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Tim Noakes

Timothy David Noakes (born 1949) is a South African exercise physiologist and emeritus professor in the Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine at the University of Cape Town, where he earned his MBChB in 1974, MD in 1981, and DSc (Med) in Exercise Science in 2002.^[1]^[2]
Renowned for foundational contributions to sports science, including theories on central fatigue, hydration strategies, and the rethinking of carbohydrate fueling for endurance athletes, Noakes has published over 750 peer-reviewed articles, achieving an h-index of 77 and more than 21,000 citations.^[3]^[4]
He co-founded the Sports Science Institute of South Africa in 1995 and received top honors such as A1 rating from the National Research Foundation, the Order of Mapungubwe (Silver) for sports science advancements, and global third-place ranking in sports science impact.^[2]^[5]^[6]
In the 2010s, Noakes shifted to advocating low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) nutrition after personally reversing his type 2 diabetes diagnosis through dietary changes, emphasizing insulin resistance as a key metabolic driver over traditional high-carb recommendations.^[7]^[8]
This stance led to professional charges by the Health Professions Council of South Africa in 2015 over a tweet suggesting LCHF suitability for breastfeeding mothers, but he was found not guilty of misconduct in 2017, with the appeal dismissed in 2018, highlighting tensions between evidence-based dietary reevaluation and established guidelines.^[9]^[10]^[11]

Early Life and Education

Childhood and Family Background

Timothy Noakes was born in 1949 in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia (now Harare, Zimbabwe), into a family with roots in tobacco exporting.^[2] His grandfather operated as a successful tobacco merchant in Liverpool, England, while his father, nicknamed "Penny" due to his reputedly ruthless business practices, relocated the family to Rhodesia following World War II.^[12] The family moved to Cape Town, South Africa, when Noakes was five years old, settling there permanently.^[12] His mother doted on him during early childhood, but this bond was strained after he was enrolled in boarding school at age seven, approximately ten miles from home—an ordeal Noakes later characterized as deeply traumatic.^[12] Noakes attended Monterey Preparatory School in Constantia, Cape Town, before enrolling at Diocesan College (commonly known as Bishops), an elite all-boys independent institution in the city.^[13] From a young age, he exhibited a strong affinity for sports, particularly cricket, which foreshadowed his lifelong engagement with athletics.^[13]^[2]

Academic Training and Degrees

Tim Noakes pursued his undergraduate medical training at the University of Cape Town (UCT), where he earned a Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBChB) degree in 1974, qualifying him as a medical doctor.^[2]^[1] This degree represented the foundational academic training in clinical medicine and physiology that informed his subsequent research focus on human performance.^[6] Following his MBChB, Noakes advanced his postgraduate studies at UCT, obtaining a Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree in 1981, which typically involves original research contributions in a medical specialty.^[2]^[3] This qualification deepened his expertise in areas intersecting medicine and exercise science, aligning with his emerging interest in endurance athletics and physiological limits.^[14] In 2002, UCT conferred upon Noakes a Doctor of Science in Medicine (DSc (Med)) in Exercise Science, a higher research doctorate recognizing sustained original scholarship and leadership in the field.^[2]^[1] This degree culminated his formal academic progression at UCT, emphasizing empirical investigations into bioenergetics, hydration, and fatigue mechanisms, without reliance on prior non-medical undergraduate degrees such as a BSc.^[6]

Professional Career in Sports Science

Appointments at University of Cape Town

Tim Noakes obtained his MBChB degree from the University of Cape Town in 1974, followed by an MD in 1981 and a DSc (Med) in Exercise Science in 2002.^[2] In 1981, Noakes was appointed as a lecturer in Sports Science at the University of Cape Town, where he initiated research in exercise physiology using modest resources including one bicycle ergometer and a single assistant.^[15] That same year, he began developing the foundational work that would expand into institutional roles. By 1982, he had launched a postgraduate sports science course with an initial cohort of 13 students.^[15] In 1989, Noakes established the Bioenergetics of Exercise Research Unit (BERU) at UCT, securing sustained funding from the Medical Research Council of South Africa and the university, which marked a pivotal advancement in his administrative and research leadership.^[15] The unit, later evolving into the MRC/UCT Research Unit for Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, relocated to the Sports Science Institute of South Africa in 1995, an entity co-founded under Noakes' influence to integrate research with practical sports applications.^[15] He served as director of this unit, overseeing its growth into a key center for exercise science studies.^[16] Noakes held the Discovery Health Chair of Exercise and Sports Science at UCT, a position reflecting his expertise in the field.^[16] In 1992, he was elected a Fellow of the University of Cape Town in recognition of sustained excellence in original scientific contributions.^[16] He advanced to full professorship and continued as Professor and Director of the Research Unit of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, roles he maintained until his retirement at the end of 2014, after which directorship transitioned to Professors Estelle Lambert and Malcolm Collins.^[2]^[15] During his final 15 years at UCT (1999–2014), Noakes was rated an A1 scientist by the South African National Research Foundation, denoting world-leading status in his discipline.^[2]

Key Research in Exercise Physiology and Hydration

Tim Noakes conducted pioneering research on exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH), first documenting cases of water intoxication in ultra-endurance athletes in 1985, attributing the condition to excessive fluid intake exceeding sweat losses and leading to dilutional hyponatremia with plasma sodium levels below 135 mmol/L.^[17] His studies highlighted that EAH arises from three mechanisms: overdrinking relative to sweat rate, inappropriate retention of ingested fluid due to hormonal factors like elevated antidiuretic hormone, and sodium loss via sweat, with overdrinking identified as the primary modifiable risk.^[18] By analyzing data from thousands of endurance events, Noakes linked EAH to at least a dozen athlete deaths, emphasizing its prevalence in marathons and triathlons where fluid intake often exceeds 1.5 liters per hour.^[19] In response to guidelines from the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) in 1996 and 2007 promoting fluid intake "as much as tolerable" or to replace all weight lost—up to 600-1200 ml per hour—Noakes challenged these as contributing to overhydration risks, arguing they ignored the body's thirst mechanism designed to maintain plasma osmolality rather than euvolemia by body weight.^[20] His 2007 publication advocated drinking to thirst during marathons, noting that ad libitum intake typically results in 2-3% body mass loss without performance decrement, whereas forced hydration induces gastrointestinal distress, weight gain, and hyponatremic encephalopathy.^[20] Empirical evidence from weighed competitors showed that plasma sodium concentration, not dehydration level, correlates inversely with fluid intake, with overhydrated runners (body mass gain >2%) at highest EAH risk.^[21] Noakes' hydration research culminated in his 2012 book Waterlogged: The Serious Problem of Overhydration in Endurance Sports, which synthesized decades of data to refute dehydration myths, demonstrating that hypohydration up to 4% body mass does not impair endurance performance in trained athletes under controlled conditions, while overhydration consistently elevates hyponatremia incidence.^[22] He proposed evidence-based guidelines prioritizing thirst-driven intake, sodium supplementation only for heavy sweaters, and monitoring for weight gain during events longer than 4 hours.^[23] In exercise physiology, Noakes advanced the central governor model, positing that the brain anticipatorily regulates muscle recruitment to avert physiological catastrophe, rather than peripheral factors like muscle acidosis solely dictating fatigue.^[24] First elaborated in his 2000 review, the model integrates afferent feedback from organs—including cardiovascular, thermoregulatory, and metabolic signals—to modulate pacing, explaining why exercise terminates with unused muscle fibers available and why performance varies with motivation or environment despite similar peripheral physiology.^[25] A 2007 application of the model to endurance running showed that perceived effort, calibrated by the central governor, protects against overexertion, with evidence from paced trials where submaximal efforts preserve reserves for end-spurt surges.^[24] This framework, supported by neuroimaging and pacing studies, shifted paradigms from "brainless" peripheral limitation models to complex neural integration, influencing training strategies emphasizing psychological and holistic factors.^[26]

