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Manis

Manis is a genus of pangolins in the family Manidae, consisting of four extant species of scaly, ant-eating mammals endemic to Asia: the Indian pangolin (M. crassicaudata), Chinese pangolin (M. pentadactyla), Sunda pangolin (M. javanica), and Philippine pangolin (M. culionensis).^[1] These primarily nocturnal, terrestrial creatures are distinguished by their unique keratinous scales, which cover most of their body and serve as armor against predators, allowing them to roll into a defensive ball when threatened.^[1] Ranging in size from 58 to 176 cm in length (including tail) and weighing 1.8 to 16 kg depending on the species, pangolins in this genus possess powerful foreclaws for digging and a long, sticky tongue adapted for extracting ants and termites from nests, forming the core of their myrmecophagous diet.^[1] Native to diverse habitats across South and Southeast Asia, including forests, grasslands, savannas, and agricultural areas at elevations up to 2,000 meters, Manis species burrow in soft soils for shelter and foraging.^[1] They play an ecological role in controlling insect populations, particularly termites, which can damage crops and structures.^[2] However, all four species face severe threats from illegal wildlife trade, driven by demand for their scales in traditional medicine and meat as a delicacy, leading to severe population declines across their ranges.^[3] Consequently, the Indian pangolin is classified as Endangered, while the Chinese, Sunda, and Philippine pangolins are all Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.^[3] Conservation efforts, including CITES Appendix I protections and anti-poaching initiatives, are critical to their survival, though challenges persist due to habitat loss and limited data on wild populations.^[3]

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Manis derives from the Latin word manis (plural manes), referring to a spirit of the dead or ghost in Roman religion and mythology, an etymology that likely alludes to the nocturnal and elusive habits of pangolins, which are often active at night and difficult to observe in the wild.^[4]^[5] This interpretation highlights the animal's secretive lifestyle, evoking imagery of a spectral presence in forested or savanna habitats. The term manis has roots in ancient Indo-European languages, where it connoted ancestral spirits or underworld entities, but its application to the pangolin genus marked a novel adaptation in zoological nomenclature to capture behavioral traits rather than physical ones.^[4] The name Manis was first formally introduced in scientific taxonomy by Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae (10th edition) in 1758, where he designated Manis pentadactyla as the type species for the genus, describing the Chinese pangolin based on specimens from Asia.^[6] Linnaeus's choice reflected the era's emphasis on binomial nomenclature, standardizing the naming of this scaly mammal amid limited knowledge of its biology. Over time, the genus name persisted through revisions in mammalian classification, with the family Manidae being derived directly from Manis to encompass all pangolin species.^[1] In the broader context of scientific nomenclature, the term Manis coexists with related etymological influences, such as the order name Pholidota, which stems from the ancient Greek pholis (φολίς), meaning "horny scale," combined with the suffix -ota to denote a group characterized by scaly features.^[7] This Greek-derived term underscores the pangolins' distinctive keratinous scales, complementing the Latin Manis by emphasizing morphology in higher taxonomic ranks while the genus focuses on behavioral allusion.

Classification

The genus Manis belongs to the order Pholidota, the family Manidae, and the subfamily Maninae, which is the sole extant subfamily dedicated to Asian pangolins.^[8]^[9] This classification positions Manis as one of three recognized genera in the family Manidae, alongside the African genera Phataginus—which includes arboreal, tree-dwelling species—and Smutsia, comprising larger terrestrial species.^[9]^[10] Historically, pangolin taxonomy underwent significant revisions in the post-2010s, driven by morphological analyses and genetic data from complete mitogenomes and nuclear genes, which supported the distinct placement of Asian species within Manis separate from African lineages.^[9] These studies revealed deep genetic divergences, with mitogenomic distances of 18.3–22.8% between genera, and unique morphological traits, such as scale patterns and skeletal features, further justifying the separation.^[9] The subfamily Maninae remains monotypic, encompassing only the genus Manis and its four Asian species, underscoring the phylogenetic isolation of Asian pangolins from their African counterparts.^[9]^[8]

