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Tallgrass prairie

The tallgrass prairie is a temperate grassland ecosystem native to central North America, characterized by dense stands of perennial grasses reaching heights of 5 to 10 feet (1.5 to 3 meters) and a diverse array of wildflowers known as forbs, with trees largely absent or scattered.^[1]^[2] This ecosystem thrives in regions with fertile mollisol soils, annual precipitation of 25 to 40 inches (64 to 102 cm), and a continental climate featuring hot summers and cold winters, where moisture levels support tall vegetation in areas too dry for forests but wetter than shortgrass prairies to the west.^[3]^[1] Historically, the tallgrass prairie spanned over 142 million acres (57 million hectares) across portions of 14 U.S. states and parts of Canada, forming a vast "sea of grass" from the Mississippi River valley eastward to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains and from southern Manitoba to northern Texas.^[4] It supported immense biodiversity, including 40 to 60 species of grasses comprising about 80% of the above-ground biomass, over 300 forb species, and complex underground root systems that account for up to 75% of the plant biomass and extend 7 to 15 feet (2 to 5 meters) deep to access water and nutrients.^[1]^[2] Wildlife was equally abundant, with historical populations of 30 to 60 million bison, along with elk, wolves, prairie chickens, and countless insects and microorganisms forming a intricate food web.^[1]^[3] Ecologically, tallgrass prairies are disturbance-dependent systems maintained by periodic fires—occurring every 1 to 5 years—and grazing by large herbivores, which prevent woody plant encroachment, recycle nutrients through deep roots and mycorrhizal fungi, and promote species diversity.^[1]^[2] These processes, combined with post-glacial soil development around 8,300 years ago, created one of the world's most productive and resilient ecosystems, often compared in complexity to tropical rainforests above ground and below.^[2] Today, however, less than 4% of the original tallgrass prairie remains intact, primarily due to agricultural conversion starting in the 19th century, with the largest contiguous remnant in Kansas's Flint Hills region exceeding 4 million acres (1.6 million hectares).^[1] Conservation efforts, including prescribed burns and restoration projects in national preserves and state parks, aim to preserve this endangered biome and its ecological services, such as soil stabilization, water filtration, and carbon sequestration.^[1]^[2]

Characteristics

Vegetation and Flora

The tallgrass prairie is characterized by a dominance of perennial warm-season grasses that form the structural backbone of the ecosystem. The most prominent species include big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), which can reach heights of up to 8 feet (2.4 meters), indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans) at 4–7 feet (1.2–2.1 meters), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) up to 6 feet (1.8 meters), and little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) at 2–4 feet (0.6–1.2 meters).^[5]^[3] These grasses typically comprise 80% of the vegetation cover, with 40–60 grass species contributing to the overall composition.^[6] Interspersed among the grasses are diverse forbs and wildflowers, accounting for approximately 20% of the plant cover and encompassing over 300 species. Notable examples include asters (Symphyotrichum spp.), goldenrods (Solidago spp.), sunflowers (Helianthus spp.), and milkweeds (Asclepias spp.), which add color and ecological variety through their blooms.^[6]^[3] Tree cover is minimal, typically less than 5–11%, consisting of scattered bur oaks (Quercus macrocarpa) and other hardwoods, which helps distinguish the prairie from adjacent oak savannas where canopy density is higher.^[7]^[8] These plants exhibit distinct seasonal growth patterns, with warm-season grasses peaking in height and productivity during summer months under optimal temperatures and sunlight.^[3] Their extensive root systems, often extending 10–15 feet (3–4.5 meters) deep, enhance drought resistance by accessing subsoil moisture and stabilizing the rich, loamy soils typical of the region.^[9] In undisturbed areas, biodiversity is high, supporting up to 100 plant species per acre, reflecting the ecosystem's capacity for species richness in small-scale patches.

Fauna and Biodiversity

The tallgrass prairie supports a rich and varied fauna, encompassing invertebrates, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals that interact within a complex food web. This diversity underscores the ecosystem's role as one of the most biodiverse temperate grasslands, where animal species contribute to nutrient cycling, pollination, and soil aeration.^[1]^[10] Mammals form a key component of the prairie fauna, with over 30 species documented in remnant areas such as the Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve.^[11] Large herbivores like the American bison (Bison bison) and elk (Cervus canadensis) graze on grasses, shaping the landscape and promoting vegetation regrowth, while the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) creates burrows that enhance soil turnover and provide habitat for other species.^[12] Approximately 15 small mammal species, including the meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) and deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), inhabit the understory, serving as primary consumers and prey for predators.^[13]^[14] Bird communities in the tallgrass prairie exceed 200 species, many of which are grassland obligates that nest and forage amid the tall vegetation.^[15] Notable examples include the greater prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus cupido), which performs elaborate lek displays in open patches, and the bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), a migratory species that weaves nests into dense grass stems.^[16] Other specialists, such as the northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) and eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna), rely on the prairie's structure for cover and insect foraging, with populations monitored to assess habitat quality.^[17]^[18] Reptiles and amphibians number over 40 species in the Flint Hills region of the tallgrass prairie, adapted to the variable microhabitats created by topography and moisture.^[15] The ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata), a terrestrial species that burrows for hibernation, and the bullsnake (Pituophis catenifer), a non-venomous constrictor that preys on rodents, exemplify the herpetofauna's dependence on undisturbed grasslands for thermoregulation and hunting.^[19] Invertebrates, though less visible, underpin the prairie's biodiversity as pollinators and decomposers, with butterflies like the endangered Dakota skipper (Hesperia dacotae) restricted to high-quality native grasslands dominated by bluestem species.^[20] These insects, along with bees and other pollinators, support plant reproduction and serve as bioindicators of ecosystem integrity, with their presence signaling minimal disturbance from fragmentation or invasive species.^[21]^[22] Overall, the tallgrass prairie harbors over 100 animal species alongside up to 300 plants in its remnant patches, fostering a temperate ecosystem of exceptional richness with few true endemics but many specialist taxa that indicate habitat health.^[1] Species such as the greater prairie-chicken and Dakota skipper are particularly sensitive to alterations in grass structure, making them reliable monitors of prairie condition.^[23] Fauna communities depend on the underlying vegetation for essential habitat elements, including nesting sites and foraging areas within the grass matrix.^[1]

Geography

Historical Extent

The tallgrass prairie originally encompassed approximately 170 million acres (69 million hectares) across 14 U.S. states, stretching from Illinois and Indiana in the east to Minnesota and North Dakota in the north, and southward to Texas, with an additional extent into Manitoba, Canada.^[1]^[24] This vast ecosystem formed in the wake of the last glacial retreat, which occurred around 10,000 years ago, with the tallgrass prairie itself becoming established between 5,000 and 8,000 years ago as climatic conditions stabilized and grasslands expanded across the mid-continent.^[25]^[26] Climatic conditions were ideally suited to the tallgrass prairie's development, featuring annual precipitation of 25 to 40 inches (635 to 1,016 mm), which supported the growth of deep-rooted perennial grasses reaching heights of 6 to 8 feet.^[27]^[3] The region's fertile soils, primarily mollisols formed from loess deposits and glacial till, exhibited high organic content—often exceeding 5% in the top horizons—derived from centuries of grass decomposition and contributing to their exceptional productivity.^[28]^[29] These soils, deep and well-drained, blanketed the landscape, enabling the prairie to thrive on level to gently rolling terrain left by glacial activity. Regionally, the tallgrass prairie exhibited variations tied to precipitation gradients, with wetter eastern portions supporting denser, taller vegetation while the western edges transitioned into mixed-grass prairies as rainfall decreased below 25 inches annually.^[30] Boundaries were further shaped by natural fire suppression along major rivers, such as the Mississippi and Ohio, which acted as barriers preventing fires from encroaching into surrounding deciduous forests and thus maintaining the prairie's distinct expanse.^[31] Pre-settlement, this formed a continuous sea of grass visible from horizon to horizon, sustaining massive bison herds estimated in the tens of millions that roamed and shaped the landscape through grazing.^[1]^[32]

