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Tengri

Tengri is the supreme sky god and creator deity central to Tengrism, the ancient shamanistic and animistic religion practiced by Turkic, Mongolic, and other Central Asian steppe peoples from antiquity through the medieval period.^[1]^[2]
The name "Tengri," derived from Old Turkic terms meaning "sky" or "heaven," reflects the deity's embodiment of the eternal blue celestial vault, positioned above earthly affairs yet influencing human destiny through natural order and divine favor.^[2]^[3]
Primary historical attestation of Tengri worship survives in the 8th-century Orkhon inscriptions, runic texts from the Göktürk Khaganate where Tengri is invoked as the granter of sovereignty, victory in battle, and cosmic legitimacy to rulers, underscoring a theology that fused monotheistic supremacy with polytheistic elements like earth spirits and ancestral veneration.^[4]^[5]
Tengrism's practices, mediated by shamans who communed with Tengri and subordinate deities such as Umay (earth mother), emphasized nomadic harmony with the steppe environment, ethical conduct under divine oversight, and rituals involving skyward prayers, animal sacrifices, and mountain-top shrines, persisting notably among Mongol khans like those of the 13th-century empire who attributed conquests to Tengri's mandate.^[1]^[6]

Etymology

Linguistic Origins

The term Tengri derives from Proto-Turkic \teŋri or \täŋri, reconstructed to mean "sky" or "heaven," with connotations extending to the divine realm.^[7] ^[8] This etymon is empirically supported by comparative linguistics drawing on attested forms in descendant languages and ancient texts. Its earliest written attestations appear in the 8th-century CE Orkhon inscriptions, composed in Old Turkic using the runic script, where teŋri designates the supreme celestial deity invoked by the Göktürk rulers.^[7] ^[8] Phonetic reconstruction aligns with these records, featuring a velar nasal and high vowel consistent across early Turkic variants. In runic texts, teŋri is distinguished from prosaic terms for the physical sky, such as kök (denoting the blue vault) or teŋiz (evoking vast expanses like the sea), by its capitalization as a proper name for a personalized, anthropomorphized entity capable of agency and judgment.^[9] ^[10] Cognates in Mongolic languages, reconstructed as \teŋgri, reflect parallel usage for the sky god, likely arising from prolonged areal contact among steppe nomads rather than deep genetic affiliation within a contested Altaic macrofamily.^[7] Empirical phonetic evidence prioritizes these Turkic-Mongolic parallels, with shared velar and liquid elements underscoring cultural-linguistic diffusion.^[8]

Interpretations Across Cultures

In Xiongnu society, predating the 6th century CE, Tengri functioned as the paramount sky deity, with the chanyu's title evoking the boundless expanse of the heavens and leaders positioned as its favored progeny, per Han Dynasty records that link celestial favor to nomadic legitimacy and cosmic order. This portrayal in Chinese annals underscores Tengri's role in underpinning the hierarchical stability required for confederations traversing the Eurasian steppes, where the sky's dominion symbolized an unyielding progenitor force over human lineages and environmental exigencies.^[11] Turkic interpretations, as inscribed in the 8th-century Orkhon corpus (circa 716–735 CE), accentuated Tengri's conferral of sovereignty upon khagans, portraying the deity as the arbiter of rulership and martial fortune, which aligned with the imperative for authoritative centralization in vast tribal polities amid internecine steppe rivalries.^[5] In contrast, Mongolic conceptualizations emphasized Kök Möngke Tengri, the eternal blue heaven, evoking the immutable azure vault that nomadic herders invoked for meteorological benevolence and existential continuity, reflecting adaptations to the open terrain's demand for attunement to celestial cycles governing migration and sustenance.^[12] This formulation, recurrent in 13th-century Mongol chronicles, prioritized Tengri's impersonality and ubiquity over anthropic intervention, suiting decentralized clans reliant on the sky's predictive rhythms rather than codified hierarchies.^[13] Such divergences illustrate causal evolutions in Altaic nomadic cosmologies: Turkic variants instrumentalized Tengri for legitimizing expansive empires through divine endorsement of elites, whereas Mongolic renditions harnessed the deity's sky-blue eternity to foster resilience in fluid, nature-subordinate lifeways, eschewing unsubstantiated ties to extraneous linguistic phyla absent rigorous comparative philology.^[14]

Historical Development

Early Attestations in Steppe Societies

The earliest references to Tengri appear in Chinese historical accounts of the Xiongnu, a nomadic confederation that dominated the eastern Eurasian steppes from approximately the 3rd century BCE. These records describe the Xiongnu supreme deity as a sky god transcribed phonetically as *Chengli (撐犁), widely interpreted by scholars as a rendering of Proto-Turkic or related *Teŋri, to whom rulers offered sacrifices for imperial legitimacy. For instance, Modu Chanyu, founder of the Xiongnu Empire, reportedly sacrificed white horses to this deity upon his ascension in 209 BCE, framing his conquests as divinely ordained.^[15]^[16] Similar invocations of a patron sky deity occur in records of the Xianbei, proto-Mongolic steppe groups active from the 2nd to 5th centuries CE, where stelae and chronicles depict rulers like Tanshihuai (r. ca. 156–181 CE) attributing military successes and authority to heavenly favor, though explicit use of the term Tengri remains unattested in surviving Xianbei inscriptions. This reflects a broader steppe tradition of equating rulership with celestial endorsement amid horse-nomad expansions.^[17] The term emerges more clearly in Proto-Turkic contexts during the 6th century CE, coinciding with the Göktürk Khaganate's rise (proclaimed 552 CE) and associated nomadic migrations westward. The Bugut inscription, erected in 584 CE near present-day Mongolia to commemorate Khagan Taspar (r. 572–581 CE), provides key empirical evidence: this bilingual stele in Sogdian and possibly Rouran script invokes divine heavenly authority for the khagan's legitimacy, aligning with Tengri as the ultimate patron of Turkic rulers in early khaganate ideology, distinct from later Orkhon formulations.^[18]^[19]