Species

The genus Manis includes four extant species of pangolins, all native to Asia and distinguished by their keratinous scales, elongated snouts, and specialized claws for digging and foraging. These species exhibit variations in size, scale patterns, and regional adaptations, with recent molecular studies confirming their taxonomic boundaries. The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), also known as the thick-tailed pangolin, inhabits South Asia and is characterized by its robust, thick tail that aids in balance and burrowing. Adults typically measure 60-75 cm in head-body length, with a tail of 40-55 cm, and weigh 9-18 kg..pdf)^[2] The Palawan pangolin (Manis culionensis), the smallest Asian pangolin species, is endemic to the Palawan Islands in the Philippines and features a high number of scale rows (up to 19 on the body) compared to other Manis species. It has a head-body length of 45-54 cm, a tail of 39-50 cm, and weighs 2.5-8 kg.^[11]^[12] The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) is widespread across Southeast Asia and shows adaptability to diverse forested environments, with a relatively large body size and rounded scales that are olive to reddish-brown. Adults reach a head-body length of 40-65 cm, a tail of 35-58 cm, and weigh 3-10 kg.^[13]^[14] The Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) occupies the northernmost range among Asian pangolins, extending into southern China and northern India, and is notable for its five-toed feet that facilitate movement in varied terrains. It measures 48-58 cm in head-body length and weighs 1.8-7 kg.^[15]^[16] Recent genetic analyses, including complete mitogenome sequencing and nuclear gene data, have confirmed the distinction of M. culionensis as a separate species from M. javanica, resolving prior taxonomic uncertainties based on morphological similarities.^[9]

Phylogeny

Evolutionary history

The order Pholidota, encompassing the genus Manis, originated in the Eocene epoch approximately 47 million years ago, with the earliest fossils indicating a Laurasian cradle in Europe. The middle Eocene Messel Pit deposits in Germany have yielded Eomanis waldi and Euromanis krebsi, primitive pangolins that retained vestigial teeth; E. waldi displayed incipient keratinous scales, while Eu. krebsi lacked scales, marking the initial evolutionary steps toward the edentulous, scale-armored form seen in later taxa.^[17] These specimens highlight an early diversification within forested Paleogene environments of northern continents.^[7] By the late Eocene (about 37 million years ago), pholidotans had dispersed across Laurasia, reaching North America as documented by Patriomanis americana from Chadronian strata in Wyoming, USA. This species exhibits key advancements, including complete tooth loss and a robust forelimb morphology suited for excavating ant nests, foreshadowing the myrmecophagous lifestyle of modern Manis. Concurrently, the late Eocene Shara Murun locality in Inner Mongolia, China, preserves Cryptomanis gobiensis, an early Asian representative that bridges European origins with eastern dispersals, suggesting transcontinental migration via land bridges during a period of global cooling.^[18]^[19] The Miocene epoch (23–5 million years ago) witnessed further migration and radiation toward southern Asia, driven by middle Miocene climatic shifts that contracted European tropical habitats and facilitated southward movement into subtropical zones. This period marks the emergence of the modern genus Manis through adaptive specialization, with fossils from European Miocene sites like Necromanis illustrating transitional scale development and skeletal refinements for cursorial and fossorial behaviors. Pliocene records from Asia, including fragmentary Manis remains in Chinese deposits, reveal advanced keratinous scale overlap for defense, aligning closely with extant Asian species and underscoring a rapid post-Eocene evolution in diverse habitats.^[20]^[21] Post-Eocene dispersals from Laurasia enabled adaptive radiations, with the Asian Manis lineage establishing dominance in eastern tropics while African relatives diverged around 33 million years ago (95% HPD 30–40 million years ago), as inferred from molecular phylogenies and spatiotemporal fossil patterns spanning the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. This split supported continent-specific evolutions, such as enhanced scale keratinization in Asian forms amid intensifying predation pressures.^[22]^[7]

Phylogenetic position

The genus Manis represents the Asian pangolin lineage within the order Pholidota, occupying a basal position as the oldest extant clade in the family Manidae based on molecular phylogenies.^[9] Mitochondrial DNA analyses estimate the divergence of Manis from the African pangolin genera (Phataginus and Smutsia) around 33 million years ago (95% HPD 30–40 million years ago), marking a deep split during the Eocene-Oligocene transition.^[22] In the broader eutherian mammal phylogeny, Pholidota—including Manis—forms the sister group to Carnivora within the mirorder Ferae, a relationship robustly supported by whole-genome sequencing and comparative cytogenetics.^[23]^[24] Key molecular markers, such as shared retroposon insertions unique to Ferae, provide independent confirmation of this grouping by demonstrating common ancestry through rare genomic events absent in other laurasiatherians.^[25] Fossil records of early pholidotans align with this molecular evidence of an ancient divergence.^[9]