Current Distribution and Boundaries

The tallgrass prairie, once vast across central North America, now persists in less than 4% of its original extent, totaling approximately 6.8 million acres of fragmented remnants, with the majority degraded and less than 1% remaining fully intact.^[1] This drastic reduction stems primarily from agricultural conversion, shifting the ecosystem's boundaries from a continuous landscape to isolated patches scattered amid croplands and developed areas.^[33] The largest concentrations of remaining tallgrass prairie occur in the Flint Hills region of Kansas, encompassing about 4 million acres of predominantly unplowed grassland due to rocky soils that resisted cultivation. Significant remnants also exist in the Osage Plains of Oklahoma, including the 39,650-acre Joseph H. Williams Tallgrass Prairie Preserve managed by The Nature Conservancy.^[34] In Iowa, the Loess Hills preserve some of the state's largest prairie patches, while in Canada, the Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie Preserve protects over 5,800 hectares in southeastern Manitoba.^[35]^[36] Ecologically, the tallgrass prairie's boundaries are delineated by annual precipitation gradients, with the core region receiving 25 to 40 inches, and the western edge aligning roughly with the 25- to 30-inch isohyet that transitions to mixed- and shortgrass prairies.^[37] Contemporary boundaries are further constrained by urban sprawl and expansive cropland, which encroach on peripheral areas and exacerbate isolation.^[38] Fragmentation has resulted in an average remnant patch size of around 60 acres, amplifying edge effects such as invasive species encroachment and altered microclimates that threaten biodiversity.^[39] Notable protected areas include the 10,894-acre Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve in Kansas, one of the largest intact examples.^[40] Recent mapping efforts classify the tallgrass prairie within World Wildlife Fund ecoregions such as the Central Tallgrass Prairie (NA0818), with GIS analyses revealing near-total conversion—over 99% in Iowa and Illinois—highlighting the ecosystem's vulnerability.^[41]^[42]

Ecology

Ecosystem Dynamics

The ecosystem dynamics of the tallgrass prairie are characterized by intricate processes of nutrient cycling that sustain high productivity and biodiversity. Legumes such as leadplant (Amorpha canescens) and wild indigo (Baptisia spp.) play a key role in nitrogen fixation through symbiotic relationships with Rhizobium bacteria, contributing biologically fixed nitrogen to the soil and alleviating nitrogen limitation in this fire-prone system.^[43]^[44] Deep-rooted grasses and forbs, extending up to several meters into the soil, facilitate phosphorus recycling by accessing subsoil reserves and returning nutrients to the surface via root turnover and decomposition, enhancing nutrient availability in nutrient-poor Mollisols typical of the prairie.^[45]^[46] This annual turnover through rapid decomposition of aboveground and belowground litter supports peak standing biomass of approximately 400–600 g/m², enabling the system's resilience to environmental stresses. Recent studies as of 2025 highlight how rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns are influencing vegetation dynamics, water use efficiency, and carbon sequestration in tallgrass prairies, potentially reducing resilience to disturbances.^[47]^[48]^[49] Energy flow through the tallgrass prairie follows a classic trophic structure, with primary producers—dominated by C4 grasses like big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and forbs—forming the base and capturing solar energy at rates of net primary production (NPP) ranging from 600–1,000 g/m²/year, often exceeding that of temperate forests due to efficient regrowth and high turnover.^[50]^[51] Herbivores, including insects, prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus), and historically bison (Bison bison), consume a portion of this production, while top predators such as coyotes (Canis latrans) and red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) regulate herbivore populations. Detritivores, comprising soil invertebrates, fungi, and bacteria, process the majority—up to 90%—of net primary production through decomposition of litter, channeling nutrients back into the soil and supporting secondary production across trophic levels.^[52]^[53]^[54] Succession in the tallgrass prairie is maintained as a dynamic mosaic by recurrent disturbances, which prevent progression toward woody dominance and preserve herbaceous diversity. Without such disturbances, early successional graminoids and forbs give way to shrubs and trees, as seen in unburned areas where woody invasion reduces native species richness; instead, the prairie exhibits a patchwork of seral stages that fosters habitat heterogeneity.^[55]^[56] Hydrological processes, including seasonal wetting and drying cycles, create ephemeral wetlands that enhance biodiversity by providing moist refugia for amphibians, invertebrates, and wetland-adapted plants during wet periods, while dry phases promote drought-tolerant species.^[57]^[58] Soil microbes, including bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi, are pivotal in driving carbon sequestration. Grasslands store approximately one-third of global terrestrial carbon stocks, with tallgrass prairies contributing significantly to U.S. soil carbon pools through enhanced microbial activity and root exudates that form stable soil aggregates.^[59]^[60] These microorganisms facilitate belowground carbon inputs exceeding aboveground production in some cases, bolstering the prairie's role as a long-term carbon sink amid varying climatic conditions.^[61]^[62]

Role of Fire and Grazing

The tallgrass prairie ecosystem relies on periodic fires as a primary disturbance regime to maintain its grassland structure and prevent succession to woodland. Historically, fires occurred at intervals of 1 to 10 years, with some sites experiencing burns as frequently as every 2 to 3 years, ignited primarily by lightning during the growing season or by human activity in spring and fall.^[63] These fires top-kill woody plants, inhibiting the establishment and spread of trees and shrubs that would otherwise encroach on the prairie, while also consuming accumulated litter to recycle nutrients back into the soil through ash deposition.^[64] Additionally, the heat from fires stimulates the resprouting of native grasses from protected underground rhizomes and buds, promoting vigorous regrowth of dominant species like big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and enhancing overall productivity.^[63] Grazing by large herbivores, particularly American bison (Bison bison), has been integral to tallgrass prairie dynamics, with historical populations estimated at 30 to 60 million across North America shaping the landscape through intensive foraging.^[65] Bison herds created heterogeneous patch mosaics by selectively grazing recently burned or lush areas, which reduced litter buildup that could otherwise smother seedlings and suppress diversity. Their foraging patterns favored a mix of grasses and forbs, preventing dominance by a few tall grass species and supporting a broader array of herbaceous plants through trampling and soil compaction that aided seed germination.^[66] The synergy between fire and grazing amplifies their individual effects, forming a coupled disturbance process essential to prairie maintenance. Burns attract grazing animals to nutrient-rich new shoots emerging post-fire, concentrating herbivory in recently disturbed patches and further preventing woody invasion while distributing nutrients via dung.^[66] Suppression of either disturbance—such as through fire exclusion—leads to significant declines in ecosystem vigor, including up to 50% reductions in aboveground biomass and shifts toward less productive, litter-dominated states that favor invasives over native flora.^[67] In modern restoration efforts, prescribed burns mimic historical regimes, typically conducted at flame temperatures of 300 to 500°F for durations of 1 to 2 hours per unit to safely clear litter and stimulate growth without excessive soil heating.^[64] Rotational grazing with bison or cattle replicates herd movements, applying targeted pressure to burned patches to foster spatial heterogeneity and avoid overgrazing.^[66] These disturbances collectively sustain high levels of plant diversity, supporting over 300 species in well-managed tallgrass sites by curbing competitive exclusion and creating varied successional stages. They also aid in controlling invasive species, such as sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata), whose seedlings and resprouts are vulnerable to post-burn grazing and repeated fire exposure, thereby preserving native community integrity.^[68]^[66]