Role in Turkic Khaganates

In the Göktürk Khaganate, established in 552 CE and enduring until 744 CE, Tengri functioned as the paramount deity legitimizing khagan authority through a doctrine of divine mandate. The Orkhon inscriptions, primary sources from the early 8th century, repeatedly invoke Tengri as the granter of sovereignty and military victories. For example, the Kül Tigin inscription credits Tengri with elevating the khagan's parents and bestowing statehood upon the Turks to ensure their renown.^[20] Similarly, Bilge Khagan's stele, erected in 735 CE by his son Tengri Khagan, proclaims the ruler as "Tengri-like and Tengri-born," underscoring the khagan's celestial origin and right to govern.^[21]^[22] This mandate, often termed küç tengri or heavenly fortune, framed khagans as Tengri's terrestrial deputies in a hierarchical cosmology that mirrored the sky's dominion over earth. Rulers like Bilge Khagan (r. 716–734 CE) attributed tribal unification and expansions—such as campaigns against Tang China in 717 CE—to Tengri's favor, promoting confederative loyalty among diverse steppe groups.^[23] Defeats or disloyalty were interpreted as Tengri's withdrawal of support, reinforcing obedience to the khagan as enforcer of divine will.^[24] Tengri retained primacy in state oaths and rituals, even as the Göktürks encountered Manichaeism and Buddhism via Silk Road exchanges. Inscriptions emphasize invocations to Tengri for oaths of allegiance, prioritizing native cosmology over imported faiths, which lacked equivalent integration into political theology during the khaganate's peak.^[25] Subsequent khaganates, such as the Uyghur (744–840 CE), initially upheld this framework before shifting toward Manichaeism, but Göktürk-era primacy ensured Tengri's enduring role in legitimizing Turkic rulership.^[26]

Integration in the Mongol Empire

Temüjin, later known as Genghis Khan, invoked Mongke Tengri (Eternal Blue Heaven) during the 1206 kurultai on the Onon River, where Mongol tribes unified under his leadership, attributing this consolidation to divine mandate as recorded in The Secret History of the Mongols.^[27] The text describes Genghis crediting his birth and victories to Tengri's mercy, stating in section 224: "By the mercy of Eternal Tengri, on the day of the Red Tiger, I was born," thereby establishing Tengri as the causal force behind imperial legitimacy and success.^[28] This invocation integrated Tengri worship with shamanic elements, as Genghis consulted shamans for omens while positioning Tengri as the supreme arbiter over ancestral spirits, fostering a cohesive ideology that propelled steppe unification.^[29] Chinggisid successors perpetuated Tengri's centrality in state rituals, tolerating diverse faiths during conquests while reserving oaths and decrees for invocation of the sky god. Ögedei Khan (r. 1229–1241), Genghis's designated heir, issued administrative edicts in the 1230s that reinforced Mongol customary law (yasa), implicitly upholding Tengri's overarching authority through continued shamanic consultations and ritual observances in court proceedings.^[30] Persian chronicler Rashid al-Din, in his Jami' al-Tawarikh, documents Mongol court practices including libations of mare's milk to Tengri during assemblies and campaigns, portraying these as expressions of submission to the eternal sky that underpinned imperial expansion.^[31] Similarly, Chinese records in the Yuan Shi describe sky-god veneration in Mongol imperial ceremonies, where rulers offered sacrifices skyward to affirm cosmic order and justify dominion over conquered realms.^[32] This adaptation of Tengriism provided a unifying theological framework for the empire's vast enterprises, with empirical accounts from contemporary observers confirming rituals' role in maintaining cohesion amid multi-ethnic governance; for instance, Guyük Khan's 1246 diplomatic seal and correspondence explicitly referenced Tengri's power, echoing Genghis's foundational appeals.^[33] Such practices empirically correlated with the Mongols' rapid militarization and administrative innovations, as Tengri's favor was invoked to legitimize merit-based hierarchies over tribal kinships.^[27]

Decline and Syncretism with Abrahamic and Eastern Religions

The process of Tengriism's decline accelerated during the 10th to 14th centuries, primarily through the gradual Islamization of Turkic khanates and the adoption of Buddhism among Mongols, though syncretic adaptations preserved core elements rather than enabling total erasure.^[34] The Karakhanid Khanate, the first Turkic state to officially embrace Islam, underwent conversion under Satuq Bughra Khan around 934 CE, followed by mass baptisms reported as encompassing 200,000 tents by 960 CE, driven by trade contacts and elite emulation rather than widespread coercion.^[35] ^[36] Early Islamic adoption among Turks often reframed Tengri as a synonym for Allah, facilitating nominal continuity of sky-god veneration within monotheistic orthodoxy, as evidenced in Turkic texts where divine invocations blended pre-Islamic and Abrahamic attributes.^[37] In the Mongol realm, the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 CE) under Kublai Khan marked a shift toward Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism as state-favored, with Tengri's supreme attributes syncretized to Vairocana, the cosmic dhyani Buddha embodying universal order, reflecting Mongol tolerance for layered cosmologies over exclusive replacement.^[33] This integration arose from pragmatic alliances with Tibetan lamas for administrative legitimacy, yet empirical records indicate Tengriist shamanic practices coexisted, underscoring causal realism in religious change via political utility rather than doctrinal purity.^[33] Official conversions did not eradicate Tengriism's substrate, as folk traditions in post-Islamic Turkic societies retained invocations of Tengri; Kazakh oral epics, for example, equate the deity with the Islamic God while embedding animistic motifs, demonstrating persistent syncretism amid surface-level Abrahamic dominance.^[38] ^[39] Such endurance challenges narratives of wholesale supplantation, revealing instead incremental marginalization through elite-driven shifts, with lower strata adapting beliefs via causal blending of environmental reverence and imported ethics.^[37] By the 14th century's close, including the Golden Horde's Islamization under Özbeg Khan in 1313 CE, Tengriism receded as dominant but survived in hybridized forms, prioritizing empirical adaptation over ideological rupture.^[6]