Physical characteristics

External morphology

Pangolins of the genus Manis are distinguished by their unique external covering of keratinous scales, which form a protective armor composed of modified hairs embedded in the dermis. These scales, made primarily of keratin similar to human fingernails, cover the entire dorsal and lateral surfaces of the body, comprising nearly 100% of the external surface except for the soft, sparsely haired underside and the inner sides of the limbs.^[26] The scales are arranged in transverse rows along the body, with variations by species; for instance, the Indian pangolin (M. crassicaudata) typically features 11–13 rows, the Chinese pangolin (M. pentadactyla) 15–18 rows, the Sunda pangolin (M. javanica) 15–19 rows, and the Philippine pangolin (M. culionensis) 19–21 rows, while the total number of scales ranges from 444 to 532 across the body and tail. This imbricated arrangement allows flexibility while providing robust defense; when threatened, pangolins curl into a tight ball, exposing only the hard scales to deter predators.^[26] The head of Manis species is characterized by a long, tubular snout that can extend up to 20% of the total head length, adapted for probing into ant and termite nests. Eyes are small and recessed, protected by thick eyelids to shield against insect stings during foraging, contributing to their reliance on keen senses of smell and hearing over vision. External ears are absent, with auditory openings flush against the scaled head, yet pangolins possess sensitive hearing for detecting low-frequency sounds.^[27]^[26] The tail in Manis species measures 30-50% of the head-body length, varying by habitat; for example, in semi-arboreal species like the Sunda pangolin (M. javanica), it is prehensile, aiding in climbing and balance among trees, while in terrestrial forms it serves as a prop during upright movement. Forelimbs are short and muscular, equipped with three prominent, curved claws on digits II-IV for powerful digging into soil and mounds, with the first and fifth digits bearing smaller claws; hindlimbs, by contrast, have shorter nails suited for locomotion and support. Adult body weight ranges from 1.8 to 16 kg across Manis species, with smaller forms like the Chinese pangolin (M. pentadactyla) at 2–7 kg and larger ones like the Indian pangolin (M. crassicaudata) at 10–16 kg.^[1]^[26]

Internal anatomy

Pangolins of the genus Manis are edentulous mammals, lacking teeth entirely, which is an adaptation to their myrmecophagous diet of ants and termites. Instead of mastication, they rely on powerful gastric juices and ingested stones for digestion. The stomach is divided into two chambers: a larger storage compartment comprising about 80% of the volume and a smaller muscular grinding chamber where small stones, along with the animal's keratinous scales, mechanically break down ingested insects. Gastric glands in the fundic and pyloric regions secrete acidic enzymes, including chitinase, which facilitate the dissolution of chitinous exoskeletons, enabling nutrient extraction despite the absence of dental structures.^[28]^[29]^[30] A hallmark of pangolin anatomy is the extraordinarily long tongue, measuring 16–40 cm in length and capable of extension up to 25 cm in adults, which is anchored caudally in a sac extending into the thoracic cavity and attached to the xiphisternum via muscles inserting on the xiphoid process. This structure allows the tongue to protrude far beyond the mouth for foraging, where it is coated in sticky saliva produced by enlarged salivary glands, including serous lingual glands at the tongue base and submandibular glands, aiding in the capture and adhesion of insects. The tongue's use in foraging underscores its role in lapping up prey from nests, with the sticky secretion preventing escape. The gastrointestinal tract is elongated, approximately nine times the body length, supporting extended enzymatic processing in the absence of teeth.^[31]^[28] The sensory systems of Manis species exhibit olfactory dominance, characterized by a well-developed main olfactory bulb and a large piriform cortex, occupying proportions typical of macrosmatic mammals that rely heavily on smell for locating prey and navigating. Large nasal cavities support this acuity, though specific measurements are limited; the accessory olfactory bulb is also prominent, with glomerular layers facilitating vomeronasal detection. In contrast, the visual cortex is reduced, with areas such as 17, 18, and 19 showing less prominence relative to olfactory regions, reflecting the nocturnal, burrow-dwelling lifestyle where vision plays a subordinate role to olfaction. Pangolins have enlarged olfactory bulbs relative to other mammals.^[32]^[33]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The genus Manis, comprising the Asian pangolins, is distributed across South and Southeast Asia, extending from Pakistan and the Indian subcontinent eastward through southern China, the Indochinese region, the Malay Peninsula, and the Greater Sunda Islands to the Philippines.^[34]^[35] Among the four species, the Indian pangolin (M. crassicaudata) occupies the Indian subcontinent, including Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.^[34]^[36] The Chinese pangolin (M. pentadactyla) ranges from the Himalayan foothills through northern India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, southern China (including Taiwan and Hainan), and into northern Indochina, encompassing parts of Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. Genetic studies published in 2025 have proposed a distinct phylogenetic species, Manis indoburmanica, within former parts of its range in India and Myanmar.^[34]^[37]^[38] The Sunda pangolin (M. javanica) is widespread in Southeast Asia, from eastern Bangladesh and Myanmar southward through Indochina (Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam), Peninsular Malaysia, and the Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java.^[34]^[39] The Philippine pangolin (M. culionensis) is endemic and restricted to Palawan Island and adjacent smaller islands in the western Philippines.^[34]^[40] Historical distributions of Manis species have undergone significant contractions primarily due to habitat loss from deforestation and agricultural expansion. For instance, the Chinese pangolin's range has contracted by over 50% since the 1970s in parts of its core distribution.^[41] Species ranges exhibit limited overlap in certain regions, such as in Myanmar where M. javanica and M. pentadactyla occur sympatrically in eastern and northern areas, respectively.^[42]