History

Geological Formation

The tallgrass prairie began forming approximately 10,000 years ago, following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation, which had covered much of the central North American interior until around 11,000 years ago.^[69] During the preceding late glacial period, from about 20,000 to 12,000 years ago, wind-blown silt known as loess was deposited across the landscape, originating from exposed glacial outwash plains and river valleys in the Great Plains region.^[70] These loess deposits, often several meters thick, provided the parent material for the fertile soils that would support prairie vegetation as post-glacial warming progressed. The soils of the tallgrass prairie are predominantly mollisols, characterized by a thick, dark-colored A-horizon enriched with organic matter from decomposing prairie grasses, typically reaching up to 2 feet (60 cm) in depth.^[71] These soils exhibit high base saturation—often exceeding 50%—and a neutral to slightly alkaline pH range of 6 to 7, contributing to their exceptional fertility and ability to retain nutrients.^[72] In the northern portions of the prairie, soils developed over glacial till from the Wisconsinan advance, while southern areas feature alluvium deposited by rivers in floodplain settings.^[29] The landscape of the tallgrass prairie consists of flat to gently rolling plains, shaped by glacial scouring and deposition, with occasional pothole wetlands formed from meltwater basins in the northern glaciated zones.^[73] This topography, combined with a regional balance of annual rainfall (typically 25-40 inches) and soil moisture retention in the deep mollisols, facilitated the growth of tall grasses reaching 6-10 feet in height during wetter seasons.^[24] Subsequent paleoclimate shifts, particularly the warmer and drier Holocene hypsithermal interval from about 8,000 to 5,000 years ago, promoted eastward expansion of prairie ecosystems into areas previously dominated by deciduous forests.^[31]

Indigenous Management and Pre-Settlement

Human presence in the tallgrass prairie region dates back at least 12,000 years, with evidence of Paleo-Indian hunters utilizing the landscape for megafauna such as mammoths and giant bison. Mound-builder cultures of the Woodland (c. 1000 BCE–1000 CE) and Mississippian (c. 800–1600 CE) periods intensified land use through earthwork construction and village settlements in fertile river valleys, influencing prairie edges but primarily maintaining the grassland expanse.^[74] Key tribes inhabiting the tallgrass prairie before European contact included the Sioux (Lakota and Dakota), Pawnee, Osage, and Iowa, who adapted to the ecosystem's resources for sustenance and mobility. These groups viewed the prairies as integral to their way of life, reflected in oral histories that describe the grasslands as enduring, life-sustaining landscapes central to tribal identity and spirituality.^[75] Indigenous peoples employed the tallgrass prairie for hunting large game like bison, elk, and deer, as well as for agriculture in suitable areas. The Pawnee and Osage cultivated corn, beans, and squash in river valley bottoms, where alluvial soils supported mound-based farming techniques that minimized soil disturbance, precursors to modern no-till methods.^[76] Hunting was rotational, with tribes using seasonal migrations to avoid overexploitation, allowing herd recovery while following bison patterns across the landscape.^[77] The prairies served as a natural breadbasket, providing wild berries, roots, and grains like wild rice in wetland margins, supplementing diets and fostering sustainable foraging.^[78] A cornerstone of management was the use of intentional fires, conducted every 3-5 years by tribes like the Sioux to attract bison herds, reduce wildfire hazards by clearing dead vegetation, and enrich soils through nutrient cycling from ash.^[77]^[79] These practices shaped the ecosystem, maintaining open grasslands; for instance, they contributed to the tallgrass prairie covering about 85% of Iowa's landscape pre-settlement.^[80] Prior to 1800, the region supported a stable, diverse assemblage of megafauna, including an estimated 30-60 million bison that grazed and recycled nutrients, sustaining high plant productivity and biodiversity without depletion.^[81]^[82] This harmonious integration of human activity preserved the prairie's resilience, contrasting with later disruptions.

European Settlement and Decline

European settlers began colonizing the tallgrass prairie in the early 1800s, initially perceiving the vast grasslands as the inhospitable "Great American Desert" unsuitable for agriculture, a view stemming from Major Stephen H. Long's 1820 expedition report that described the region as arid and barren.^[83] This perception shifted as explorers and early migrants recognized the deep, fertile soils beneath the dense sod, prompting increased settlement from the 1830s onward.^[3] By the mid-19th century, technological and policy innovations accelerated the transformation of the prairie into farmland, marking the beginning of its rapid decline. A pivotal invention was the steel plow developed by Illinois blacksmith John Deere in 1837, which featured a polished steel blade capable of slicing through the tough, root-bound prairie sod that had previously resisted cast-iron plows used in eastern forests.^[3] This tool enabled efficient breaking of the land for cultivation of crops like corn and wheat. Complementing this was the expansion of railroads starting in the 1850s, which transported settlers, equipment, and market goods into the interior, facilitating widespread prairie conversion.^[84] The Homestead Act of 1862 further drove settlement by granting 160-acre plots to qualifying individuals who improved and farmed the land for five years, attracting over 1.6 million homesteaders to the Great Plains by 1900 and directly contributing to the plowing of millions of acres.^[3] Between 1800 and 1930, over 95% of the original 142 million acres (57 million hectares) of tallgrass prairie were lost, primarily to agriculture, with the peak of conversion occurring from 1870 to 1900 as sod-breaking intensified.^[84] Key drivers included deep plowing that exposed soils to erosion, overgrazing by domestic cattle that replaced the native bison herds—nearly extinct by 1889 with fewer than 1,000 individuals remaining—and systematic drainage of wetlands to expand cropland.^[85] The Dust Bowl of the 1930s worsened these impacts, as prolonged drought and windstorms stripped topsoil from over-plowed fields, leading to massive dust storms and further degradation across the Midwest and southern Plains. Regional patterns of decline varied, with the Midwest experiencing the most rapid loss; for instance, Illinois saw 99.9% of its tallgrass prairie converted by 1900, transforming the landscape from "tallgrass to tall corn."^[86] Southern portions, such as in Kansas and Oklahoma, faced later but similarly extensive conversion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, driven by the same agricultural pressures. Socioeconomically, the prairie evolved from a perceived frontier barrier to a symbol of fertile opportunity, fueling economic growth through export-oriented farming but at the cost of ecological devastation.^[3]