Major Contributions to Exercise Science

Development of the Central Governor Theory

Tim Noakes initially proposed the central governor model during his 1996 J.B. Wolffe Memorial Lecture, challenging the dominant peripheral fatigue paradigm that attributed exercise limitation primarily to metabolic changes in working muscles, such as lactate accumulation or glycogen depletion.^[27] In the lecture, published in 1997, Noakes highlighted empirical inconsistencies in classical models, including observations that athletes often cease exercise with substantial reserves of unused skeletal muscle fibers—estimated at up to 50% in some studies—and without reaching predicted thresholds for peripheral failure, suggesting instead a supraspinal regulatory mechanism that anticipates and prevents physiological catastrophe. He drew on first-principles reasoning from exercise physiology data, positing that the brain subconsciously integrates afferent signals from multiple bodily systems (e.g., thermal, cardiovascular, and energetic status) to modulate motor unit recruitment and pacing, thereby safeguarding homeostasis during prolonged effort.^[28] The model's development gained traction through Noakes' subsequent publications, including a 1998 elaboration critiquing maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) interpretations and reinforcing central regulation via evidence from hypoxic and hyperoxic conditions, where performance varied independently of peripheral oxygen delivery.^[29] By 2000, in a review in the Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, Noakes formalized physiological models of fatigue, emphasizing the governor's anticipatory role in endurance sports, supported by data showing that self-paced exercise maintains stable physiological variables until task endpoint, unlike imposed workloads that provoke earlier derailment.^[30] This phase incorporated interdisciplinary insights, such as neural feedback loops and motivational factors, evolving the theory from a critique of A.V. Hill's 1920s peripheral governor concept into a comprehensive framework prioritizing causal central nervous system oversight over localized muscle failure.^[31] Further refinement occurred in collaborative works, culminating in five interconnected papers in 2005 co-authored with Alan St Clair Gibson and Vicki Lambert in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, which synthesized experimental evidence—like electromyographic studies revealing non-maximal recruitment during voluntary exhaustion—and addressed logical limitations of catastrophe models predicting sudden peripheral collapse. Noakes extended the model to explain phenomena such as the "end spurt" in races, where subconscious threat reduction allows brief overrides of pacing, and integrated it with emerging neuroimaging data on brain activation during fatigue.^[24] Despite criticisms labeling it unfalsifiable—stemming from its emphasis on subconscious processes over direct peripheral causation—Noakes defended its empirical grounding through predictive tests, including interventions altering perceived effort that modulated performance without changing metabolic markers.^[29] The theory's maturation influenced a paradigm shift, prompting over 500 subsequent studies by 2014 on central fatigue mechanisms, though debates persist regarding its testability against peripheral-centric alternatives.^[5]

Publications on Endurance Sports and Training

Noakes' seminal work on endurance sports is The Lore of Running, first published in 1991 by Human Kinetics, spanning over 800 pages and synthesizing exercise physiology, biomechanics, training protocols, injury management, and historical analysis of distance running.^[32] The book emphasizes evidence-based principles for optimizing endurance performance, including periodization, volume-intensity balance, and recovery strategies tailored to runners' physiological limits.^[33] Subsequent editions, such as the 2003 reprint and later updates, incorporated emerging data on metabolic adaptations and neuromuscular factors, solidifying its role as a foundational reference for athletes and coaches.^[34] In parallel, Noakes contributed extensively to peer-reviewed literature on endurance training adaptations. A key paper, "Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the adaptations that predict or enhance athletic performance," published in the Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports in 2000, delineates mechanisms of fatigue during prolonged exercise and proposes training interventions to elevate the "central governor" threshold for sustained output.^[35] This work, drawing from empirical studies on marathon and ultramarathon runners, underscores the primacy of neural regulation over peripheral muscle depletion in limiting endurance capacity.^[35] Noakes addressed hydration's role in training via Waterlogged: The Serious Problem of Overhydration in Endurance Sports (2012), critiquing over-reliance on fluid replacement protocols that risk exercise-associated hyponatremia, based on case analyses from events like the Comrades Marathon.^[36] He advocated ad libitum drinking guided by thirst, supported by physiological data showing antidiuretic hormone's role in fluid balance during exertion exceeding 2-4 hours.^[22] These publications collectively shifted paradigms from carbohydrate-centric, high-volume training toward integrated models prioritizing fatigue thresholds and metabolic flexibility.^[35]

Transition to Nutritional Science

Personal Health Reassessment and Dietary Shift

In 2010, at age 61, Tim Noakes was diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus, characterized by insulin resistance rather than autoimmune deficiency, prompting a profound reassessment of his long-term dietary habits.^[37] He attributed his condition partly to following a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet since 1977, influenced by recommendations from the Cape Heart Foundation, which he later viewed as misguided in promoting carbohydrate excess that exacerbated insulin resistance.^[37] This diagnosis echoed his father's fate, who succumbed to complications of type 2 diabetes, highlighting a genetic predisposition that Noakes believed was worsened by similar poor dietary patterns.^[37] On December 12, 2010, Noakes adopted a low-carbohydrate, high-fat, moderate-protein diet, limiting intake to 25-50 grams of carbohydrates per day, inspired by the book The New Atkins for a New You by Stephen Phinney, Jeff Volek, and Eric Westman.^[37] This shift marked a departure from his prior advocacy for high-carbohydrate fueling in endurance sports, as he prioritized addressing underlying metabolic dysfunction over conventional glucose management.^[38] He supplemented the diet with metformin to aid glucose control, rejecting standard high-carbohydrate diabetic guidelines that he deemed ineffective based on his observations of persistent hunger and metabolic decline under them.^[37] The dietary change yielded rapid and sustained health benefits, including a 15-kilogram weight loss in the first year and an additional 5 kilograms thereafter, totaling 20 kilograms, alongside normalized fasting blood glucose levels of 4.5-6.0 mmol/L.^[37] Noakes reported resolution of chronic symptoms such as headaches, dyspepsia, irritable bowel syndrome, and exercise-induced wheezing, as well as a 40-minute improvement in his half-marathon time, effectively restoring his running performance to levels from two decades prior.^[37] These outcomes, which he described as reversing his diabetes diagnosis, fundamentally altered his professional focus toward low-carbohydrate high-fat nutrition as a therapeutic intervention for insulin resistance.^[38]