Habitat preferences

Pangolins of the genus Manis exhibit a strong preference for tropical and subtropical environments that provide ample soft or loamy soil suitable for burrowing, such as forests, savannas, grasslands, and edges of agricultural lands where termite and ant colonies are abundant. These habitats offer the necessary conditions for foraging on social insects and constructing burrows for shelter, with studies indicating that pangolins select sites near termite mounds, often within 20 meters, to minimize energy expenditure on foraging. High insect density is a critical factor, as these species rely almost exclusively on ants and termites, favoring areas with dense understory and moderate canopy cover (typically 51-75%) that supports insect proliferation while providing concealment from predators.^[43]^[44]^[45] Species-specific habitat use varies within the genus. The Sunda pangolin (M. javanica) displays semi-arboreal tendencies, utilizing trees and dense canopy forests for refuge and climbing with its prehensile tail, while also inhabiting secondary forests, scrublands, and human-modified landscapes like rubber and oil palm plantations up to 1,700 meters in elevation. In contrast, the Indian pangolin (M. crassicaudata) is predominantly terrestrial, preferring ground-level burrows in rocky or boulder-strewn areas within tropical dry forests, grasslands, and farmlands, where it digs into soft, wet soils under cover for protection. The Chinese pangolin (M. pentadactyla) similarly favors terrestrial burrows in a broader array of habitats, including bamboo forests and agricultural edges, but avoids highly disturbed or arid zones lacking sufficient moisture and insect prey.^[46]^[47]^[44]^[45]^[48] Across Manis species, altitudinal ranges extend from sea level to approximately 2,500 meters, with optimal elevations varying by region—such as 650-800 meters in Nepalese forests for M. pentadactyla or 1,300-1,700 meters in subtropical shrublands—where cooler temperatures and higher humidity support insect populations and vegetative cover for predator evasion. These preferences enable adaptation to moderately human-altered landscapes, like plantations and forest edges, provided soil remains friable and insect resources persist, though arid or heavily degraded zones are consistently avoided due to insufficient burrowing opportunities and prey availability.^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52]