Conservation

Remnant Prairies

Remnant prairies represent the surviving fragments of the original tallgrass prairie ecosystem, preserved due to their inaccessibility for agriculture and ongoing management efforts. These areas serve as critical baselines for understanding the historical composition and function of tallgrass prairies, which once spanned over 170 million acres across North America but now constitute less than 4% of their former extent.^[40] The Flint Hills in Kansas host the largest intact remnant of tallgrass prairie, encompassing approximately 4 million acres of unplowed grassland that resisted conversion to cropland due to rocky, shallow soils. This region maintains a mosaic of native grasses and forbs, supporting diverse wildlife amid a landscape otherwise dominated by agriculture.^[40] Within the Flint Hills, the Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve protects 10,894 acres of high-quality remnant prairie, established in 1996 through a partnership between the National Park Service and The Nature Conservancy. This site features rolling hills covered in big bluestem and other tallgrasses, preserving ecological processes like seasonal flooding and bison grazing patterns.^[40]^[87]^[88] Further east, the Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie in Illinois spans over 18,000 acres on former military land converted in 1996, managed by the U.S. Forest Service as the largest tallgrass prairie restoration and preservation area in the Chicago region. Its remnants include diverse wetland and upland habitats that harbor native plant communities adapted to the area's glacial history.^[89]^[90]^[91] Other notable remnant areas include the Glacial Ridge National Wildlife Refuge in Minnesota, with a core of over 6,000 acres of native tallgrass prairie embedded within a larger protected landscape formed by ancient glacial ridges. In Illinois, the Nachusa Grasslands covers about 4,000 acres, where bison have been reintroduced to 1,500 acres to mimic historical grazing dynamics on remnant and restored patches. Across the border in Canada, Manitoba retains roughly 1% of its original tallgrass prairie, concentrated in southern regions like the Interlake area, where small but ecologically vital fragments persist.^[92]^[93]^[94] These remnant prairies are typically found on steep slopes, rocky outcrops, or poorly drained soils that deterred plowing, resulting in hotspots of biodiversity with over 200 native plant species per site, including rare orchids, milkweeds, and sedges. Such diversity underscores their role as refugia for species adapted to fire-prone, nutrient-poor environments.^[95]^[88] Management of these sites involves a mix of public and private ownership, with organizations like The Nature Conservancy, the National Park Service, and the U.S. Forest Service employing prescribed fire every 3-5 years to suppress woody invasion and promote native grasses, alongside mowing to control weeds and simulate grazing. These practices aim to maintain ecological integrity without altering the remnant character.^[33]^[89]^[96]^[97] Remnant prairies function as essential gene banks, providing seed sources and genetic diversity for broader prairie restoration efforts across the Midwest. They also support a significant portion of the remaining U.S. grassland bird populations, hosting populations of species like dickcissels and bobolinks that rely on expansive, unfragmented habitats for breeding and foraging.^[23]

Restoration Projects

Restoration efforts for tallgrass prairies began in the mid-20th century with pioneering scientific projects aimed at reconstructing ecosystems from agricultural lands. The Curtis Prairie at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum, initiated in 1936, represents the world's first deliberate ecological restoration of a tallgrass prairie, transforming 72 acres of abandoned farmland through initial plantings of native species collected locally.^[98] This project, guided by Aldo Leopold's vision, employed hand-planting and ongoing management practices like prescribed burns to mimic natural disturbance regimes, serving as a model for subsequent restorations and supporting long-term research on vegetation dynamics.^[99] In Iowa during the 1960s, early prairie reconstruction initiatives, including seed propagation experiments by native plant enthusiasts, laid groundwork for larger-scale efforts by increasing availability of local ecotype seeds from virtually none to multiple growers.^[100] Major modern restoration projects have scaled up these early approaches, focusing on expansive landscapes to reconnect fragmented habitats. The Glacial Ridge National Wildlife Refuge in Minnesota, launched in 2000 through a partnership between The Nature Conservancy and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, is the largest tallgrass prairie and wetland restoration in U.S. history, targeting over 37,000 acres by restoring former croplands with native seed mixes and wetland reconstruction.^[101] At Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie in Illinois, ongoing expansions include the 2025 Grant Creek watershed restoration, a 1,300-acre initiative removing drainage tiles, filling ditches, and seeding native grasses to revive floodplain wetlands and grasslands across approximately 1,000 football fields' worth of land.^[90]^[102] The Northern Tallgrass Prairie National Wildlife Refuge, established in 2000, continues acquisitions in the 2020s, such as a 2,563-acre addition in Minnesota, to protect and restore up to 77,000 acres through easements and direct ownership, prioritizing high-quality remnants as seed sources.^[103]^[104] Recent initiatives from 2020 to 2025 emphasize community-driven and private efforts on smaller scales, often integrating pollinator support. In Alabama's Black Belt, family-led restorations like the Sumter Farm project, initiated in 2020 on 11,000 acres, use prescribed fire, invasive species removal, and selective seeding to enhance prairie and savanna habitats, documenting biodiversity gains through partnerships with universities and conservation groups.^[105] Texas volunteer programs in the 2020s, such as those by the Native Prairies Association of Texas and Coastal Prairie Conservancy, involve small-scale plantings—often starting with 1,000 square feet pilots—of native grasses and forbs on urban edges and ranches to combat habitat loss.^[106]^[107] In Ontario, milkweed-focused restorations by Tallgrass Ontario and conservation authorities target pollinator habitats, enhancing existing sites with species like common milkweed to boost monarch butterfly populations across fragmented prairies.^[108] Common techniques in these projects include harvesting seeds from remnant prairies to ensure genetic suitability, followed by direct seeding at rates of 10-20 pounds per acre using broadcast or mechanical methods tailored to site conditions like soil moisture.^[109] Bison reintroduction, as at Nachusa Grasslands in Illinois starting in 2014 with an initial herd of 30 animals that has grown to around 100 grazing 1,500 acres, promotes plant diversity by creating heterogeneous vegetation structure and accelerating native species recovery post-fire, with studies showing sustained increases in forb richness and insect populations.^[110] Success is often measured by achieving 75-80% native plant cover within 10-20 years through integrated management, as observed in long-term monitoring at sites like Nachusa, where planted areas maintain diverse communities comparable to remnants.^[109] Many projects incorporate partnerships with Indigenous communities for culturally informed prescribed burns, drawing on traditional knowledge to apply fire effectively and restore ecological balance, as seen in The Nature Conservancy's Midwest fire network collaborations.^[111]