Theology and Cosmology

Attributes of Tengri as Supreme Deity

Tengri is portrayed in ancient Turkic sources as the omnipotent and eternal supreme deity, embodying the formless expanse of the sky, often invoked as Gök Tengri, the Blue Sky, symbolizing infinite vastness and cosmic order.^[3] In the Orkhon inscriptions from the 8th century CE, Tengri is depicted as the ultimate granter of sovereignty to rulers and determiner of human fates, underscoring its role as creator and sustainer of life who predestines the rise and fall of nations.^[40] This transcendent entity lacks anthropomorphic form, manifesting instead through celestial phenomena, which aligns with the animistic yet centralized reverence in steppe cosmology.^[41] As a divine judge, Tengri enforces moral equilibrium, bestowing fortune upon the righteous and inflicting retribution via natural disasters on those who violate ethical norms, as evidenced in divination practices detailed in texts like the 9th-century Irk Bitig, where Tengri is addressed as the God of the Turks overseeing omens and justice.^[42] Such attributes position Tengri not merely as a passive sky force but as an active arbiter of virtue, linking human conduct directly to environmental outcomes in a causal framework of reward and punishment.^[43] Tengri's supremacy operates within a henotheistic structure, holding dominion over subordinate spirits and elemental forces without denying their existence, thus rejecting claims of egalitarian polytheism while falling short of absolute monotheism due to the persistent animistic veneration of nature intermediaries. Primary inscriptions affirm this hierarchy, with Tengri commanding auxiliary deities like Yer-Sub (Earth-Water), ensuring a unified yet layered theological order rooted in empirical observations of steppe life's interdependence.^[44]

Creation Myths and World Order

In Tengrist cosmology, the creation of the ordered world begins with the primordial separation of the sky deity Tengri, embodying the eternal blue vault, from the earth entity Yer, representing the fertile ground and maternal foundation. This dichotomy, drawn from ancient steppe oral traditions and echoed in fragmented Turkic epics, posits an initial state of unity disrupted to form distinct realms, with Tengri ascending as the overarching ruler to impose structure on chaos.^[40]^[9] The process reflects a causal progression from undifferentiated potential to stratified existence, where Tengri's dominion ensures the sky's vastness mirrors the steppe nomads' horizon-bound worldview. The resultant world order manifests as a tripartite structure: the upper world of celestial purity under Tengri's direct governance, the middle world inhabited by humans and terrestrial life, and the lower world of subterranean forces. Tengri sustains cyclical equilibrium across these layers, intervening to avert dissolution into primordial disorder, as preserved in shamanic recitations and runic inscriptions alluding to divine oversight.^[34]^[45] This hierarchy underscores a vertical axis of power, with the cosmic tree often symbolizing connectivity between realms in reconstructed myths, though direct attestations remain sparse due to the oral nature of transmission. Mythic episodes portray Tengri's agency through natural phenomena attuned to steppe ecology, such as thunder interpreted as the deity's resonant command and lightning as punitive arrows dispatched against disruptive entities, thereby enforcing order amid volatile weather patterns essential to pastoral survival.^[9]^[40] These elements, rooted in pre-Islamic Turkic lore from the 6th to 9th centuries, emphasize causal interventions by Tengri to perpetuate harmony, without reliance on subordinate intermediaries in core narratives.

Subordinate Deities and Spirits

In ancient Turkic religious inscriptions, such as the 8th-century Orkhon monuments, Umay (also Umai) appears as a prominent female deity invoked alongside Tengri and Yer-Sub for granting victory and protection, particularly over women, children, and fertility.^[46]^[23] Yer-Sub, representing the sacred earth and waters, complements Tengri's celestial authority as a foundational pair in the cosmic order, emphasizing balance between sky and terrestrial forces without implying polytheistic equality.^[9] Erlik (or Erlik Khan), depicted as the ruler of the underworld and associated with death and malevolent forces, emerges more prominently in later Altaic and Mongol-influenced Turkic folklore rather than early runic attestations, where Tengri retains unchallenged supremacy over all realms including the subterranean.^[47] This distinction highlights how empirical epigraphic evidence prioritizes Tengri's singular dominance, while oral traditions accreted underworld figures like Erlik as subordinate executors of fate, often in tension with the high god's will.^[48] Ancestor spirits, referred to in some contexts as itig or revered forebears, and animistic nature entities (such as those embodying mountains, rivers, or winds) functioned as intermediaries channeling Tengri's directives through shamanic mediation, without forming a rival pantheon.^[6] These elements underscore Tengrism's monotheistic core, where subordinates derive authority solely from the supreme deity, rejecting later elaborations of independent divine hierarchies seen in syncretic or reconstructed systems.^[23]

Worship and Practices

Core Rituals and Sacrifices

Core rituals in Tengrism revolved around invocations and offerings to Tengri as the supreme sky deity, emphasizing his role in granting authority, victory, and justice to rulers and tribes. In the Göktürk Khaganate (6th–8th centuries CE), khagans derived their legitimacy through ceremonies invoking Tengri, often involving skyward prayers where participants raised hands and performed low bows to petition for wisdom, health, and success in endeavors. These practices are attested in Old Turkic texts and Chinese historical records, which describe prayers directed upward without intermediaries, reflecting Tengri's omnipresence above the physical sky.^[9] Sacrifices formed a central component, particularly animal offerings symbolizing submission and renewal. Göktürk sources and Chinese annals, such as the Choushu Chronicles, record the ritual slaughter of sheep and horses—often white horses for purity—in the fifth lunar month as dedications to Tengri, with blood poured over sacred trees or sites to invoke divine favor. Horse sacrifices were especially prominent in khagan enthronements and military campaigns, as evidenced by archaeological finds of ritually buried equines in kurgans from the Altai region and southern Siberia, dating to the 6th–7th centuries CE, where the animals' heads and hides were suspended as votive symbols.^[49] These acts reconstructed cosmic order, aligning human actions with Tengri's will, and were performed collectively at elevated sites like mountain summits to bridge earth and sky.^[50] Oaths sworn in Tengri's name underscored rituals of justice and alliance. In the Orkhon inscriptions (early 8th century CE), Turkic rulers invoked Tengri to affirm treaties, punish betrayal, and legitimize rule, with violators facing divine retribution such as shortened lifespan or defeat.^[23] Such oaths, documented in runiform texts from the Orkhon Valley, Mongolia, integrated prayer with binding vows, ensuring accountability under Tengri's oversight of fate.^[49] Offerings of kumys (fermented mare's milk) accompanied these, sprinkled skyward during ceremonies to symbolize abundance and harmony with the eternal blue sky (Kök Tengri).^[37]