Behavior and ecology

Activity and locomotion

Species of the genus Manis are strictly nocturnal, exhibiting peak activity between 2200 and 0400 hours, as observed in radio-tracked individuals of the Chinese pangolin (M. pentadactyla).^[53] During daylight hours, they remain inactive, resting in self-dug burrows or natural tree hollows to avoid predators and extreme temperatures.^[54] These pangolins employ quadrupedal locomotion, ambulating on the outer edges of their forelimbs—effectively knuckle-walking—to preserve the sharpness of their elongated claws for essential tasks like excavation and prey capture. This gait enables a top speed of approximately 5 km/h, sufficient for their secretive lifestyle but limiting rapid evasion.^[48] Morphological adaptations, such as robust forelimbs and curved claws, facilitate this efficient movement across varied terrains.^[55] Certain species demonstrate climbing proficiency, particularly the semi-arboreal Sunda pangolin (M. javanica) and Philippine pangolin (M. culionensis), which use their prehensile tails for balance and hooked claws to scale trees in search of refuge or resources.^[55] Ground-dwelling species like the Indian pangolin (M. crassicaudata) excel at digging, constructing burrows up to 3 m deep using powerful foreclaws to create secure shelters. Manis pangolins lead solitary lives, interacting primarily during mating seasons, with individuals maintaining exclusive home ranges that vary from 0.2 to 10 km² depending on species, sex, and habitat quality—for instance, translocated Sunda pangolins averaged 1.58 km², while Chinese pangolins utilized up to 7.8 km².^[56]^[53] Males typically occupy larger areas than females to encompass multiple potential mates' territories.^[48]

Foraging and diet

Pangolins of the genus Manis are obligate myrmecophages, with diets consisting primarily of ants and termites that comprise over 90% of their intake by biomass, supplemented occasionally by insect larvae, pupae, and other small invertebrates such as earthworms or flies.^[57] ^[58] This specialized insectivorous diet provides high protein and lipid content but low caloric density, necessitating high consumption volumes to meet energetic needs.^[58] No plant matter is included in their diet, reflecting their complete adaptation to myrmecophagy across all species.^[58] Foraging involves keen olfactory detection, where pangolins sniff the air and ground to locate ant and termite nests or colonies.^[59] They then use powerful, hooked foreclaws to excavate burrows or tear open mounds, often creating fossorial tunnels up to several meters long.^[60] A protrusible, sticky tongue—supported by anatomical adaptations like a specialized hyoid apparatus—extends to lap up prey, allowing extraction of thousands of insects in a single session.^[61] An adult pangolin may consume up to 70 million insects annually, equating to roughly 200,000 ants or termites per night during active foraging periods.^[61] ^[62] Dietary composition exhibits seasonal variations, with termite intake increasing during dry seasons when certain alate termite species become more abundant and accessible, while ants dominate in wetter periods.^[60] ^[63] To process this low-energy prey, pangolins rely on efficient digestion, including acidic mammalian chitinase enzymes for breaking down exoskeletons and microbial fermentation in the hindgut (colon) to extract additional nutrients from chitinous material.^[57] ^[64]

Defense mechanisms

Pangolins in the genus Manis primarily defend themselves by rolling into a tight ball, tucking their head beneath their tail and exposing only their keratinized scales, which form an impenetrable armor against most predators. This behavior is universal across species and is triggered by threats, allowing the animal to remain protected until the danger passes. The scales, composed of keratin and comprising 11-34% of body weight (e.g., 554 scales in Manis pentadactyla), overlap like roof tiles and project outward in this posture, deterring attempts to pry open the ball.^[65]^[66] Secondary defenses include the emission of a pungent secretion from anal glands, which can be sprayed to deter close-range attackers, similar to skunk spray. Some species also produce hissing sounds as an auditory warning, while rapid digging with powerful claws enables quick escape into burrows or soil. These tactics complement the primary rolling mechanism, particularly when the animal is unable to fully curl up.^[67]^[68]^[66] Camouflage aids in avoiding detection, with scale coloration ranging from dark brown to olive-brown, blending effectively with soil and leaf litter in their habitats. Nocturnal activity patterns further reduce encounters with diurnal predators by limiting visibility and overlap in active periods.^[65]^[67] Natural predators of Manis species include leopards, tigers, pythons, and occasionally feral dogs or other large carnivores, which may attempt to bite or claw at the armored ball but often abandon efforts due to the difficulty in accessing vulnerable undersides. Humans also prey on pangolins, though their defenses are less effective against tools. Juveniles exhibit higher vulnerability, as their scales are initially soft and incomplete, making them more susceptible to attacks during the period when they are carried on the mother's back.^[65]^[69]^[36]^[1]