Threats and Challenges

Invasive species pose the second greatest threat to tallgrass prairie remnants and restorations after habitat loss, outcompeting native plants for resources and altering ecosystem structure.^[112] Sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata), an introduced nitrogen-fixing legume from Asia, spreads rapidly through prolific seed production and allelopathic chemicals that inhibit native growth, dominating old fields and prairie edges in states like Illinois and Kansas.^[113] Reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), a cool-season perennial grass, aggressively invades moist prairies, wetlands, and sedge meadows, forming dense stands that displace native wetland species and reduce biodiversity in areas like the Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie.^[112] Pathogens such as Dutch elm disease, caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, have decimated American elm (Ulmus americana) populations in prairie-adjacent floodplain forests, disrupting woodland-prairie interfaces and wildlife habitat across the Midwest.^[114] Climate change exacerbates these pressures by altering precipitation patterns and temperatures, with projections indicating increased rainfall variability and potential 10-20% shifts in seasonal distribution across the Great Plains by mid-century.^[115] These changes stress dominant native grasses like big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), potentially reducing plant height and biomass by up to 60% by 2100 due to decreased water availability, which could diminish forage quality and habitat suitability for prairie-dependent species.^[116] Warmer temperatures may favor invasive grasses like smooth brome (Bromus inermis) and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), accelerating their invasion in tallgrass and mixed-grass prairies while native C4 grasses face heightened drought sensitivity.^[117] Such shifts also disrupt nitrogen cycling, as elevated temperatures boost soil microbial activity but lead to nutrient imbalances that benefit invasives over slower-adapting natives.^[117] Urbanization and agricultural expansion continue to fragment remaining prairies, with development pressures threatening millions of acres of grassland in the central U.S., including high-conversion-risk areas in the Flint Hills region of Kansas.^[118] Woody encroachment by native and non-native trees, such as Osage orange (Maclura pomifera) and eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), further degrades prairie integrity by suppressing grasses, reducing fire fuel loads, and creating feedback loops that hinder restoration efforts without frequent disturbance.^[119] Policy gaps, including inconsistent federal funding for grassland conservation, limit proactive measures, as seen in ongoing challenges to maintain the less than 4% of original tallgrass prairie that persists.^[109] Recent assessments indicate accelerating plant community turnover in remnants, with local extinction rates rising over 200% since the 1980s due to these combined stressors.^[120] Addressing these threats requires adaptive management strategies, such as integrating drought-resistant seed mixes in restorations and targeted invasive control to enhance resilience against climate variability.^[115] Annual invasive species management, including herbicide applications and prescribed burns, can cost $50-100 per acre but prevents broader ecological and economic losses estimated in billions regionally.^[121]