Shamanism and Divination

In Tengrist traditions among Turkic and Mongol steppe peoples, shamans—known as kam in Turkic languages and böö in Mongolian—served as essential intermediaries facilitating communication between humans and Tengri, the supreme sky deity, as well as subordinate spirits of the upper, middle, and lower worlds. These practitioners entered altered states of consciousness to petition Tengri for guidance, resolve soul-loss ailments, or negotiate with ancestral or nature spirits, reflecting a pragmatic mechanism for interpreting environmental signals in the unpredictable nomadic context of harsh steppes, where empirical uncertainties like weather patterns and herd health demanded interpretive tools for survival decisions.^[51]^[52] Trance induction, a core shamanic technique, involved rhythmic drumming on instruments such as the tüngür or symbolic cloth drums adorned with spirit representations, accompanied by chants and invocations to invoke Tengri's presence or dispatch the shaman's soul on journeys to spirit realms. Ethnographic accounts from Siberian Telengit communities, preserving pre-modern practices, describe shamans falling into trance during rituals with fire offerings and juniper fumigation, enabling direct dialogue with sky spirits like Ülgen (a benevolent aspect of Tengri) or retrieval of errant souls, as documented in field observations from the 1990s tracing continuity from ancient steppe shamanism. Mongol chronicles, including references in the Secret History of the Mongols (ca. 1240), allude to influential shamans like Teb Tengri advising on omens, underscoring trance-based counsel's role in khanate decision-making amid warfare and migrations.^[51]^[53] Divination practices complemented trance work, with scapulimancy—interpreting cracks and patterns on heated sheep shoulder blades—serving as a primary method to discern Tengri's will through observable physical signs, often preceding hunts, battles, or relocations to mitigate nomadic risks. Legends in Mongolian oral traditions attribute scapulimancy's adoption to ancient borrowings, such as Üitü Mergen Temene's recovery of charred divination knowledge onto a sheep blade, embedding it as a causal tool for probabilistic forecasting in environments lacking advanced predictive technologies. Shamans read these bones as omens from Tengri or intermediary tngri (sky deities), integrating empirical bone morphology with spirit-mediated causality to guide actions, as evidenced in pre-imperial steppe rituals and later Oirat practices.^[54]^[55]^[52]

Harmony with Nature and Ethical Principles

In Tengrism, ethical imperatives stemmed from the theological view of Tengri as the eternal regulator of cosmic balance, compelling adherents to align human actions with the rhythms of the steppe environment to avert calamity and secure prosperity. Nomadic survival necessitated restraint against excess, such as overexploitation of pastures or waters, which could disrupt ecological equilibria and invite Tengri's displeasure through droughts, storms, or military reversals, as Tengri was believed to sustain seasonal cycles and natural order.^[56] This harmony was not an abstract ideal but a pragmatic calculus: steppe herders rotated grazing lands to prevent soil degradation, reflecting causal necessities for tribal endurance rather than prescriptive environmentalism divorced from livelihood imperatives.^[57] Core virtues emphasized resilience and order under divine oversight, including erdem—encompassing bravery, honor, and self-discipline—and kunilik (justice), which ensured equitable resource distribution and deterrence of internal strife.^[58] Courage in warfare and loyalty to the khagan were non-negotiable, as the Orkhon inscriptions (circa 716–735 CE) attribute imperial fortune to rulers who wielded wisdom and firmness to shield the töre (tribal law) against betrayal or weakness, invoking Tengri's mandate as the arbiter of human fates.^[5]^[40] These traits prioritized collective viability in harsh terrains over universal humanistic ethics, where individual excess or disloyalty threatened the whole, much as unchecked herding could exhaust vital grasslands. Such principles critiqued anthropocentric moral frameworks by grounding obligation in observable causal chains—overreach yielding famine or conquest—rather than sentimental appeals to nature's sanctity, a distortion evident in some contemporary neo-Tengrist portrayals that infuse Stoic rationalism absent from ancient praxis.^[59] Historical sources, including runic steles, reveal no codified dogma but inferred norms from Tengri's role in bestowing or withholding küt (fortune), reinforcing ethics as instrumental to geopolitical and ecological realism.^[60]

Cultural Legacy

Geographical and Toponymic References

Khan Tengri is a prominent pyramidal peak in the Tian Shan mountain range, standing at 7,010 meters on the tripoint border of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and China.^[61] The name "Khan Tengri," translating to "Ruler of Tengri" or "Lord of the Sky" in Turkic languages, reflects its ancient association with the supreme sky deity Tengri, evoking divine sovereignty in Tengrist cosmology where high mountains served as symbolic bridges to the heavens.^[61]^[62] The broader Tian Shan range, known historically among Uyghur and Turkic peoples as Tengri Tagh or "Mountains of Tengri," underscores this sacred geography, with the name deriving from the belief in Tengri's presence atop these celestial heights.^[63] The Tengri Tag subrange, encompassing Khan Tengri, further embeds this toponymic reverence, linking the physical landscape to the spiritual domain of the eternal blue sky in Central Asian steppe traditions.^[64]^[65]

Influences on Folklore, Art, and Governance

In the Kyrgyz Epic of Manas, Tengri is invoked as the supreme sky deity who answers prayers for deliverance and prophesies the birth of the hero Manas to restore order among nomadic tribes threatened by enemies, embedding Tengrist cosmology into the narrative structure where divine intervention upholds heroic virtues and communal harmony.^[66]^[37] Similarly, in the Mongolian Epic of Geser, the protagonist descends from heavenly realms ruled by Hormusda Tengri, the eternal sky god, to combat demonic forces on earth, portraying Tengri as the ultimate arbiter who dispatches warriors to maintain cosmic balance against chaos.^[67]^[68] These motifs transmit Tengrist principles of divine oversight and moral heroism across oral traditions, influencing folklore in Turkic and Mongolic descendant cultures from the 9th century onward, as evidenced by recitations that blend shamanic invocations with epic storytelling.^[69] Central Asian textile arts, particularly Uzbek carpets from nomadic traditions dating to the pre-Islamic era, incorporate shamanistic symbols linked to Tengriism, such as equilateral crosses representing steppe mandalas that evoke the expansive sky and protective cosmic order under Tengri's gaze.^[70] These geometric motifs, repeated in rugs used for daily nomadic life, reflect a continuity of Tengriist reverence for the eternal blue heavens as a symbol of divine vastness and fertility, persisting through Turkic migrations despite later Islamic overlays. Tamgas, the branded clan symbols etched on livestock and artifacts from the 6th-century Göktürk period, often feature linear and celestial-inspired designs that scholars attribute to invocations of Tengri's favor for tribal identity and protection, though direct iconographic links remain interpretive rather than explicit.^[71] In governance, Tengriism provided a foundational mandate for steppe rulers, as seen in the Mongol Empire where khans like Genghis Khan (r. 1206–1227) claimed authority derived from Tengri's direct will, framing conquests as divinely sanctioned to enforce universal order (yasa) across conquered territories.^[72]^[73] This concept of heavenly election legitimized autocratic rule by portraying the khan as Tengri's earthly agent, a principle echoed in The Secret History of the Mongols (c. 1240) where Genghis invokes Tengri to justify unification and expansion, influencing successor states like the Golden Horde (1240s–1502) where Chinggisid khans retained claims to divine oversight amid Islamization.^[74] Such causal transmission shaped perceptions of sovereignty in Inner Asian polities, prioritizing merit-based rule under celestial validation over hereditary absolutism alone.^[34]