Reproduction

Mating and courtship

Pangolins exhibit a primarily polygynous mating system, in which males mate with multiple females during the breeding period, while some females may engage in promiscuous copulation with more than one male, showing variable mate fidelity.^[70]^[71] This system is evident in species like the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), where genetic analyses reveal males siring offspring with several females in a single season, and females occasionally mating outside their primary pair.^[71] Males locate receptive females primarily through olfactory cues, such as pheromones from urine or defecation near burrows, tracking them for hours or days during estrus.^[72]^[73] Female estrus occurs episodically, with cycles reported every 2–5 months in some species; for instance, Indian pangolins (Manis crassicaudata) experience up to five estrous cycles per year, each lasting 11–26 days.^[36]^[74] Courtship behaviors are generally subdued and lack elaborate displays, reflecting the animals' solitary nature, though interactions can include following, approaching, and physical contact to assess receptivity. In captive and wild observations of the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), males initiate by persistently following females without extensive pre-mating rituals like sniffing, instead attempting to mount directly in a ventrolateral "side-ride" position after brief adjustments averaging about 5 minutes.^[75] For the Chinese pangolin, courtship may involve males licking the female's abdomen or gently scratching her tail to stimulate interest, with vocalizations such as low grunts, hisses, or snorts used during encounters to communicate intent or submission.^[76]^[77] These pre-copulatory phases typically last 1–3 days, during which females may initially reject advances by retreating into burrows or rolling into a defensive ball before accepting the male.^[74]^[73] Copulation itself is brief, often under a minute per bout, but pairs may repeat matings multiple times over the courtship period.^[75] Breeding seasonality varies across species, with some showing peaks aligned to environmental cues like monsoons. In the Indian pangolin, mating occurs primarily from July to October, coinciding with the monsoon season, while the Chinese pangolin breeds seasonally from November to March, driven by hormonal surges in estradiol and testosterone.^[78]^[70] The Sunda pangolin, however, displays aseasonal reproduction, with matings observed year-round, peaking nocturnally between 19:00 and 03:00.^[75] Sexual size dimorphism is minimal to moderate, with males typically 10–50% heavier than females across species, though up to 90% in Indian pangolins; this slight disparity does not strongly influence courtship but may aid in male-male competitions.^[79]^[80] Aggression between males is common during breeding encounters, involving fights over access to females, which can result in injuries and is observed in both wild and captive settings.^[81]^[74]

Gestation and birth

The gestation period in pangolins (Manis spp.) varies across species, typically ranging from 130 to 200 days, with some reports indicating longer durations up to 372 days potentially due to embryonic diapause or delayed implantation.^[74]^[82]^[83] For the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), estimates fall between 130–214 days on average, though observations suggest variability.^[74]^[82] The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) has a gestation averaging around 176–188 days (range 130–214 days).^[83]^[84] Data for the Indian (Manis crassicaudata) and Philippine (Manis culionensis) pangolins are more limited, with estimates ranging from 65–251 days and 90–180 days, respectively, often based on captive observations.^[36]^[12] This physiological adaptation allows flexibility in reproductive timing, influenced by environmental factors and lactation. Pangolin offspring are born altricial, meaning they are underdeveloped and helpless at birth, with litter sizes generally consisting of one pup, though up to three have been recorded in some Asian species.^[74]^[85] Newborns measure about 15 cm in length and weigh 80–450 g, featuring soft, pale scales composed of keratin that harden and darken within 1–2 days after birth, providing initial protection as they develop.^[27]^[85] Births occur in secluded burrows or dens, offering safety from predators during this vulnerable stage.^[74] The placenta in pangolins is a simple, diffuse epitheliochorial structure that facilitates nutrient exchange without deep invasion of maternal tissues, and some species, such as the Chinese pangolin, exhibit delayed implantation where embryos remain dormant for several months before attaching to the uterine wall.^[86]^[82] Maternal investment in pangolins is notably high, with females dedicating significant resources to a single reproductive event per year, reflecting the altricial nature of offspring that require prolonged nursing.^[73] Genetic studies indicate no evidence of multiple paternity within litters, consistent with observed monogamous or low-promiscuity mating patterns that align with this intensive parental strategy.^[87]

Parental care

Female pangolins exhibit a single-parent family structure, with no involvement from males in the care or rearing of offspring.^[84]^[79] Following birth, the mother carries the juvenile on her tail for approximately 3-4 months during the early dependency period, providing protection and mobility while foraging.^[84]^[88] Pangolin milk is notably rich in fats, comprising about 31% on a dry matter basis, which supports the rapid growth of the young during lactation.^[58] Weaning typically occurs between 3 and 6 months of age, depending on the species and environmental conditions, after which the juveniles begin transitioning to solid foods like ants and termites.^[36]^[89] Juveniles achieve independence between 8 and 12 months, separating from the mother to establish their own territories, though they may remain in proximity to the natal range initially.^[36] Sexual maturity is reached at 1–2 years of age, marking the end of extended maternal influence.^[36] Juvenile survival rates are low, primarily due to predation and risks of malnutrition during the post-weaning phase.^[90]