References

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A Complex Prairie Ecosystem - National Park Service
Mar 5, 2022 · Tallgrass prairies are an extremely complicated web of life. Eighty percent of the foliage is dominated by 40-60 species of grass.
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Prairies are a type of grassland, a landscape dominated by herbaceous plants, especially grasses; trees are either absent or only widely scattered on the ...Missing: characteristics ecology
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[PDF] The Tallgrass Prairie - Konza Environmental Education Program
The tallgrass prairie was once 167 million acres, but now only 4-13% remains. It was seen as "wasteland" and much disappeared between 1830 and 1900.
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Tallgrass Prairie - Oklahoma Senate
Originally spanning portions of 14 states and covering over 142 million acres, the tallgrass prairie was one of North America's major ecosystems.Missing: extent | Show results with:extent
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The big three: dominant grasses of the tallgrass prairie | Good Growing
Oct 17, 2025 · Big Bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), the state grass of Illinois, is a warm-season, bunch grass that can reach heights up to eight feet. Like ...Missing: vegetation flora
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[PDF] Importance of Maintaining the Diverse Tallgrass Prairie - USD RED
On average, 80% of the prairie is composed of grasses (40-60 species) and the other 20% consists of forbs (~300 species), lichen, and liverworts (~100 species) ...Missing: per | Show results with:per
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Quercus macrocarpa - USDA Forest Service
Quercus macrocarpa, also known as bur oak, is a widely distributed tree, growing up to 130 feet tall with thick, deeply grooved bark.
[8]
[PDF] Community Abstract Bur Oak Plains
Overview: Bur oak plains was a fire-dependent, savanna type dominated by oaks, having between 10 and 30% canopy, with or without a shrub layer.
[9]
Considerations for Prairie Plant Species Selection
Roots. Include deep-rooting prairie plants; some have a rooting depth of 10 to 15 feet. In addition to holding soil, deep-rooting plants can also access and ...
[10]
Grasslands: Where Resilience Takes Root - The Nature Conservancy
These vast seas of prairie were home to enormous biodiversity: switchgrass, bluestem, meadowlarks, bobolinks, bison, badgers, prairie chickens, butterflies and ...
[11]
Nature - Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve (U.S. National Park ...
Mar 6, 2022 · The list of local species found include over 500 plants, nearly 150 birds, 39 reptiles and amphibians, and 31 mammals.
[12]
Prairies and Grasslands - Wind Cave - National Park Service
Oct 11, 2025 · Many prairie animals rely on prairie grasses for survival. Mammals like prairie dogs, bison, elk, deer, and pronghorn graze on the grasses and ...
[13]
[PDF] SMALL MAMMALS IN DISTURBED TALLGRASS PRAIRIE ...
Many small mammal species inhabit tallgrass ... vole species). ... Deer mice are often considered habitat generalists and are known to utilize a wide range.
[14]
Small mammal associations with habitat composition, configuration ...
Dec 14, 2023 · The most commonly studied species was the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), represented in 44 studies (72%), followed by the prairie vole ( ...
[15]
Animals of the Flint Hills - Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve (U.S. ...
Feb 14, 2025 · Over 30 species of mammals call this place home. More than 200 species of birds migrate through or nest in the area. At least 35 fish ...
[16]
Bird Community Monitoring at Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve ...
Oct 25, 2024 · Western Meadowlarks are declining at Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve as Eastern Meadowlarks are increasing. Western meadowlarks prefer ...<|separator|>
[17]
Bird Community Monitoring at Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve ...
Oct 25, 2024 · We survey birds at Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve and gather information about the structure and composition of the park plant communities that birds live ...
[18]
https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/easmea/1.1/introduction
[19]
[PDF] Reexamination of Herpetofauna on Mormon Island, Hall County ...
May 17, 2013 · Fur- thermore, we predict the Ornate Box Turtle (Terrapene ornata), Bullsnake, and Prairie Lizard (Sceloporus con- sobrinus) will be ...
[20]
Dakota Skipper (Hesperia dacotae) | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Dakota skippers live in two types of prairies. One type is moist bluestem prairie in which three wildflower species are usually blooming when Dakota skippers ...
[21]
Dakota Skipper | Xerces Society
The butterfly inhabits wet lowland prairie dominated by bluestem grasses and dry upland prairie dominated by mixed bluestem and needle stem grasses. Both ...
[22]
Pollinators of the Great Plains: Disturbances, Stressors ...
For example, adults of the Dakota skipper (Hesperia dacotae), a federally listed Great Plains butterfly, prefer flower species that can be reduced or eliminated ...
[23]
North American Grasslands & Birds Report | Audubon
We will focus on conservation efforts to support endangered and threatened grassland-dependent species such as Greater Prairie-Chicken and Western Meadowlark, ...
[24]
The Answers are in the Soil | The Nature Conservancy in Oklahoma
Mar 5, 2020 · ... 240 million acres of America. Only 1% to 4% of the original ... Tallgrass Prairie Preserve The Tallgrass Prairie Preserve in Oklahoma.
[25]
The Tallgrass Prairie: An American Original Landscape | Missouri ...
Aug 8, 2021 · The original tallgrass prairie spanned what are now 14 states, covering 142 million acres. In Missouri, one third of the state, or roughly ...
[26]
Case studies from the central and southern Great Plains, USA
Aug 6, 2025 · Grasses have therefore been a dominant vegetation type in the Great Plains for the past 5000 to 8000 years ... tallgrass prairie will transition ...
[27]
[PDF] Stewards of the Old and New West - Natural Areas Association
Studies exploring the distribution of plant species within the tallgrass prairie ... within the last 5,000 to 8,000 years and were maintained by frequent fire set ...
[28]
Short and Tall Grasses - Forage Information System
These species thrive in zones of 30-40 inch annual precipitation and reach 6-8 feet in height. Within this zone, cordgrass (Stipa spp.) and reed grass ( ...
[29]
Prairie Soils | Soils 4 Teachers
Prairie soils are rich in organic matter, deep, and often Mollisols. They are formed from windblown silt and are the breadbasket of the world.Missing: till | Show results with:till
[30]
[PDF] The Soils of Iowa
Tallgrass prairie ... There are 10 major landform regions with the two main parent materials being loess and glacial drift. 3. Prairie-derived Mollisols are the ...
[31]
[PDF] FIRE IN TALLGRASS PRAIRIES - NPS History
The changing stature of the grasses corresponds with a decrease in rainfall from east to west. Tallgrass areas receive enough rainfall to support trees, but ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
[PDF] Evolution and origin of the Central Grassland of North America
In the eastern tallgrass prairie, prairie and savanna replaced oak-hickory ... Postglacial history of the Great. Plains. Science 167: 1574–1582. WARREN ...
[33]
Exploring Nebraska's Prairies: A Journey Through History and Nature
Mar 21, 2025 · Nebraska's natural beauty is often overlooked, but its prairies hold profound historical and ecological significance.
[34]
Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve | The Nature Conservancy
These bison were first to roam the preserve in more than one hundred years. Visitors can often view the herd, which has since grown to 85 animals, when hiking ...Missing: mammals biodiversity
[35]
Joseph H. Williams Tallgrass Prairie Preserve | TNC in Oklahoma
Bison Roundup: October 1 – November 20. It's roundup season in Pawhuska! Beginning October 1, the bison herd will not be visible from the road. We expect to ...
[36]
Prairie Resource Center - Iowa Department of Natural Resources
The Loess Hills (Tallgrass Prairie). The Loess Hills (Tallgrass Prairie) is a unique landform that formed at the end of the last Ice Age about 18,000 years ago.
[37]
Tall-grass Prairie Preserve | Travel Manitoba
The Tall-grass Prairie Preserve, near Tolstoi and Gardenton, protects over 2,000 hectares of tall-grass prairies with 150+ plant species. It offers hiking, ...
[38]
[PDF] Productivity of Temperate Grasslands - Sala Lab
er precipitation. In the Great Plains of North America where isohyets run in a north-south direction, the boundary between the tallgrass prairie and the.
[39]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222911068_Recent_declines_in_northern_tall-grass_prairies_and_effects_of_patch_structure_on_community_persistence
[40]
Recent declines in northern tall-grass prairies and effects of patch ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Both native and alien species responded more strongly to distance to edge than to patch size or matrix type. Edge effects may explain why ...
[41]
Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve (U.S. National Park Service)
Jul 29, 2024 · Last Stand of the Tallgrass Prairie Tallgrass prairie once covered 170 million acres of North America, but within a generation most of it had ...A Complex Prairie Ecosystem · Plan Your Visit · Things To Do · Nature