Modern Revival

Neo-Tengrist Movements in Central Asia

In the post-Soviet era, Neo-Tengrist movements in Kazakhstan have gained traction among intellectual and nationalist circles seeking to reconstruct ancestral Turkic-Mongolic spirituality as a counterpoint to Islamic resurgence and Soviet-era secularism. These efforts, emerging prominently in the 1990s, involve small associations that interpret Tengrism as a foundational element of Kazakh identity, emphasizing sky worship and nomadic ethics to foster cultural autonomy.^[75]^[76] Organized activities include public rituals, lectures, and publications promoting Tengrist cosmology as intertwined with Kazakh nationalism, often framing it as an ecological worldview harmonious with steppe landscapes and anti-urban modernity. By 2024, scholarly analyses highlighted its potential integration into national discourse, though participation remains limited to niche groups rather than mass adherence.^[77]^[78] Similar revivals occur in Kyrgyzstan, where Tengrism serves political nationalism by invoking pre-Islamic heritage to unify ethnic identities amid regional instability. Activists deploy it in cultural events and writings to assert indigenous spiritual sovereignty, distinct from Abrahamic influences.^[79] In Mongolia, Neo-Tengrist expressions manifest through informal gatherings and integrations into traditional festivals like Naadam, where invocations of Tengri accompany wrestling, archery, and horse racing to evoke ancestral reverence for the eternal blue sky. These movements, active since the 1990s democratic transitions, blend shamanic elements with environmental stewardship, reflecting nomadic resilience against modernization pressures.^[80]

Scholarly and Nationalist Interpretations

Scholars interpret Tengriism primarily through primary sources such as the 8th-century Orkhon inscriptions, which depict Tengri as the supreme sky deity granting rulership and victory to Turkic khagans, yet alongside references to ancestor spirits and natural forces indicative of animistic elements.^[5] These texts, carved in Old Turkic script, emphasize Tengri's role in cosmic order but do not exclude subordinate entities, leading to classifications ranging from henotheism—where Tengri holds primacy amid a pantheon—to a shamanistic animism integrated with sky worship.^[81] Recent analyses, including a 2023 philosophical examination, argue for monotheistic features in Tengrism's archaic structure among Turkic-Mongol peoples, though empirical evidence from inscriptions and archaeological contexts reveals persistent veneration of earth, water, and ancestral spirits, challenging claims of exclusive monotheistic purity.^[81]^[82] Nationalist interpretations in post-Soviet Central Asia, particularly Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, reconstruct Tengrism as a monotheistic ancestral faith to bolster ethnic identity against Islamic dominance and cultural homogenization.^[76] Proponents assert its superiority as a native, nature-harmonious belief system predating foreign influences, often elevating Tengri to a singular creator god while minimizing animistic practices documented in historical records.^[83] A 2024 study on Kazakhstan's revival highlights how such views serve identity reconstruction, drawing on selective readings of Orkhon texts to promote cultural preservation amid globalization, though they diverge from the syncretic, polyvalent spirituality evident in primary sources.^[76]^[84] These nationalist framings prioritize ideological continuity over comprehensive historical fidelity, contrasting scholarly emphasis on Tengriism's embedded shamanism and environmental animism as adaptive steppe cosmology rather than doctrinal monotheism.^[78]

Challenges and Criticisms in Contemporary Contexts

The absence of canonical texts and formalized structures poses significant challenges to organizing contemporary Tengrist practice, as the tradition relies on fragmented oral histories, archaeological evidence, and improvised rituals without clergy or unified doctrines, leading to inconsistencies in observance.^[76] This lack of scriptural authority, unlike Abrahamic or Buddhist traditions, hinders proselytization and institutionalization, with critics like Kazakh historian Mukhan Iskhan viewing revival efforts as artificially constructed rather than organically continuous.^[76] In Muslim-majority states such as Kazakhstan, where Islam claims over 70% adherence, Tengrism encounters societal dilution through syncretism, as folk practices blend Tengri reverence with Islamic saint veneration, obscuring distinct tenets and limiting appeal beyond cultural symbolism.^[76]^[85] State attitudes exacerbate these hurdles, treating overt Tengrist revival as a potential political project tied to ethnic nationalism, prompting skepticism from authorities wary of divisiveness in secular frameworks; for instance, while youth festivals occur, broader institutional support remains absent amid dominant Islamic norms.^[76] Political Tengrism's linkage to Turkic identity risks fostering extremism by positioning it as antithetical to Islam, potentially heightening inter-ethnic tensions in multi-confessional societies like Kyrgyzstan and Tatarstan, where proponents invoke ancient empires to assert exclusivity.^[85] Scholars critique this as an "invention of tradition," adapting pre-Islamic elements selectively for modern nationalist agendas, which may dilute causal fidelity to steppe nomadism's pragmatic spirituality.^[85] Despite criticisms, grassroots resilience persists, with estimates of up to 1 million adherents in Kazakhstan by 2024, evidenced by public events like the August 23 Almaty press conference advocating recognition.^[76] Tengrism's emphasis on ecological harmony—viewing nature as extensions of Tengri's will—offers relevant ethics for contemporary environmental crises, as seen in Kazakh youth initiatives and Turkic literary reflections critiquing industrial excess, underscoring steppe continuities in resource stewardship rather than mere pagan romanticism.^[76]^[86] This causal realism counters dismissal as fringe revivalism, highlighting empirical persistence in practices like mountain rituals amid globalization's disruptions.^[85]