Initial Challenges to Carbohydrate-Centric Paradigms

In 2010, following a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes, Tim Noakes adopted a low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF) diet, which he credited with reversing his condition through reduced insulin levels and improved metabolic health.^[7] This personal experience prompted him to re-evaluate the prevailing nutritional orthodoxy, which emphasized high-carbohydrate intake for energy, particularly in athletic performance, and linked low-fat, high-carb diets to disease prevention. Noakes began arguing that such paradigms overlooked the role of carbohydrates in driving insulin resistance, a condition he viewed as central to modern epidemics of obesity and diabetes.^[38] A pivotal early critique came in September 2011, when Noakes published a commentary in the British Journal of Sports Medicine blog, asserting that "carbohydrate intake is the factor driving the obesity/diabetes/heart disease/metabolic syndrome epidemic globally."^[39] Drawing on Gary Taubes' analysis in Good Calories, Bad Calories, he challenged the causal assumption that dietary fat caused heart disease, instead positing that refined carbohydrates elevated insulin and promoted fat storage. This represented a direct reversal of his prior endorsement of carbohydrate-loading for endurance athletes, as Noakes now questioned whether exogenous carbohydrates were essential for optimal performance or if fat adaptation could suffice without the metabolic costs of frequent insulin spikes.^[39] By late 2012, Noakes escalated his challenges during "The Great Centenary Debate" at the University of Cape Town, where he debated dietary cholesterol and fat against proponent Jacques Rossouw, highlighting empirical inconsistencies in low-fat guidelines and advocating for LCHF based on evolutionary biology and clinical observations.^[38] In April 2013, he articulated these views more accessibly in "Against the Grain," an article in Discovery Health Magazine, outlining how high-carbohydrate diets contradicted human physiology adapted to lower-carb ancestral patterns, potentially exacerbating insulin resistance even in active individuals.^[38] These interventions drew on Noakes' expertise in exercise physiology, where he applied first-hand data from his diabetes reversal—such as normalized blood glucose without medications—to argue that carbohydrate restriction enhanced rather than impaired energy utilization, particularly via ketone production during prolonged activity.^[39]

Advocacy for Low-Carbohydrate High-Fat Diets

Core Principles of LCHF Approach

The low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF) approach advocated by Tim Noakes emphasizes restricting dietary carbohydrates to minimal levels, typically under 50 grams per day from non-starchy sources, while prioritizing fats from whole, unprocessed foods as the primary energy source.^[40] This macronutrient shift—often comprising 70-80% fats, 15-20% protein, and less than 10% carbohydrates—aims to minimize insulin secretion, fostering a metabolic state where the body preferentially burns stored fat and produces ketones for fuel.^[41] Noakes posits that chronic high-carbohydrate intake drives insulin resistance, a root cause of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and related conditions, whereas LCHF restores metabolic flexibility by lowering insulin levels and enhancing fat oxidation.^[40] Central to the principles is the selection of nutrient-dense, satiating foods that align with human evolutionary adaptations, including fatty meats, fish, eggs, full-fat dairy, avocados, nuts, seeds, and above-ground vegetables like leafy greens and cabbage.^[42] Noakes' framework, detailed in The Real Meal Revolution, categorizes foods into green (unrestricted, insulin-neutral options such as olive oil, butter, and seafood), orange (limited for satiety, like harder cheeses), and red (avoided, including grains, sugars, and processed items) lists to simplify adherence and prevent overconsumption of insulin-spiking elements.^[41] Protein intake is moderated to prevent excess conversion to glucose via gluconeogenesis, ensuring fats dominate caloric provision without relying on calorie counting or restriction.^[40] Physiologically, Noakes argues that LCHF induces nutritional ketosis in adapted individuals, providing stable energy independent of frequent feeding and reducing hunger through hormonal signals like elevated cholecystokinin and reduced ghrelin.^[41] This contrasts with carbohydrate-dependent metabolism, which he views as prone to blood sugar volatility and dependency on exogenous glucose, particularly detrimental for those with insulin dysregulation. Empirical observations from clinical implementations, including Noakes' own reversal of type 2 diabetes symptoms post-2010 diagnosis, underscore benefits like weight loss averaging 1 kg per week in adherents and normalization of biomarkers such as triglycerides and HDL cholesterol.^[38] Adaptation may involve transient "keto flu" symptoms, mitigated by electrolyte supplementation and gradual carb reduction.^[40]

Evidence from Clinical and Observational Data

Clinical trials have provided evidence supporting the efficacy of low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF) diets for improving metabolic health outcomes. A 2017 narrative review co-authored by Noakes analyzed multiple randomized controlled trials (RCTs), concluding that LCHF diets promote greater weight loss than low-fat diets in obese individuals, with average reductions of 5-10 kg over 6-12 months in several studies, alongside improvements in insulin sensitivity and HbA1c levels in type 2 diabetes patients.^[43] These trials, often lasting 3-24 months, also reported neutral or beneficial effects on cardiovascular risk factors, including reduced triglycerides and elevated HDL cholesterol, without adverse impacts on LDL particle size or inflammation markers.^[43] The review emphasized that LCHF adherence leads to spontaneous calorie reduction due to increased satiety from fats and proteins, challenging prior assumptions of carbohydrate necessity for energy balance.^[43] In the context of athletic performance, RCTs have examined LCHF adaptation's impact on substrate utilization and endurance. A 2023 randomized crossover trial involving highly trained middle-aged athletes compared 31-day isocaloric LCHF and high-carbohydrate low-fat (HCLF) diets, finding no significant differences in time-trial performance or VO2max, but markedly higher fat oxidation rates (up to 1.0 g/min at moderate intensities) on LCHF, suggesting enhanced metabolic flexibility without performance deficits.^[44] Similarly, a 2019 RCT in competitive recreational runners demonstrated that a LCHF diet induced peak fat oxidation rates of 1.26 ± 0.20 g/min—among the highest documented—while maintaining 5-km running performance equivalent to HCLF conditions, countering claims that high-intensity exercise requires carbohydrate dominance.^[45] Observational studies reinforce these findings through real-world adherence data. A 2017 South African survey of 372 LCHF followers, many with metabolic syndrome, reported that 81% achieved weight loss (average 18 kg), 75% normalized blood pressure, and 95% improved or resolved type 2 diabetes symptoms after 12-24 months, with sustained biomarker improvements indicating reversal of insulin resistance.^[46] This cohort, self-selected via Noakes' advocacy, showed low dropout rates and no widespread nutrient deficiencies, though the non-randomized design limits causality attribution.^[46] Larger epidemiological observations, such as those referenced in Noakes' reviews, align with reduced all-cause mortality in low-carbohydrate cohorts, attributing benefits to minimized glycemic variability and hyperinsulinemia.^[43] Collectively, these data suggest LCHF diets offer viable alternatives for managing obesity, diabetes, and exercise metabolism, though long-term RCTs beyond two years remain limited.^[43]