Conservation

IUCN status

All species in the genus Manis are classified as threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, with the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), Philippine pangolin (M. culionensis), and Sunda pangolin (M. javanica) listed as Critically Endangered, and the Indian pangolin (M. crassicaudata) as Endangered; these assessments were conducted in 2019.^[35]^[91]^[14]^[92] An August 2025 IUCN report confirmed that all eight pangolin species, including the four Manis species, remain at high risk of extinction due to overexploitation and habitat loss, but highlighted significant data and reporting gaps that hinder updated assessments and global protection efforts.^[3] The Critically Endangered designations for M. culionensis and M. pentadactyla stem primarily from rampant poaching driven by demand for scales and meat in illegal wildlife trade, leading to inferred population reductions exceeding 80% over the past three generations (approximately 21 years).^[91] Similarly, M. javanica faces Critically Endangered status due to poaching, with comparable decline rates based on trade volume analyses.^[14] For M. crassicaudata, the Endangered classification reflects ongoing poaching impacts, resulting in an estimated 50% population decline over three generations.^[92] These decline estimates, ranging from 50% to 80% across the genus over three generations, are derived from extensive records of seizures and reported trade volumes, highlighting the scale of exploitation despite enforcement challenges.^[91]^[48] All Manis species, along with other pangolins, were transferred to Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) effective January 2017, prohibiting commercial international trade to curb poaching pressures.^[93] In June 2025, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed listing seven pangolin species, including all four Manis species, as endangered under the Endangered Species Act.^[48]

Threats

The primary threat to Manis species, the Asian pangolins, is the illegal wildlife trade, driven predominantly by demand for their scales in traditional medicine and their meat as bushmeat. Globally, seizures of pangolin scales reached up to 100,000 kg annually during peak years between 2010 and 2020, with over 185,000 kg confiscated worldwide from 2014 to 2018 alone, equivalent to approximately 370,000 individuals based on average scale yield per animal.^[94] In Asia, scales are prized for purported medicinal properties in regions like China and Vietnam, while meat consumption contributes to local hunting pressures, particularly in Southeast Asian markets.^[95] This trade has intensified poaching across their range, exacerbating population declines for species such as the critically endangered Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) and Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica). Habitat fragmentation poses a significant ongoing risk, primarily through deforestation in Southeast Asia, where forest loss occurs at rates of 1-2% annually, severely reducing available foraging grounds for these ground-dwelling insectivores.^[96] Agricultural expansion further fragments habitats by converting forests into croplands and plantations, isolating pangolin populations and limiting their access to ant and termite prey.^[97] These activities, concentrated in countries like Indonesia and Malaysia, disrupt the pangolins' nocturnal, solitary lifestyles and increase vulnerability to other pressures. Secondary threats include roadkill, incidental capture in snares, and broader land-use changes. As urbanization expands road networks, slow-moving pangolins face heightened mortality from vehicle collisions, particularly in fragmented landscapes like those in Singapore and peninsular Malaysia.^[98] Incidental snaring, often set for other species such as wild boar, frequently entraps pangolins, leading to injury or death without targeted intent.^[99] Climate change has minimal direct impacts on Manis populations but indirectly worsens habitat loss in northern ranges, such as for the Chinese pangolin, by altering vegetation patterns and intensifying deforestation through shifting agricultural viability.^[100] All Manis species are classified by the IUCN as Endangered or Critically Endangered, underscoring the cumulative severity of these threats.