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[8]
Turkic etymology : Query result
Proto-Turkic: *teŋri / *taŋrɨ ; Meaning: 1 god 2 sky, heaven ; Russian meaning: 1 бог 2 небо ; Old Turkic: teŋri 2 (Orkh.), 1, 2 (OUygh.) ; Karakhanid: teŋri 1, 2 ( ...Missing: linguistic | Show results with:linguistic
[9]
ANCIENT TURKIC DEITIES - HUNMAGYAR.ORG
The appearance of Tengri is unknown. The words 'Tengri' and 'Sky' for the ancient Türks and Mongols were synonyms. The epithet 'Kuk' was also given to some ...
[10]
The Pre-Islamic Religion Concept of Turks and Gok Tengri Religion
This study examines the pre-Islamic Turkish approach to religion and the Gok Tengri religion, which the Chinese defined as Turkish religion.
[11]
Taskin - Hunnu 1968 - TurkicWorld
Jun 20, 2010 · In that respect the Türkic “Shan“ in Chinese has the same meaning as Tengiz/Dengiz/Chingiz, Kul/Kül, etc. The word Tengri; judging by the ...
[12]
Mongol Empire and Religious Freedom - History on the Net
Humans are living spiritual creatures in a world of other spirits/forces/gods, with the Greatest Spirits being Koke Mongke Tengri, the Eternal Blue Heaven, and ...
[13]
Some further notes on the old Mongol religion-2 - mAnasa-taraMgiNI
Jul 1, 2021 · Their shamans raised a blizzard against the Mongols but the Khan's invocation of Köke Möngke Tengri turned the blizzard against the Naimans.
[14]
[PDF] Religion of Old Turks - ResearchGate
There are great differences between Siberi- an shamanism and hunnu (xiongnu) turk mongol empires' ancient religion, that was the cornerstone of imperial ...
[15]
Where did Tengriism come from? - E-history.kz
May 18, 2020 · In Central Asia, the belief in Taniri began to spread first in the 3rd century B.C., with the advent of the people of Jundi led by the ruling ...
[16]
The Xiongnu Culture - Third Century BCE - Silk-Road.com
According to Chinese sources, the Xiongnu worshipped heaven, earth, the sun, the moon, and their ancestors. The culture was shamanistic, and shamans could have ...<|separator|>
[17]
Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections ...
According to Vovin (2019a), the Brāhmī Bugut inscription is dated to ca. 584–587 AD, and the Khüis Tolgoi inscription must have been erected between 604 and 620 ...Missing: Tengri | Show results with:Tengri
[18]
On the Bugut Inscription and Mausoleum Complex - Transoxiana
The Bugut inscription shows how close the Turks and the Sogds indicating that the Turks used Sogdian language and alphabet at the court. Moreover, the ...Missing: attestations Tengri Xiongnu Xianbei
[19]
(PDF) “'Eternal Stones': Historical Memory and Notions of History ...
The earliest Türk inscription with his- torical content is found in the poorly preserved Bugut stele dated to 582 BCE, part of the burial complex13 for Tatpar ...
[20]
File:Kultigin Monument of Orkhon Inscriptions.jpeg
Tengri, which had raised my father, the kagan, and my mother, the katun, and which had granted them a state, For the name and fame of the Turk people would not ...
[21]
Translation - TURK BITIG
I, Tengri-like and Tengri-born Turkish Bilge Kagan, succeeded to the throne at this time. Hear my words, all of you, my younger brothers and my sons, and my ...
[22]
Turkish Monuments in Mongolia - Travel Atelier
The Bilge Khagan Inscription was erected in 735 by Bilge Khagan's youngest son Tengri Khagan. The inscription, which is broken in four parts today, is a ...
[23]
(PDF) Tengri functions in ancient Turkic writing monuments
In the article the essence and value of concept “tengrianism”, based on ancient Turkic beliefs in the uniform God - Tanry (or Giok Tanry) is investigated.
[24]
R.Bezertinov - TENGRIANIZM - TurkicWorld
Crimes or offences against their Khagan were punished by Tengri (or by His will), for He gave the authority to Khagan. By Tengri a man became Khagan, and lived ...Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
[25]
Religious Conversions of the Eastern Turks - Study Buddhism
The Old Turks followed a religious tradition that blended shamanism with what Western scholars have named “Tengrism,” a faith worshiping Heaven (Turk. Tengri) ...
[26]
Uyghur Buddhism and the Impact of Manichaeism and Native Religion
PDF | On Apr 3, 2024, Jens Wilkens published Uyghur Buddhism and the Impact of Manichaeism and Native Religion: The Case of Religious Terminology | Find, ...
[27]
Genghis Khan and his relationship with Religion and Power in ... - jstor
Dec 4, 2020 · The Eternal Heaven is an expression frequently used in The Secret History of the Mongols. As noted earlier,. Mongol Shamanism centers around ...
[28]
[PDF] Genghis Khan Hero or Villain? - Carolina Asia Center
An example of Genghis Khan's perception of loyalty is written, in. The Secret History of the Mongols ... Genghis believed that Eternal Heaven, or Tengri, had ...
[29]
Continuities in Inner Asian Legitimation: The Case of the Secret ...
Continuities in Inner Asian Legitimation: The Case of the Secret History of the Mongols Vito S. ... Eternal Heaven, I crushed the Keyeyit people, and ...
[30]
Ögedei Khan - World History Encyclopedia
Sep 23, 2019 · Ogedei Khan (aka Ogodei) ruled the Mongol Empire from 1229 to 1241. He was the third son of Genghis Khan (r. 1206-1227), the empire's ...Missing: edicts Tengri
[31]
Turkish and Mongol Shamanism in the Middle Ages - jstor
On winter nights the Mongol Khan, so Rashid al-Din te the authority of the native bards, would throw whole the fire and lie down beside it. As the wood ...
[32]
Mongol Religions | Encyclopedia.com
According to the Yuanshi, the official Chinese history of the Yüan dynasty, these shamans pronounced their prayers and invocations in the Mongolian language.
[33]
https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-613
[34]
Tengrism - İsa Alemdağ
Mar 7, 2025 · Tengrism originated among the early Turkic steppe nomads, with roots extending back to at least the first millennium BCE. The earliest records ...Missing: progenitor | Show results with:progenitor