Public Engagement and the Real Meal Revolution

Bestselling Books and Media Appearances

Noakes co-authored The Real Meal Revolution with Jonno Proudfoot, Sally-Ann Creed, and David Grier, published in September 2014 by Robinson Publishing, which promotes a low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) eating approach modeled on the Banting diet and quickly became a South African bestseller with over 200,000 copies sold by September 2015.^[47] The book emphasizes real foods, portion control via a "Real Meal" traffic light system, and critiques of carbohydrate-heavy guidelines, contributing to a broader "Banting" movement in South Africa.^[48] Follow-up titles in the series, including The Real Meal Revolution 2.0 (2020) co-authored with Proudfoot and Creed, have driven cumulative sales exceeding 400,000 copies across related works by 2023, reflecting sustained public interest in LCHF principles despite institutional pushback.^[49] Noakes also co-authored Real Food on Trial (2018) with journalist Marika Sboros, detailing his professional conduct trial and defending LCHF against regulatory challenges, available in audiobook format.^[50] In 2023, he contributed to Ketogenic: The Science of Therapeutic Carbohydrate Restriction in Human Health, compiling evidence for carbohydrate restriction in treating metabolic disorders.^[51] Noakes has engaged extensively in media to disseminate LCHF advocacy, including keynote speeches at international conferences such as the Public Health Collaboration Conference in London on November 10, 2018, where he critiqued conventional dietary guidelines.^[52] He has appeared on podcasts like the Levels Health episode aired April 13, 2023, discussing fat-adaptation's benefits for exercise performance and metabolic health.^[53] Through The Noakes Foundation, he hosts regular live Q&A sessions on YouTube, such as the September 26, 2024, event addressing audience questions on nutrition and insulin resistance.^[54] These appearances, often streamed across social platforms, have amplified his transition from exercise physiology to nutritional critique, reaching global audiences skeptical of carbohydrate-centric paradigms.^[2]

Founding of The Noakes Foundation

The Noakes Foundation was founded on 7 April 2014 by Tim Noakes, a South African professor of exercise and sports science, as a non-profit corporation (NPC) and public benefit organisation (PBO) dedicated to advancing independent research on nutrition and healthy lifestyles.^[38] Noakes established the foundation in response to his personal adoption of a low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) diet, which reversed his own type 2 diabetes diagnosis, prompting him to challenge prevailing dietary guidelines that he viewed as flawed and suppressed by institutional interests.^[2] The initiative followed the 2013 publication of his book The Real Meal Revolution, which popularized LCHF principles, and aimed to fund high-quality studies countering what Noakes described as scientific dogma around carbohydrate-centric nutrition.^[2] The foundation's core mission centers on promoting evidence-based investigations into insulin resistance, metabolic health, and the benefits of LCHF interventions, while supporting academic free speech against perceived censorship in nutritional science.^[38] Initial efforts focused on raising funds for research projects that explore causal links between diet, exercise, and chronic diseases, with an emphasis on reversing global epidemics of type 2 diabetes and obesity through rigorous, unbiased inquiry.^[55] By prioritizing peer-reviewed outputs over consensus-driven narratives, the organization sought to empower healthcare professionals and the public with data-driven alternatives to mainstream recommendations, which Noakes argued lacked empirical rigor in addressing metabolic dysfunction.^[56] Early milestones included the launch of the Nutrition Network in 2015, an educational arm training practitioners in LCHF applications, and the support of over twenty research initiatives by subsequent years, underscoring the foundation's role in fostering a paradigm shift grounded in clinical outcomes rather than theoretical models.^[38] Noakes positioned the foundation as a catalyst for global health reform, explicitly rejecting politically influenced guidelines in favor of first-hand metabolic evidence from controlled trials and observational data.^[2]

Controversies with Medical Authorities

Origin of the HPCSA Complaint

The complaint against Tim Noakes by the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) stemmed from a public Twitter exchange on February 4, 2014, initiated by follower Pippa Leenstra, who sought advice on weaning her six-month-old baby from breast milk amid challenges with low milk supply and supplementation.^[11] Leenstra inquired whether to introduce solids immediately or delay until nine months, prompting Noakes to recommend a low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) approach, advising against carbohydrates entirely and suggesting the baby be weaned using foods like butter, cream, and meat, while emphasizing that infants could thrive without carbs.^[11]^[57] Claire Julsing-Strydom, then-president of the Association for Dietetics in South Africa (ADSA), lodged the formal complaint with the HPCSA shortly thereafter, notifying Noakes on February 20, 2014, that his responses constituted "incorrect medical (medical nutrition therapy) on Twitter" and violated professional standards by dispensing advice without patient examination or consent.^[58] Julsing-Strydom's objection centered on the advice's deviation from established guidelines promoting carbohydrate-inclusive weaning, labeling it unscientific and potentially harmful, particularly for vulnerable infants.^[57] Noakes responded to the HPCSA notification on May 2, 2014, defending his position by citing emerging evidence on insulin resistance and metabolic health, arguing that his comments reflected scientific inquiry rather than prescriptive medical advice.^[58] The ADSA, representing registered dietitians aligned with high-carbohydrate dietary paradigms, framed the complaint as safeguarding public health against unverified nutritional claims disseminated via social media, highlighting concerns over Noakes' influence as a prominent scientist.^[59]^[57] This initiated a formal investigation, culminating in charges of unprofessional conduct under HPCSA guidelines, which prohibit advice without direct professional interaction and mandate adherence to evidence-based practice.

