decision to bring in a ban on international trade.
[83]
Evaluating the feasibility of pangolin farming and its potential ...
The Sunda pangolin continues to be trafficked within and from Indonesia in large numbers (Nijman, 2015; see 2.2.2.). It is categorised as Critically Endangered ...<|separator|>
[84]
Commercial pangolin farming will very likely have a negative impact ...
Jul 30, 2019 · A new academic study shows that pangolin farming offers little potential to meet consumer demand for the endangered creature's scales.<|control11|><|separator|>
[85]
Can a Synthetic Substitute Save the Pangolin? - New Security Beat
Sep 19, 2019 · The medical efficacy of pangolin scales is controversial. But for TCM consumers, scientific proof pertains mainly to Western medicine.Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[86]
An alternative to pangolins – protection through plant-based ...
Nov 15, 2022 · On the issue of pangolins, EIA supports the adoption of all the UK Government's proposed amendments to the pangolin resolution and associated ...
[87]
Incentivizing pangolin conservation: Decisions at CITES CoP19 may ...
Apr 8, 2024 · Restricting potential policy options for pangolins in CITES may obstruct optimal national policies by removing a potential tool from the toolbox ...
[88]
Incentivizing pangolin conservation: Policy decisions may reduce ...
Apr 11, 2024 · The recommendations from CITES COP19 will likely make it harder for pangolin range countries in these regions to explore policies that include sustainable use.
[89]
The first regional conservation strategy for the Sunda pangolin
Apr 24, 2019 · Priorities include combatting trafficking, strengthening legal policies, and building capacity for effective enforcement.Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[90]
Hematological and serum biochemical parameters of rescued ...
Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica) are found in several Southeast Asian countries including Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Singapore, and on the major islands ...
[91]
Feeding Asian pangolins: An assessment of current diets fed in ...
Jun 20, 2017 · The major causes of death are physical injuries and stress but if they can be kept alive initially, nutrition is reported to be a major ...
[92]
Captive breeding of pangolins: current status, problems and future ...
Jun 8, 2015 · Stress is thought to be one of the major causes of fatality among captive pangolins, and they could be the combined results of the inappropriate ...
[93]
Indian pangolins in captivity
May 29, 2014 · Pangolins are difficult to maintain in captivity. Stress and malnutrition are major causes of fatality among captive pangolins and mortality rates of 67% a ...Missing: diet | Show results with:diet
[94]
How Does Taiwan Rescue Pangolins, a Species Almost Impossible ...
Keeping rescued Pangolins alive is challenging for that they often die within 100 days of captivity.Taiwan, however, has become the most experienced ...
[95]
Body temperatures of Manis pentadactyla and Manis javanica - NIH
The daily variation of Chinese pangolin body temperature was up to 2.9°C, while the Sunda pangolin body temperature fluctuated between 1.2°C and 1.9°C.
[96]
(PDF) Management Guidelines for Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica)
Anecdotal evidence suggests pangolins require supplemental heat during times of low temperature. In Taipei Zoo, the risk of respiratory disease has been found ...
[97]
Air temperature changes in a burrow of Chinese pangolin, manis ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Increase in ambient temperature beyond 33 °C may induce heat stress whereas sharp decrease in temperature may cause pneumonia leading to death ...
[98]
Parasitic gastritis in wild sunda pangolins (Manis Javanica), Singapore
Oct 1, 2025 · This report describes pathological lesions in the stomachs of two dead wild Sunda pangolins caused by Gendrespirura sp..Missing: physiological vulnerabilities
[99]
Comparison of Venous Blood Gas and Biochemical Parameters in ...
This study provides data to help understand the physiological status of healthy Sunda and Chinese pangolins for comparison with different life stages and ...<|separator|>
[100]
Parasitic gastritis in wild sunda pangolins (Manis Javanica), Singapore
Oct 1, 2025 · This report describes pathological lesions in the stomachs of two dead wild Sunda pangolins caused by Gendrespirura sp.. Gross and ...
[101]
Nematode and Acanthocephalan Parasites of Confiscated Sunda ...
Background: The Sunda pangolin, Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822, is a critically endangered species of pangolin that occurs from Indonesia to southern China.
[102]
The prevalence and intensity of Amblyomma javanense infestation ...
The scales of pangolins which are made from keratin ... Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) on the Sunda Pangolin (Manis javanica, Desmarest) from selected areas in ...
[103]
Molecular detection of a novel Ancylostoma sp. by whole mtDNA ...
Mar 2, 2022 · In this study, we identified a novel Ancylostoma sp. that originated from a Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) by analysis of the mt genome using ...Pcgs And Codon Usage · Rrna And Trna Genes · Discussion
[104]
Check list of parasites and bacteria recorded from pangolins (Manis ...
Ticks are well represented in pangolins comprising 8 genera and 20 species reported from six pangolin species (M. crassicaudata, M. pentadactyla, M. javanica, M ...
[105]
Parasites and bacteria associated with Indian pangolins Manis ...
Low infection frequency in captive pangolins may be due to regular deworming of captive pangolins with Albendazole drug at every three month intervals. The ...
[106]
Detection of a novel Pestivirus strain in Java ticks (Amblyomma ...
Sep 1, 2022 · Viral Metagenomics revealed Sendai virus and coronavirus infection of Malayan pangolins (Manis javanica). Viruses 11:979. doi: 10.3390 ...
[107]
Identifying SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins
Mar 26, 2020 · Here we report the identification of SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins (Manis javanica) seized in anti-smuggling operations ...
[108]
Trafficked Malayan pangolins contain viral pathogens of humans
Aug 2, 2022 · The discovery of SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins has piqued interest in the viromes of these wild, scaly-skinned mammals.
[109]
Serological evidence of sarbecovirus exposure along Sunda ...
Nov 26, 2024 · Viral metagenomics revealed Sendai virus and coronavirus infection of Malayan pangolins (Manis javanica). Viruses. 2019;11:979. https://doi ...
[110]
No Evidence of Coronaviruses or Other Potentially Zoonotic Viruses ...
While confirmatory serologic studies are needed, it is likely that Sunda pangolins are incidental hosts of coronaviruses. Our findings further support the ...
[111]
Wild Sunda Pangolins are not the source of COVID-19
My results provided solid evidence that the wild population of Sunda pangolins were highly unlikely to be reservoirs for SARS-CoV-2.
[112]
Evidence of SARS-CoV-2 Related Coronaviruses Circulating in ...
Research suggests that the Asian species of pangolins are capable of hosting Betacoronaviruses with published reports of SARS-CoVs identified in Sunda pangolins ...