[42]
[PDF] Iowa Prairie - An Endangered Ecosystem - UNI ScholarWorks
Today less than 0.02% of pre-settlement prairie remains; afew small remnants are scattered across the original 30 million acres. Settlement of Iowa was rapid; ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[43]
Illinois Prairies - Illinois Department of Natural Resources
Prairies are a mixture of grasses and forbs. Forbs are plants with soft stems and broad leaves, like wildflowers. Grasses have narrow leaves and soft stems.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[44]
Biomass and Density Responses in Tallgrass Prairie Legumes to ...
Aug 5, 2025 · To test the hypothesis that legumes, potential nitrogen-fixers, would increase in relative abundance in annually burned sites, we assessed their ...
[45]
Diversity of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Associated with Switchgrass in ...
We studied the diversity of nitrogen-fixing bacteria (NFB) associated with native switchgrass plants from the tallgrass prairie of northern Oklahoma (United ...
[46]
mass, nitrogen, and phosphorus dynamics in foliage and root ... - jstor
May 29, 1987 · Abstract. Mass, nitrogen, and phosphorus of litterfall were measured for 4 yr on annually burned and unburned tallgrass prairie near ...Missing: deep recycling
[47]
Three Benefits of Native Plant Roots - Dyck Arboretum
Jan 6, 2016 · There is so much going on underground in a prairie. Native plant roots provide tremendous improvements to the soil.
[48]
Biomass Production in a Tallgrass Prairie Ecosystem Exposed ... - jstor
Average peak total aboveground live biomass (dry mass) of 425 g/m2 occurs in early August, ... Peak biomass in tallgrass prairie normally occurs in early August.
[49]
A Ten-Year Record of Aboveground Biomass in a Kansas Tallgrass ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Total legume biomass did not differ between burned (11.3 ± 1.3 g/m²) and unburned prairie (10.5 ± 0.9 g/m²). Biomass productions of Dalea ...
[50]
Field‐Based Estimation of Net Primary Productivity and Its Above ...
Oct 24, 2021 · Both BNPP and TNPP were lowest in “Mediterranean scrub, grassland & forb meadow,” with values of 420 ± 42 and 665 ± 54 g m−2 yr−1, respectively.
[51]
Long-term carbon uptake of agro-ecosystems in the Midwest
Jan 15, 2017 · Tallgrass prairie had average values of GPP and NEP of 916 and 61 g C m−2 yr−1, excluding loss of carbon by annual burning. Thus, prairie GPP ...
[52]
Trophic differences regulate grassland food webs: herbivores track ...
Jun 24, 2021 · Trophic differences regulate grassland food webs: herbivores track food quality and predators select for habitat volume. Rebecca M. Prather ...Results · Discussion · Herbivores Are Nutrient...
[53]
The ecological significance of tallgrass prairie arthropods
Aug 6, 2025 · Soil detritivores and generalist predators mediate herbivory's top-down effects on soil nutrient mineralisation and bottom-up effects by ...
[54]
Opposing Effects of Plant-Community Assembly Maintain Constant ...
May 6, 2019 · In grasslands, between. 50 and 90% of plant primary production ends up as litter (Cebrian 1999). In contrast to temperate for- est ecosystems ...
[55]
Disturbance Frequency and Community Stability in Native Tallgrass ...
Grassland ecosystems contain a complex disturbance regime composed of frequent large‐ and small‐scale disturbances that interact with interannual climate ...
[56]
Management of remnant tallgrass prairie by grazing or fire: effects ...
Aug 11, 2020 · The goal of this study was to compare effects of management using cattle grazing or fire on vegetation and soil characteristics to aid managers in making ...Missing: rainfall suppression
[57]
[PDF] The Hydrologic Benefits of Wetland and Prairie Restoration in ...
This study has been more than 14 years in the making. It could not have been accomplished without the help and support of many people and organizations.
[58]
[PDF] A Landowner's Guide To Wetland Conservation In The ... - files
The dramatic loss of wetlands in the northern Tallgrass Prairie Region has had dire consequences. Populations of most wetland wildlife species pale in ...
[59]
Grassland soil carbon sequestration: Current understanding ...
Aug 4, 2022 · Grasslands store approximately one third of the global terrestrial carbon stocks and can act as an important soil carbon sink.
[60]
Taxonomic and functional restoration of tallgrass prairie soil ...
Oct 3, 2023 · Linking fungal–bacterial co-occurrences to soil ecosystem function ... Soil carbon sequestration and land-use change: processes and potential.
[61]
[PDF] Changes in soil respiration across a chronosequence of tallgrass ...
Aboveground production. Aboveground biomass was harvested four times, on DOY 134,. 178, 226, and 293. A total of eight 0.25m2 quadrats were sam- pled from ...Missing: m² | Show results with:m²
[62]
Tallgrass Prairie and Carbon Sequestration
Various studies of the potential for tallgrass prairie carbon storage have shown that the storage rates vary between .30 and 1.7 metric tons per acre per year.
[63]
Fire regimes of plains grassland and prairie ecosystems
Plains grassland and prairie ecosystems occur throughout central North America, from the Rocky Mountain foothills east to the deciduous forest-prairie boundary.
[64]
Fire Regime - Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve (U.S. National ...
Oct 27, 2021 · Fire is the next most important determinant in the spread and maintenance of prairie grassland. Fire interacts with other factors that influence grassland.
[65]
Temporal-spatial distribution of American bison (Bison bison) in a ...
We examined dynamics of bison distribution in a patch-burned tallgrass prairie in the south-central United States relative to bison group size and composition, ...Missing: population sources:
[66]
Fire and Grazing in the Prairie - National Park Service
Apr 9, 2022 · Grazing animals play an important role maintaining the ecosystem by stimulating plants growth. This triggers biological activity and nutrient exchanges.Missing: interaction sources:
[67]
[PDF] LONG-TERM ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF VARYING FIRE ...
In the tallgrass prairies of eastern Kansas, which border the eastern deciduous forests, frequent fires are essential for controlling woody plant invasion of ...
[68]
Effects of prescribed fire timing on vigor of the invasive forb sericea ...
Under the conditions of our experiment, prescribed burning during summer produced no detrimental effects on forage production, desirable nontarget plant species ...
[69]
Geolex — Wisconsinan publications
Aug 28, 2025 · Wisconsin stage is name applied to last stage of glaciation, which has usually been divided into two substages, called early Wisconsin and late Wisconsin.
[70]
[PDF] Last Glacial loess in the conterminous USA - UNL Digital Commons
The conterminous United States contains an extensive and generally well-studied record of Last Glacial loess. The loess occurs in.
[71]
5.6 - Mollisols | Soil Genesis and Development, Lesson 5
Key Characteristics: Mollisols – Grassland Soils. Mineral soils developed under grassland vegetation; Thick, dark-colored 'A' horizon, rich in organic matter ...Missing: glacial till alluvium
[72]
[PDF] Illustrated Guide to Soil Taxonomy
of a soil that formed in loess over glacial till underlain by bedrock is: ... Mollisols are very dark-colored, naturally very fertile soils of grasslands.
[73]
America's Grasslands: Great Plains and Pothole Prairies - USGS.gov
Prairie Pothole Region wetlands provide numerous ecological services to society such as wildlife habitat, water storage, and carbon sequestration. Agricultural ...Missing: flat rolling
[74]
[PDF] Origin, Biogeographical Migrations and Diversifications of Turfgrasses
Subsequent migration occurred via the mountains of central and eastern Asia, across the Bering Land Bridge into North America, southward via the western ...
[75]
[PDF] Archeological Overview and Assessment for Tallgrass Prairie ...
The Smoky Hill Aspect is estimated to date between AD 1000 and 1350 (Blakeslee 1994). Smoky. Hill habitation sites occur as small clusters of square ...
[76]
Book examines tallgrass prairies' ecological history, effects on ...
Dec 14, 2022 · History professor Robert Morrissey wrote the first comprehensive environmental history of the tallgrass prairies and how they shaped tribal cultures.Missing: significance oral eternal
[77]
https://www.nps.gov/subjects/fire/indigenous-fire-practices-shape-our-land.htm
[78]
Indigenous Fire Practices Shape our Land - National Park Service
Mar 18, 2024 · In the Midwest, Native Americans likely cleared and maintained the tall grass prairies of the area for use as herd animal pastureland.
[79]
Wild Rice Harvest - The Nature Conservancy
Aug 27, 2021 · In northern Minnesota, the Ojibwe people are keeping a vital tradition of wild rice harvesting alive even in the face of growing challenges.Missing: prairie breadbasket
[80]
Study reconstructs 232-year history of prairie fire in Midwestern US
Oct 19, 2021 · Researchers conducted the most comprehensive analysis of the history of fire in the Midwestern tallgrass prairie by analyzing thousands of historical accounts.Missing: sources:
[81]
Tallgrass Prairie (U.S. National Park Service)
Feb 14, 2019 · The National Park Service reconstructed the tallgrass prairie in 1971 to represent the vast grassland that once covered 85 percent of Iowa. The ...
[82]
Bison by the Numbers
30 – 60 Million estimated North American herd size before 1900. < 1,000 ... Before 1900, there were less than 1,000 bison before efforts were made to preserve and ...Missing: European settlement tallgrass prairie