Details of the Professional Conduct Trial

The Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) initiated formal proceedings against Tim Noakes in June 2015, charging him with unprofessional conduct under sections 2 and 27 of the Health Professions Act of 1974. The charges stemmed from a February 2014 Twitter exchange in which Noakes responded affirmatively to a query about the suitability of a low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) diet for a breastfeeding mother and her infant, advising "Eat the meat and the fat" and referencing LCHF for lactating mothers while noting opposition from bodies like the American Academy of Pediatrics.^[11] Prosecutors argued this constituted medical advice without examination, potentially harmful due to insufficient evidence for LCHF in vulnerable populations, and inappropriate via social media, allegedly forming a doctor-patient relationship and breaching ethical guidelines on evidence-based practice.^[60] The first hearing occurred from 23 to 25 June 2015, addressing jurisdiction and preliminary matters, with complainant Claire Julsing-Strydom, then-president of the Association for Dietetics in South Africa (ADSA), testifying on her interpretation of the tweets as direct infant nutrition advice contravening South African dietary guidelines.^[61] Subsequent hearings from 23 November to 2 December 2015 focused on the prosecution's case, featuring expert witnesses such as public health nutritionist Prof. Esté Vorster, who submitted a report deeming the advice "irresponsible and unprofessional" for lacking randomized controlled trial evidence on LCHF for infants and undermining balanced nutrition principles.^[60] Other prosecution testimony included Prof. Willie Pienaar, who contended the exchange implied a consulting relationship risking public harm, and dietitians emphasizing adherence to carbohydrate-inclusive guidelines from bodies like the World Health Organization.^[11] Cross-examination by Noakes' counsel, Michael van der Nest, probed witnesses on potential conflicts, such as industry funding in nutrition research, and inconsistencies in low-fat paradigm evidence.^[60] Defense proceedings, beginning in February 2016, included Noakes' testimony asserting the tweets offered general informational opinion as an author and LCHF advocate, not personalized medical advice, supported by reanalyses of historical trials like the Sydney Diet Heart Study indicating harms of polyunsaturated fats over saturated ones.^[11] Key defense witnesses comprised "Tim's Angels"—patients like Bridget Surtees who reported metabolic improvements on LCHF, such as reversed diabetes—and international experts including British researcher Zoe Harcombe and journalist Nina Teicholz, who testified on LCHF's alignment with evolutionary biology and observational data from populations like the Inuit.^[11] The HPCSA objected to some defense witnesses as untimely, but chair Joan Adams permitted several, leading to debates on scientific consensus; prosecution experts maintained LCHF's risks like nutrient deficiencies, while defense highlighted biases in guideline-setting institutions favoring carbohydrate-heavy models despite contradictory epidemiological trends in obesity and heart disease.^[62] Hearings extended through 2016 and into 2017, with adjournments for evidence review, totaling over 30 days and costs exceeding millions of rands for both sides due to expert fees and legal representation.^[61] Central arguments pivoted on defining "advice" versus opinion, the validity of social media for public discourse by registered professionals, and nutrition science's reliance on short-term trials versus long-term outcomes; Noakes' team introduced bundle excerpts challenging ethical witnesses on absolute prohibitions against unconventional views, underscoring tensions between regulatory caution and scientific dissent.^[63] The committee, comprising five members including a dissenting voice on evidence sufficiency, deliberated on these points in closing submissions by April 2017.^[11]

Legal Outcomes and Broader Implications

Acquittal and Dismissal of Charges

In April 2017, following a protracted hearing that spanned over two years and included more than 30 days of testimony, the Health Professions Council of South Africa's (HPCSA) Professional Conduct Committee unanimously found Professor Tim Noakes not guilty of unprofessional conduct. The committee determined that Noakes' 2014 Twitter advice to journalist Marika Sboros—recommending she wean her infant onto a low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet including meat, vegetables, and eggs while avoiding carbohydrates—did not violate HPCSA ethical guidelines, as it was framed as general information rather than personalized medical advice to a patient, and was supported by emerging scientific evidence on insulin resistance and metabolic health.^[9] The HPCSA subsequently lodged an appeal against the acquittal, arguing that the committee had erred in its interpretation of professional standards and public protection duties.^[64] Hearings for the appeal commenced in February 2018. On 8 June 2018, the HPCSA's appeal committee dismissed the appeal in a unanimous 13-0 decision, upholding the original not guilty verdict and effectively clearing Noakes of all charges.^[65]^[66] The committee rejected the HPCSA's claims of procedural or substantive errors, affirming that Noakes' conduct aligned with evidence-based practice and did not endanger public health.^[58] Noakes described the outcome as a vindication after four years of legal proceedings, attributing the complaint's origins to institutional resistance against challenges to established low-fat dietary paradigms.^[67] The rulings highlighted tensions between regulatory bodies and dissenting scientific views, with Noakes' defense emphasizing peer-reviewed literature on low-carbohydrate diets' efficacy for conditions like type 2 diabetes, which mainstream guidelines at the time often overlooked.^[68] No further appeals were pursued, marking the complete dismissal of the charges against him.^[65]

Impact on Dietary Guidelines and Scientific Debate

Noakes' advocacy for low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) diets has prompted reevaluation of established dietary guidelines that emphasize reduced saturated fat and increased carbohydrate intake, arguing that these recommendations, originating from mid-20th-century epidemiological associations, overlook causal mechanisms like carbohydrate-induced insulin resistance.^[8] His 2012 public endorsement of LCHF, following personal reversal of type 2 diabetes symptoms after adopting the diet in 2010, intensified scrutiny of guidelines from bodies like the World Health Organization, which in 2018 draft recommendations limited saturated fats to under 10% of energy intake—a position critiqued by Noakes' foundation for insufficient evidence linking dietary fat to cardiovascular harm independent of carbohydrate excess.^[69] ^[7] The 2014-2018 Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) proceedings against Noakes for allegedly unprofessional conduct in promoting LCHF via social media amplified global discourse, highlighting tensions between empirical outcomes from LCHF trials—showing sustained fat oxidation during exercise and improved metabolic markers—and entrenched low-fat paradigms sustained by institutional inertia.^[70] His acquittal in 2018 underscored evidentiary gaps in prosecuting contrarian views, catalyzing debates in peer-reviewed literature on whether high-carbohydrate fueling is obligatory for athletic performance, with Noakes' studies demonstrating equivalent or superior endurance on LCHF regimens via elevated fat metabolism rates exceeding 1.5 g/min.^[71] ^[72] Noakes contributed to paradigm shifts by reanalyzing landmark trials, such as the 1993 Women's Health Initiative, revealing suppressed data where low-fat interventions increased coronary heart disease risk by 26% in postmenopausal women with existing disease, challenging the causal attribution of saturated fats to atherosclerosis without accounting for carbohydrate-driven hyperinsulinemia.^[73] This work, published in 2021, has fueled arguments for guideline revisions toward personalized nutrition targeting insulin sensitivity over blanket macronutrient restrictions, influencing low-carb advocacy networks and prompting South African policy discussions on carbohydrate reduction for diabetes management, though official guidelines have resisted wholesale adoption amid conflicting industry-funded research.^[74]^[75]