[35]
Qarakhanids Convert to Islam | Research Starters - EBSCO
The Qarakhanids are notable for being the first Turkish people to convert to Islam, a process that began in the 10th century under the leadership of Satuq ...
[36]
TURKS AND THE SPREAD OF ISLAM IN CENTRAL ASIA
In the mid-10th century, the Karakhanids converted to Islam and adopted Muslim names and honorifics, but retained Turkic regnal titles such as Khan, Khagan, ...
[37]
Tengrism is the religion of steppes and nature - Central Asia Guide
Jan 13, 2025 · Tengrism is a Central Asian steppe and mountain religion that has connections to shamanism, worshipping of nature and natural phenomena.
[38]
Buddhism in Mongolia - Wikipedia
Vajrayana Buddhism in Mongolia began with the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) emperors' conversion to Tibetan Buddhism. The Mongols returned to shamanic traditions ...
[39]
[PDF] THE FIRE CULT AND ISLAM IN THE KAZAKH SYSTEM OF BELIEFS
Feb 4, 2017 · Many other Kazakh authors hold that in the period under review, the religious consciousness of the people had assumed a syncretic, ...
[40]
Revival of Tengrism in Kazakhstan as ancient belief of the Kazakh ...
This research investigates the resurgence of Tengrism, an ancestral belief system native to Kazakhstan. This traditional religion, rooted in ancient history ...
[41]
THE GODS OF THE KHAZARIAN TURKS ⋆ Khazaria.org
The Turks and Mongols believed that all existence in the Universe was attributed to Tengri, the Sky God. It was Tengri who ruled the fate of entire nations.Missing: Küç mandate
[42]
By the Power of Eternal Heaven: The Meaning of Tenggeri to the ...
This essay discusses the meaning of heaven (tenggeri) to the government of the Mongol Empire prior to Qubilai khan's conversion to Buddhism in 1264.
[43]
Irk Bitig - TurkicWorld
Sep 3, 2012 · Irk Bitig or Irq Bitig, the Book of Omens, is the earliest and the only known complete manuscript text written in Old Turkic script also known as Orkhon or ...
[44]
(PDF) A Possible Source of 'Tengrism' - Academia.edu
This paper explores the concept of 'Tengrism' as a monotheistic religion among Turkic and Mongolian peoples, examining its historical roots and external sources ...
[45]
R.Bezertinov - TENGRIANIZM - TurkicWorld
The initial religion in its etymological form closely resembles the Chinese Sky God, and is likely an adopted religion incorporated into existing nomadic world ...
[46]
TENGRIISM | PDF | Anthropology Of Religion | Mythology - Scribd
Upperworld. The Tengriist universe consisted of three worlds, a lower or underground world, the middle world in which human beings lived, and the upper ...
[47]
[PDF] Ancient Turks and the Mother Goddess Umay/Umai
Oct 27, 2021 · Orkhon-Yenisei runic inscriptions are monuments of Turkic culture. The second evidence shows that the petroglyphs on the horses studied by us ...
[48]
Erlik Han in Tengrism - İsa Alemdağ
Mar 8, 2025 · Erlik Han appears in various myths and legends of the Turkic and tribes, often depicted as a powerful deity who rules the underworld. According ...Missing: subordinate Umay attestations texts
[49]
[PDF] A Study of the Ancient Turkic "TARQAN"
In the Altay shamanism in southern Siberia, there is Erlik Khan who is the ruler of the underworld corresponding to K'daai Khan of Yakuts. According to ...
[50]
[PDF] RITES AND RITUALS OF ANCIENT TURKIC PERIOD BY THE ...
Some were ac- companied by sacrifices, others were limited only to prayers. The collective rite action (ritual) of the sacrifice of Tengri was carried out in ...
[51]
https://real.mtak.hu/20546/1/ShamanVol22_FieldReport_u_210151.753567.pdf
[52]
[PDF] Black Shamans of the Turkic-Speaking Telengit in Southern Siberia
He was about twenty years old when he became a shaman by obtaining a shamanic drum (tüngür). The Telengit do not have any special initiation rituals, one ...
[53]
How the Shamans Created the Mongol Empire (Video)
Sep 4, 2024 · Before any major military action, shamans were consulted to determine the likelihood of success, often using methods like scapulimancy—reading ...
[54]
Mongolian Shamans: Exploring the Mystical Path of the Böö
Sep 20, 2023 · At the core of Mongolian shamanism lies the profound connection with the spirit world. In traditional ceremonies, Böö chant and dance, entering ...<|separator|>
[55]
[PDF] Frame Narratives Concerning the Chinese Origin of Divination and ...
Mergen Temene saw this, and following his advice, the Mongols began to divine by the means of sheep shoulder blades (scapulimancy).44 According to another ...
[56]
On the History of Mongolian Shamanism in Anthropological ... - jstor
... scapulimancy, dream- books, prayers, and hymns, and hagiographia of eminent shamans. In spite of the beginnings of a written tradition of Mongolian shamanism,.
[57]
Shamanism (Tengerism) in Mongolia in English - Face Music
Tenger is the creator and sustainer of balance in the world, the nature, the weather and the seasons. Lightning is Tenger's form of showing displeasure or an ...
[58]
The Idea of Space among the Nomads of Great Steppe - Social studies
The nomadic Mongols and Turks settled across the vast Inner Asian expanse, embracing natural zones from desert to tundra and from highlands to flat steppes. ...
[59]
[PDF] Sufi Motives in Ancient Turkic Nomadic Culture
The Turkic ideal of erdem (virtue) and kunilik (justice) were reinterpreted in light of Islamic ethics. Hospitality, bravery, and honor – prized traits on ...<|separator|>
[60]
Stoic Tengrism - The Tengrist Society
Stoicism is a philosophical school that originated in ancient Greece and emphasizes the importance of living in accordance with nature and accepting the ...Missing: henotheistic | Show results with:henotheistic<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
The nature and human being in the Turkic world-view - Academia.edu
Turkic people's worldview integrates nature and humanity, shaped by their nomadic lifestyle and environment. The study examines the historical perception of ...Missing: taboos | Show results with:taboos