[83]
Bison Grazing in Eastern Tallgrass Prairie Does Not Alter Plant ...
Rampant hunting from 1830 to 1880 reduced the estimated number of bison from. 30–60 million (Shaw 1995) to a few thousand (Knapp et al. 1999). Therefore, our ...
[84]
The Great American Desert - Digital History
When he explored the area that was to become Nebraska and Oklahoma in 1820, Major Stephen H. Long called the region "the Great American Desert.
[85]
[PDF] Settlement of the Tallgrass Prairie - CampSilos
The tallgrass prairie is essentially gone. It is estimated that less than 3% of the 240 million acres of original tallgrass prairie remains. In Iowa, the ...
[86]
The End of the Bison
In 1868, the steel rails of the transcontinental railroad created a barrier that bison did not like to cross. That divided the great herd into northern and ...
[87]
Tallgrass Prairie - Nature and Ecology - Fermilab
Fermilab has two remnant tallgrass prairie areas, each less than 3 acres. Prairie restoration efforts began in 1975, and for over 30 years, small additions were ...
[88]
Flint Hills Tallgrass Prairie Preserve - The Nature Conservancy
This 2188-acre tallgrass preserve is home to several hundred plant species and numerous bird species, including the prairie chicken and Henslow's sparrow.
[89]
Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve - KDWP
This 10,894-acre portion of the once vast tallgrass prairie is being preserved as a critical resource for the benefit, education, and enjoyment of this and ...
[90]
Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve - GeoKansas
Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve is home to 400 species of plants (including big bluestem, little bluestem, and Indian grass), 200 species of birds, 30 ...
[91]
Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie
### Summary of Recent Projects or Expansions at Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie (2020s or Grant Creek)
[92]
Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie - Openlands
... Midewin in 1996 as the nation's first national tallgrass prairie. Now stretching across more than 19,000 acres, Midewin is managed by the U.S. Forest ...
[93]
Protecting Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie
Midewin is the largest public open space in the Chicago metropolitan area and northeastern Illinois, covering 18,225 acres.
[94]
Wild bison in Illinois - Friends of Nachusa Grasslands
Bison can be viewed from outside the bison fenced units only. The bison roam across 1,500 acres of rolling land and are often not visible from the Visitor ...
[95]
https://tallgrassontario.org/wp-site/grassland-remnants/
[96]
The Grass is Greener Where We Protect It - CPAWS Manitoba
Jul 25, 2025 · The tall grass prairie is an endangered ecosystem with 40-60 grass species, 300 flower species, and only 1% of the original prairie remains.
[97]
Grassland Remnants - Tallgrass Ontario
Of the estimated one million square kilometres of tall grass prairie that once occurred in North America, less than one six-hundredth of one percent remains.
[98]
Prairie Plant Monitoring at Tallgrass Preserve: 2002–2023
Apr 21, 2025 · The most common nonnative species are bromes and Kentucky bluegrass. Native, woody plants are below the desired 5% threshold but continue to ...
[99]
Developing a Plan For the Season | Tallgrass Prairie Center
A reasonable goal is to burn native prairie remnants or plantings once every 3–5 years. Some sites may require more frequent burns and higher prioritization to ...Missing: sources:<|separator|>
[100]
The future of North American grassland birds - Conservation Biology
Mar 27, 2019 · Remnant tallgrass patches are still valuable, however, as they may serve as genetic banks for restoration. Thus, urgent conservation action ...
[101]
Curtis Prairie: A Restoration Gem - UW Arboretum
The science of restoration ecology traces its beginning to the UW–Madison Arboretum with the first attempt to turn an abandoned field into a tallgrass prairie. ...Missing: Iowa | Show results with:Iowa
[102]
Curtis Prairie Restoration - Nicholas Institute
Curtis Prairie at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum is the site of the world's first ecological restoration project.Missing: projects Iowa
[103]
[PDF] Prairie Restoration: Bridging the Past and the Future
Most prominent were the 3,480-ha prairie and savanna reconstruction and remnant restoration project that began in 1991 at Neal Smith (originally Walnut Creek) ...
[104]
Glacial Ridge Project - The Nature Conservancy
Glacial Ridge is the largest prairie and wetland restoration project in the U.S. Visitors will be able to enjoy more than 8000 acres of restored wetlands ...
[105]
With Federal Funds Frozen, a 1300-Acre Restoration Project Comes ...
Feb 21, 2025 · Midewin is the largest natural area in the Chicago region, encompassing 20,000 acres that provide needed habitat to numerous species amid ...Missing: size | Show results with:size
[106]
Northern Tallgrass Prairie National Wildlife Refuge | About Us
Scientists estimate the original tallgrass prairie in Minnesota and Iowa covered about 25 million acres. Now, there are only about 300,000 acres left in the two ...
[107]
Northern Tallgrass Prairie NWR | The Nature Conservancy in MN
The Nature Conservancy acquired 2563 acres in Minnesota that have been added to the Northern Tallgrass Prairie National Wildlife Refuge, established in ...Missing: Phase X
[108]
Sumter Farm — Southeastern Grasslands Institute
Sumter Farm & Stock Company: A Private-Lands Model for Prairie & Savanna Restoration in the Alabama Black Belt.Missing: 2020-2025 Texas Ontario milkweed
[109]
Volunteer Opportunities – NPAT - Native Prairies Association of Texas
Dowell Ranch, near Austin, serves as NPAT's headquarters and is the site of extensive prairie and woodland restoration projects. We host monthly workdays, as ...Missing: tallgrass 2020s small scale
[110]
In Town Volunteer Opportunities — Coastal Prairie Conservancy
Volunteer opportunities include maintaining Whistlestop Pocket Prairie, school pocket prairies, Deer Park Prairie, and the 9 Natives Garden at the Cockrell ...Missing: tallgrass 2020s small scale
[111]
Restoration Projects - Tallgrass Ontario
The goal is habitat improvement of existing Tallgrass Prairie sites in Norfolk County, with a focus on increasing Milkweed species landscape cover. The outcome ...
[112]
Twenty years of tallgrass prairie restoration in northern Illinois, USA
Oct 19, 2021 · With less than 5% of tallgrass prairie and less than 1% of Midwestern savannas persisting in their historic range, both are among the most ...Missing: conversion percentage
[113]
Return of bison revives biodiversity of one restored Illinois prairie
Sep 18, 2025 · Tallgrass prairie is an open grassland ecosystem characterized by abundant tall grasses like big bluestem, Indian grass, and little bluestem, ...Missing: forbs | Show results with:forbs<|separator|>
[114]
Controlled Burns, Wild Benefits - The Nature Conservancy
Aug 28, 2025 · Discover how prescribed fires restore habitats, support biodiversity and play a vital role in conservation across the Midwest and beyond.
[115]
Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie | Exotic and Invasive Species
Jul 22, 2025 · #1 remains habitat destruction. Not all invaders are imported from other regions and countries. Native invasive plants also pose a threat to ...Missing: climate | Show results with:climate
[116]
Sericea Lespedeza: Plague on the Prairie - Purdue University
Sep 25, 2017 · Sericea lespedeza is arguably one of the most problematic invasive species of old fields, prairies and other early successional areas managed for wildlife.Missing: reed canarygrass<|separator|>
[117]
[PDF] The ecological role of American elm (Ulmus americana L.) in ...
This article reviews the impact that the loss of American elm due to Dutch elm disease has had on floodplain forests, helps provide a clear rationale for ...
[118]
Climate Change May Bring Big Trouble to Big Bluestems ... - NRDC
Dec 4, 2017 · Climate models show that warmer temperatures will likely continue to shift north over the next 75 years. Rainfall patterns are also expected to ...
[119]
Climate change predicted to reduce size, stature of dominant ...
Oct 11, 2017 · In the Midwest, big bluestem can grow to 4 to 6 feet tall, but the researchers found that climate change could reduce its height by up to 60 ...
[120]
[PDF] Climate Change Impacts on Introduced Grass Invasion in the Prairie ...
While native C4 grasses are the dominant functional group in tallgrass and mixed-grass prairies, Smooth Brome and Kentucky Blue- grass constitute the greatest ...
[121]
U.S. Farmland under Threat of Urbanization: Future Development ...
Feb 27, 2023 · In this study, we developed a spatially explicit machine learning-based method to predict urban development through 2040 under a business-as-usual scenario.
[122]
[PDF] Invasive Tree Control for Rangelands
Eastern red cedar, Osage orange, honey locust, Siberian elm, autumn olive, and Russian olive are invasive trees that can take over native Kansas prairies ...
[123]
The pace of plant community change is accelerating in remnant ...
Feb 19, 2016 · Annual rates of local colonization and extinction accelerated by 129 and 214%, respectively, between 1950 and 1987 and between 1987 and 2012.
[124]
[PDF] Takeover on the Tallgrass Prairie: How Lespedeza Cuneata ...
In the US, costs associated with invasion by exotic species are estimated at $120 billion per year (Pimentel et al. 2005). While this estimate includes cost of ...