Criticisms from Mainstream Institutions

Objections from Dietetic and Public Health Bodies

The Association for Dietetics in South Africa (ADSA), the professional body representing registered dietitians, lodged a formal complaint against Noakes with the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) on February 6, 2014, following his December 2013 Twitter response advising a breastfeeding mother to follow a low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF) diet, reduce carbohydrates until weaning, and incorporate infant formula to support weight loss.^[10] ADSA president Claire Julsing Strydom, the complainant, described Noakes' guidance as "incorrect medical nutrition therapy" disseminated via social media without patient evaluation, asserting it contradicted evidence-based guidelines and posed risks to maternal and infant health by potentially undermining exclusive breastfeeding and promoting an unproven dietary approach.^[10]^[11] ADSA's objections centered on the perceived lack of scientific substantiation for LCHF diets in vulnerable groups, including lactating women, where they argued such regimens could lead to inadequate energy intake, micronutrient shortfalls (e.g., from limited fruit and grain consumption), and metabolic stresses like ketosis, while conflicting with national food-based dietary guidelines advocating 45-65% of calories from carbohydrates.^[10]^[59] The organization viewed Noakes' public advocacy, including endorsements of the Banting diet in his 2012 book The Real Meal Revolution, as disseminating unsubstantiated claims that high saturated fat intake does not elevate cardiovascular risk, despite prevailing consensus from bodies like the American Heart Association linking it to atherosclerosis.^[76] The HPCSA, tasked with safeguarding public health standards, charged Noakes with unprofessional conduct in June 2015, echoing ADSA's concerns by classifying the advice as unconventional, non-evidence-based, and irresponsibly delivered through an unverified online platform to an unqualified audience.^[10]^[77] Dietetic critics, including multiple ADSA members who testified, emphasized that Noakes' rejection of carbohydrate-centric paradigms ignored randomized controlled trials purportedly validating low-fat interventions for chronic disease prevention, positioning his views as a threat to population-level nutrition education.^[10] Following Noakes' initial acquittal on April 21, 2017, ADSA expressed ongoing dissatisfaction, reiterating that social media nutrition advice bypasses ethical requirements for individualized assessment and informed consent, potentially eroding trust in regulated professionals and encouraging self-experimentation with diets lacking long-term safety data for non-athletic populations.^[59] Similar sentiments appeared in broader public health discourse, with South African guidelines from the Department of Health upholding low-fat, high-carbohydrate models as essential for preventing non-communicable diseases, implicitly critiquing LCHF promotion as diverging from consensus-driven policy.^[78] These objections reflected institutional adherence to epidemiological models prioritizing aggregate data over individualized metabolic responses, though subsequent HPCSA appeal dismissal in 2018 upheld the initial not-guilty finding.^[68]

Responses to Alleged Risks of LCHF Diets

Noakes and collaborators have contended that concerns over LCHF diets elevating cardiovascular disease risk stem from an overreliance on the outdated lipid hypothesis, which posits saturated fats and LDL cholesterol as primary culprits, despite randomized controlled trials showing no corresponding increase in cardiac events.^[43] Instead, they highlight improvements in key markers such as reduced triglycerides, elevated HDL cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and reversal of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, arguing these outweigh variable LDL responses that require individual monitoring.^[43]^[79] Noakes specifically rebuts the notion that LDL particle quantity drives atherosclerosis, attributing plaque formation to oxidative damage and insulin resistance rather than dietary fat intake.^[79] Regarding renal function, Noakes maintains that LCHF diets pose no threat to healthy kidneys, as protein intake remains moderate at 15-35% of energy or under 2.2 g/kg body weight, levels unsupported by evidence of harm in clinical studies.^[79] Potential for kidney stones, observed in 3-7% of pediatric ketogenic diet users for epilepsy, is deemed preventable through adequate hydration and electrolyte management, with broader metabolic benefits from reduced insulin levels countering any theoretical strain.^[79] Allegations of increased gallstone risk are dismissed by Noakes as a misunderstanding of bile dynamics; while pre-existing sludge or stones may mobilize during fat adaptation, the diet stimulates fresh bile production to enhance fat digestion, potentially aiding clearance rather than causing new formations.^[79] For bone health, he cites absence of evidence for density loss, explaining elevated urinary calcium as stemming from improved intestinal absorption rather than skeletal leaching.^[79] Nutrient deficiencies are addressed through emphasis on nutrient-dense whole foods, particularly animal products providing bioavailable vitamins and minerals; Noakes notes that LCHF regimens meet requirements except possibly iron in menstruating females, which warrants monitoring, but overall surpass low-fat alternatives in satiety and adherence.^[79] These positions align with Noakes' broader critique in works like Lore of Nutrition, where he challenges institutional dogma favoring carbohydrate-heavy guidelines despite their failure to curb obesity and diabetes epidemics.^[80]

Defenses and Empirical Support for Noakes' Views

Reanalysis of Historical Diet Trials

Noakes has highlighted reanalyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) from the mid-20th century that tested the diet-heart hypothesis, arguing that recovered or re-examined data undermine the claim that replacing saturated fats with polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) from vegetable oils reduces cardiovascular mortality. In the Minnesota Coronary Experiment (1968–1973), involving over 9,000 participants, original unpublished data revealed that while serum cholesterol decreased with linoleic acid-enriched soybean oil replacing saturated fats, all-cause mortality increased by 22% for every 30 mg/dL cholesterol reduction, with no cardiovascular benefit. Similarly, the Sydney Diet Heart Study (1966–1973), reanalyzed using recovered endpoint data from 458 men with recent coronary events, showed a 62% higher risk of death in the intervention group consuming safflower oil high in omega-6 linoleic acid versus the control group's saturated fat diet, persisting over eight years. These findings, according to Noakes, indicate that polyunsaturated seed oils may promote oxidative stress and inflammation, exacerbating insulin resistance rather than protecting against heart disease, contrary to the original interpretations favoring fat reduction.^[81] He contends that suppression or selective reporting of such data perpetuated low-fat dietary guidelines, despite RCTs failing to demonstrate mortality benefits from cholesterol-lowering diets.^[82] Noakes extended this critique to the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial (1993–2005), a large-scale low-fat intervention in 48,835 postmenopausal women. In a 2021 re-examination of subgroup data for those with established coronary heart disease (CHD), he found a 26% increased risk of additional CHD events in the low-fat group compared to controls, attributing this to higher carbohydrate intake displacing fats and worsening metabolic outcomes. This analysis challenges the trial's overall null findings by focusing on vulnerable subgroups, reinforcing Noakes' view that low-fat paradigms ignore causal links between refined carbohydrates, hyperinsulinemia, and atherosclerosis.^[83] By integrating these reanalyses, Noakes advocates for causal realism in nutrition science, positing that historical trials, when fully scrutinized, support low-carbohydrate, high-fat diets over low-fat alternatives for reducing cardiometabolic risks, as evidenced by consistent failures of the latter to lower mortality in primary data.^[84]