[62]
Khan-Tengri, Kazakhstan - Advantour
"Lord of the Sky" was the name given by the ancient Turks to one of the highest peaks of the Tien-Shan – Khan-Tengri. It is situated on the border of Kazakhstan ...
[63]
Climbing Khan Tengri: One Woman's Journey to Kazakhstan's ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Khan Tengri is a pyramidal peak in the Tian Shan mountain range, located on the border between Kazakhstan and the Kyrgyz Republic. Rising to 6, ...
[64]
Tian Shan Mountains - Central Asia Travel
Tian Shan is the majestic and beautiful mountains in the heart of Central Asia. The Tian Shan mountain range stretches from east to west throughout China, ...
[65]
Ridge Tengri-Tag. - silkadv.com
East part of the Central Tien-Shan, under the name Tengri-Tag, represents knot of the highest raisings of all Tien-Shan mountain system.<|control11|><|separator|>
[66]
Tian Shan - PeakVisor
The Tian Shan, also known as the Tengri Tagh, meaning the Mountains of Heaven or the Heavenly Mountains, is a large system of mountain ranges located in ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[67]
The Epic of Manas (Kyrgyzstan) - FabulaHub
Aug 10, 2024 · The people prayed to the Tengri, the sky god, for deliverance. The prophecy of a great hero was whispered among the elders—a warrior who ...
[68]
A Comparative Study of the Epic of Geser and the Mulian Story
But in Mongolian versions, Geser is sent to earth by his father, Hormusda, the ruler of the heav- enly beings (tengri), to free the earth from evil rather than ...
[69]
Some motifs in the Geser Khan epic - mAnasa-taraMgiNI
Aug 10, 2004 · The Geser Khan Epic ... Ten thousand white tenger were raised by Mother Ekhe Yuuren Ibii. When fifty-five tengri were born from the Milky Way,
[70]
Religious cults and rituals - Abai Geser The Mighty
The highest divinity, the sky or the Heaven (tengri in Buryat) is personified in the epos as Khormusta Tengeri or Esege Malan Tengeri. The most archaic cult of ...
[71]
Carpets in Uzbekistan: History and Traditions - Voices On Cental Asia
Jul 16, 2019 · Uzbek carpet decoration is mainly connected with shamanistic (Tengrian) benevolent symbolism (equilateral cross as a kind of steppe “mandala,” ...
[72]
CARPETS xvi. Central Asian Carpets - Encyclopaedia Iranica
These include those woven in the former Turkmen, Uzbek, Tajik, Karakalpak Autonomous, Kirgiz, and Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republics.Missing: Tengri tamgas<|separator|>
[73]
Religion in the Mongol Empire - World History Encyclopedia
Nov 1, 2019 · The main cult, though, was to Tengri (aka Gok Monggke Tenggeri), the 'Blue Sky' or 'Eternal Heaven.' This protector god was thought to have ...
[74]
Tengrism - (Early World Civilizations) - Vocab, Definition, Explanations
Tengrism played a vital role in legitimizing Genghis Khan's authority by framing his conquests as divinely sanctioned. He claimed that Tengri favored him, which ...
[75]
Tengrism in Mongolia
Tengrism is an ancient Central Asian religion that has profoundly impacted Mongolian culture, emphasizing harmony with nature and veneration of the Sky God ...
[76]
Neo-Tengrianism in Kazakhstan as a response to re-Islamization
Aug 10, 2025 · This article analyzes the ideological foundations and origins of modern Tengrism in Kazakhstan. In the search for spiritual landmarks during the ...
[77]
[PDF] Revival of Tengrism in Kazakhstan as ancient belief of the Kazakh ...
Oct 24, 2024 · This research investigates the resurgence of Tengrism, an ancestral belief system native to Kazakhstan. This traditional religion, rooted in ...
[78]
Revival of Tengrism in Kazakhstan as ancient belief of the Kazakh ...
Aug 9, 2025 · This paper enquires into the ways in which Tengrism is being politically deployed in the service of post-Soviet nationalisms in Kyrgyzstan and ...
[79]
5 Reborn nation, born-again religion? The case of Tengrism - jstor
The word Tengri signifies Kuday [God]. In Arab, it is Allah. In the. Turkic languages, one says Tengri. In Farsi, one says Kuday. The. Kyrgyz use expressions ...
[80]
Political Tengrism in Central Asia and Tatarstan | Request PDF
Aug 6, 2025 · This paper enquires into the ways in which Tengrism is being politically deployed in the service of post-Soviet nationalisms in Kyrgyzstan and ...Missing: organized | Show results with:organized<|control11|><|separator|>
[81]
Naadam, Mongolian traditional festival
Naadam is a national festival celebrated every year from 11 to 13 July across Mongolia that focuses on three traditional games: horseracing, wrestling and ...
[82]
Religious and Philosophical Analysis of the Monotheism of Tengrism
Dec 26, 2023 · The article analyzes the presence of features of monotheistic religions in Tengrism as an archaic religion of the Turkic-Mongolian peoples.Missing: animism | Show results with:animism
[83]
CONTENDING CLAIMS IN THE POST-SOVIET KAZAKH CONTEXT
Nov 12, 2013 · 70 She argues for a historically, progressively achieved near-perfect synthesis between. Islam and Kazakh nomadic culture inclusive of Tengrism.Missing: persistence folklore
[84]
TENGRISM: IN SEARCH FOR CENTRAL ASIA'S SPIRITUAL ROOTS
Mar 22, 2006 · Tengrism represents a paradoxical but important element of spirituality in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. It partakes of the re-appropriation of a national past.Missing: adherence 2020-2025
[85]
(PDF) Religious-Cultural Revivalism as Historiographical Debate
Aug 9, 2025 · According to its theoreticians, Tengrism represents a key element in the identity renewal of Turkic-Mongol peoples and should be adopted as ...
[86]
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17503132.2023.2298050
[87]
environment and identity in Ermek Tursunov's Tengrist parables
Jan 3, 2024 · Ermek Tursunov's films explore Tengrism, a pre-Islamic Turkic religion, and its view of nature mediated by the Sky God, relating it to global ...