Conservation measures

All eight pangolin species (across genera Manis, Phataginus, and Smutsia), including the four Manis species, were transferred to Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 2017, prohibiting international commercial trade and requiring enhanced enforcement measures to curb illegal trafficking.^[101]^[102] This uplisting has led to increased seizures of pangolin derivatives, with organizations like TRAFFIC and the Environmental Investigation Agency documenting nearly 300 tonnes of scales intercepted globally since 2017, alongside efforts to improve risk-profiling and border controls.^[103]^[104] The Pangolin Specialist Group, under the IUCN Species Survival Commission, developed the first global conservation action plan for pangolins in 2017, emphasizing trade reduction through coordinated international monitoring, capacity building in range states, and habitat protection strategies.^[105] A September 2025 report by the group reiterated that all pangolin species remain at risk and called for stronger global action to address persistent trafficking and declines.^[106] At the national level, China implemented a comprehensive ban on the illegal trade and consumption of pangolins and their parts in February 2020, elevating their protection status to Class I and removing scales from the official Traditional Chinese Medicine Pharmacopoeia in June 2020 to eliminate demand in medicinal practices.^[107]^[108] In India, both the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) and Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) are listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, affording them the highest level of legal protection against hunting, trade, and habitat disturbance.^[2]^[109] Captive breeding programs, such as the one at Taipei Zoo in Taiwan, have achieved notable success with the Chinese pangolin, recording 22 viable births from 1997 to 2023 through advancements in diet formulation and reproductive management.^[110] Community-based initiatives in Southeast Asia focus on awareness and direct protection. In Vietnam, organizations like Save Vietnam's Wildlife operate education centers, such as the Carnivore and Pangolin Education Centre at Cuc Phuong National Park, where programs target local communities and schools to reduce poaching by promoting the ecological value of pangolins and alternatives to wildlife consumption.^[111]^[112] Similar efforts in Indonesia, including those by the Wildlife Conservation Society, incorporate community outreach for the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), emphasizing anti-trafficking education to foster local stewardship.^[113] In the Philippines, anti-poaching patrols in Palawan, led by groups like the Palawan Council for Sustainable Development and local indigenous communities, conduct regular habitat surveys and enforcement to safeguard the Philippine pangolin (Manis culionensis) from illegal hunting.^[114]^[115] Research efforts support conservation through non-invasive monitoring and rehabilitation. Camera trapping has emerged as a key method for estimating pangolin populations, with studies in India and Africa demonstrating its efficacy in detecting elusive species like the Indian pangolin by targeting burrows and trails, yielding density estimates in fragmented habitats.^[116]^[117] In Southeast Asia, rehabilitation centers such as those run by Wildlife Alliance in Cambodia and Save Vietnam's Wildlife provide care for confiscated Sunda and Chinese pangolins, focusing on health assessments, soft-release protocols, and post-release tracking to improve survival rates before reintroduction to the wild.^[118]^[111]

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Because weaning of the wild Chinese pangolin typically occurs at 5–6 months ... Our findings suggest that pangolin captive breeding and reintroduction ...Missing: estrus | Show results with:estrus
[113]
visiting vietnam's first carnivore and pangolin education centre
The Carnivore and Pangolin Education Centre was opened in February 2016 and is managed by Save Vietnam's Wildlife in cooperation with Cuc Phuong National Park.Missing: Indonesia | Show results with:Indonesia
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Thai Van Nguyen: Protecting the Pangolin, the World's Most ...
Jun 21, 2021 · We built and ran the first Pangolin Conservation Education Center in Vietnam so that children (and also adults) can come to learn, experience, ...
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Sunda Pangolin - Love the Last
Conservation of the Sunda pangolin depends on a network of projects that combine rescue and rehabilitation, law enforcement, and public education. Programs led ...
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Palawan Pangolin (Manis Culionensis) Protecting Treasure
Jan 24, 2025 · What is being done to protect the Palawan pangolin? Conservation efforts include anti-poaching campaigns, habitat protection, and education ...Table Of Contents · Conservation Efforts To... · Faqs
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Finding Balintong in Palawan - ZSL
Feb 16, 2019 · This project aims to reduce balintong poaching and trafficking through evidence-based conservation planning, local site-based protection, ...Community Pangolin... · Working With Local... · Philippines Pangolin...Missing: anti- patrols<|separator|>
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The applicability of camera trap data to monitor the cryptic Indian ...
We further demonstrated the applicability of using camera trap data to estimate the population density of pangolins by fitting a Binomial-Poisson mixture model ...
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[PDF] Methods for monitoring populations of pangolins (Pholidota: Manidae)
In some instances applicable methods have been combined (e.g., burrow counts and camera trapping) and for a number of methods application is dependent on the ...
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Pangolin Conservation - Wildlife Alliance
Apr 2, 2024 · The Sunda pangolin is considered to be the most trafficked mammal in the world. Wildlife Alliance has been saving Sunda Pangolins from.