Long-Term Health Outcomes and Skepticism of Low-Fat Dogma

Noakes has argued that the prevailing low-fat dietary paradigm, promoted since the 1977 U.S. Dietary Goals, lacks robust evidence for reducing long-term cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk and may instead exacerbate metabolic disorders. In a 2021 reanalysis of the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial, he demonstrated that postmenopausal women with established coronary heart disease (CHD) assigned to a low-fat intervention from 1993 experienced a 26% higher risk of additional CHD events over long-term follow-up compared to controls, attributing this to underreporting of adverse outcomes in the original publications.^[73]^[83] This critique highlights how composite endpoints in low-fat trials masked harms, such as increased stroke and CHD incidence, challenging the causal assumption that reducing dietary fat improves heart health.^[85] Empirical data from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies support Noakes' contention that low-fat diets fail to deliver promised long-term benefits and correlate with rising obesity and type 2 diabetes prevalence since their widespread adoption. For instance, meta-analyses of RCTs show no mortality reduction from low-fat interventions, with some indicating elevated risks for specific subgroups like those with preexisting CVD.^[43] Noakes posits that insulin resistance, driven by high-carbohydrate intake in low-fat regimens, underlies these outcomes, as evidenced by historical diet trials where fat reduction did not alter all-cause mortality but often worsened glycemic control.^[74] In contrast, Noakes advocates low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF) diets for superior long-term health metrics, citing evidence of sustained weight loss, improved insulin sensitivity, and reduced diabetes progression. A 2017 narrative review co-authored by Noakes synthesizes RCTs demonstrating LCHF's efficacy in lowering body weight and HbA1c levels over periods exceeding one year, with favorable shifts in lipid profiles like elevated HDL cholesterol and reduced triglycerides, without increasing CVD events.^[43] Long-term adaptations to LCHF, including enhanced fat oxidation during exercise, further mitigate risks of metabolic syndrome, as shown in crossover studies where participants maintained performance while achieving remission-like improvements in type 2 diabetes markers, including halved insulin requirements.^[86]^[71] These findings underscore Noakes' view that LCHF aligns with physiological carbohydrate intolerance in many individuals, countering the low-fat model's one-size-fits-all approach.

Awards, Honors, and Legacy

Recognitions in Sports and Nutritional Science

Noakes was awarded the Order of Mapungubwe (Silver) by the President of South Africa in 2008 for his "excellent contribution in the field of sports and the science of physical activity."^[6] This national honor recognizes his foundational research in exercise physiology, including the central governor model of fatigue.^[6] In 2012, the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa granted Noakes the Lifetime Achievement Award for his pioneering contributions to sports science research, acknowledging over three decades of work on hydration, endurance performance, and metabolic responses during exercise.^[87] The Southern African Association for the Advancement of Science (S2A3) bestowed the South Africa Medal (Gold) upon Noakes in 2014, its highest accolade, for outstanding scientific contributions, particularly in sports science and exercise physiology.^[5] ^[88] Noakes holds fellowship in the American College of Sports Medicine (FACSM), recognizing his sustained excellence in advancing knowledge of sports medicine and exercise science.^[89] He was elected a Fellow of the University of Cape Town in 1992 for original scientific work in physiology.^[89] For the final 15 years of his academic career, the NRF rated him an A1 scientist, the highest category, based on international peer review of his research impact in sports and exercise domains.^[2] In nutritional science, formal recognitions are limited amid debates over his low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) dietary advocacy, with mainstream bodies prioritizing low-fat paradigms; however, his sports nutrition research, including carbohydrate utilization in athletes, underpins indirect acknowledgments within exercise physiology.^[14] Noakes' h-index of 71 and over 16,000 citations reflect peer-recognized influence across sports and metabolic nutrition intersections, though these metrics do not constitute awards.^[14]

Influence on Global Low-Carb Movement

Tim Noakes' authorship of The Real Meal Revolution in 2013 played a pivotal role in disseminating low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) principles beyond South Africa, with the book achieving international sales and adaptation into online programs that provided meal plans and recipes for global audiences seeking sustainable weight management and metabolic health improvements.^[90]^[41] The text challenged prevailing low-fat dietary paradigms by citing clinical evidence and personal testimonials linking high-carbohydrate intake to insulin resistance and obesity, influencing readers to prioritize whole foods over processed carbohydrates.^[91] Through the establishment of The Noakes Foundation in 2014, Noakes extended his advocacy by funding research and developing the Nutrition Network, an international training platform that has certified over 1,000 health professionals in LCHF protocols as of 2024, enabling practitioners worldwide to counsel patients on carbohydrate restriction for conditions like type 2 diabetes.^[7] The foundation's initiatives, including symbiotic partnerships with the Nutrition Network, aimed explicitly at transforming global health outcomes by promoting empirical data on LCHF benefits over institutional low-fat recommendations.^[38] Noakes' keynote appearances at major low-carb conferences amplified his reach, such as his presentations at Low Carb USA events in the United States, where he addressed metabolic health and polyunsaturated fatty acids' role in dietary efficacy, and the Public Health Collaboration Conference in London in 2018, critiquing conventional guidelines.^[92]^[52] Further engagements, including speeches at India's Metabolic Health Conference in 2023 and planning for the World Nutrition Summit in 2025, positioned him as a central figure bridging scientific critique with practical adoption in diverse regions.^[93]^[94] His emphasis on LCHF for athletic performance, rooted in his post-2010 personal adoption and subsequent research, has inspired endurance athletes globally to experiment with fat-adaptation, countering earlier carbohydrate-loading norms he helped pioneer but later revised based on re-evaluated evidence.^[95] This shift contributed to broader acceptance of ketogenic strategies in sports nutrition circles, with Noakes' over 750 publications providing a scholarly backbone cited in low-carb advocacy.^[2]

Selected Publications and Ongoing Work

Seminal Books on Diet and Exercise

Tim Noakes' Lore of Running, first published in 1991, stands as a foundational text in exercise physiology, spanning over 800 pages in its initial edition and expanding to 944 pages in the 2002 fourth edition.^[32]^[96] The book dissects the biomechanics, energy systems, and psychological aspects of distance running, drawing on Noakes' extensive research and experience directing over 70 marathons, while emphasizing hydration risks like exercise-associated hyponatremia based on empirical studies of ultramarathoners.^[97] It integrates training protocols, injury management strategies, and interviews with elite runners, establishing evidence-based guidelines that prioritize central fatigue theory over peripheral muscle limitations in endurance performance.^[98] Shifting focus to nutrition, Noakes co-authored The Real Meal Revolution in 2013 with chefs Jonno Proudfoot and Sally-Ann Creed, a 295-page manifesto advocating low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) eating as a sustainable alternative to high-carb diets for metabolic health.^[99]^[100] The work critiques carbohydrate-driven paradigms, citing clinical reversals of insulin resistance and obesity through LCHF adherence, supported by references to randomized trials and epidemiological data favoring fat over refined sugars for satiety and energy stability.^[90] It became a South African bestseller, influencing public policy debates on dietary guidelines by providing practical recipes and metabolic rationale grounded in Noakes' post-2010 personal experimentation with LCHF.^[90] In Lore of Nutrition: Challenging Conventional Dietary Beliefs, published in 2017 with journalist Marika Sboros, Noakes chronicles his paradigm shift from high-carb endorsements to LCHF advocacy, amassing 488 pages of analysis on carbohydrate-insulin models of obesity.^[101]^[80] The text reevaluates historical trials like the Sydney Diet Heart Study, arguing low-fat recommendations exacerbated chronic diseases by ignoring causal links between refined carbs and hyperinsulinemia, with citations to over 750 of Noakes' peer-reviewed papers and meta-analyses questioning Ancel Keys' influence.^[102] It posits LCHF as mechanistically superior for reversing type 2 diabetes, backed by cohort data showing sustained weight loss and improved biomarkers without caloric restriction.^[103] These works collectively bridge Noakes' exercise expertise with nutritional skepticism, prioritizing physiological causation over correlative epidemiology in dietary advice.^[48]

Recent Research and Public Advocacy

Noakes has co-authored recent studies evaluating the physiological impacts of low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF) diets on athletic performance and metabolism. In a February 2025 publication, researchers including Noakes tested triathletes adapted to isocaloric very-low-carbohydrate (LCHF) or high-carbohydrate diets during prolonged exercise, finding that ingestion of carbohydrates at 10 g/hour eliminated hypoglycemia and enhanced endurance performance by 22% relative to placebo in both groups, thereby refuting claims of inherent LCHF impairment under strenuous conditions.^[104] ^[105] This work builds on prior metabolic adaptations observed in LCHF adherents, shifting the exercise "crossover" point—where fat oxidation dominates—to intensities exceeding 80% of VO₂max, higher than in high-carbohydrate cohorts.^[106] Additional investigations have probed dietary fat compositions within LCHF frameworks. A study examined postprandial metabolic responses to meals enriched with canola oil (high in unsaturated fats) versus coconut oil (high in saturated fats), revealing nuanced effects on insulin sensitivity and lipid profiles that support tailored fat selections for insulin-resistant individuals without broad condemnation of saturated sources.^[107] In public advocacy, Noakes established The Noakes Foundation in 2014 as a nonprofit to fund inquiries into insulin resistance as a root cause of chronic diseases, promote evidence-based LCHF eating patterns, and safeguard academic discourse against institutional pressures.^[55] The foundation collaborates with initiatives like the Nutrition Network, which Noakes co-founded to certify healthcare providers in applying low-carb, real-food protocols for reversing type 2 diabetes and obesity, emphasizing causal links between carbohydrate excess and metabolic dysfunction over caloric restriction alone.^[7] He remains active in outreach, delivering talks and interviews—such as a June 2025 discussion critiquing pharmaceutical influences on diabetes management and endorsing LCHF for cancer adjunct therapy—while authoring resources challenging carbohydrate-centric guidelines in sports and public health.^[108] These efforts underscore Noakes' shift from primary research to disseminating empirical challenges to prevailing low-fat paradigms, often highlighting biases in guideline-forming bodies toward industry-aligned recommendations.^[8]

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Low carbohydrate high fat ketogenic diets on the exercise crossover ...
Mar 28, 2023 · We show that adaptation to the LCHF diet shifts the crossover point to a higher %VO 2 max (>80%VO 2 max) than previously reported.<|control11|><|separator|>
[74]
Hiding unhealthy heart outcomes in a low-fat diet trial
Jul 21, 2021 · Postmenopausal women with CHD randomised to a low-fat 'heart-healthy' diet in 1993 were at 26% greater risk of developing additional CHD events.
[75]
Noakes: Iconic study hid findings, reached unjustifiable and possibly ...
Sep 11, 2021 · Emeritus Professor Tim Noakes, in a study published in the ... carbohydrate diet for 13 years. All the worst clinical features of ...
[76]
What Is the Evidence That Dietary Macronutrient Composition ...
What Is the Evidence That Dietary Macronutrient Composition Influences Exercise Performance? A Narrative Review. Timothy David Noakes ...
[77]
Professor Noakes' ridiculous Banting trial – Part I - News24
Apr 25, 2016 · The case against Prof Tim Noakes at the Health Professions Council has been grinding away for some time, and will start up again later this year.
[78]
Controversial banting advocate Tim Noakes found not guilty
Apr 21, 2017 · The HPCSA argues that Noakes gave unconventional and unscientific advice, and was unprofessional in his conduct for dispensing the advice via ...
[79]
Marika Sboros looks back on the Noakes Trial
Jul 6, 2020 · The charge arose after Johannesburg dietitian Claire Julsing Strydom reported Noakes to the HPCSA for a single tweet in February 2014. Noakes ...
[80]
Low Carb Myths - The Noakes Foundation
An LCHF diet is really good at lowering triglycerides and raising HDL cholesterol – indicating a lowered chance of getting and dying from heart disease.
[81]
Lore of Nutrition: Challenging conventional dietary beliefs
Nov 1, 2017 · ... Noakes ultimately triumphed, being found not guilty of unprofessional conduct in April 2017. In Lore of Nutrition, he explains the science ...
[82]
IT'S THE INSULIN RESISTANCE, STUPID: PART 8 By Prof. Timothy ...
... Sydney Diet Heart Study (63). The conclusion from these studies is that replacement of dietary saturated fat with the omega-6 PUFA linoleic acid may indeed ...
[83]
Re-evaluation of the traditional diet-heart hypothesis: analysis of ...
Apr 12, 2016 · The results of the RCTs clearly show that reducing serum cholesterol does not affect mortality, it is noteworthy that all of the RCTs cited by Ramsden et al.Missing: reanalysis | Show results with:reanalysis
[84]
Hiding unhealthy heart outcomes in a low-fat diet trial - PubMed
Postmenopausal women with CHD randomised to a low-fat 'heart-healthy' diet in 1993 were at 26% greater risk of developing additional CHD events.
[85]
Ancel Keys' Cholesterol Con. Part 1. How an insecure and unproven ...
Re-evaluation of the traditional diet-heart hypothesis: analysis of recovered data from Minnesota Coronary Experiment (1968-73). BMJ 2016;353:i1246. Noakes TD.
[86]
(PDF) Hiding unhealthy heart outcomes in a low-fat diet trial
Aug 19, 2025 · Postmenopausal women with CHD randomised to a low-fat 'heart-healthy' diet in 1993 were at 26% greater risk of developing additional CHD events.
[87]
Reversing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus - Prof Tim Noakes
Jul 10, 2020 · Currently there are three proven methods to “reverse” type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) – bariatric surgery in those who are morbidly obese; ...
[88]
Prof Tim Noakes - Author, Emeritus Professor, Athlete and LCHF ...
Prof Noakes was born in Harare, Zimbabwe in 1949. As a youngster, he had a keen interest in sport and attended Diocesan College in Cape Town.<|separator|>
[89]
Noakes gets top honour for sports science excellence - UCT News
Nov 3, 2014 · UCT Professor of Sports Science Tim Noakes has been awarded the prestigious South Africa Medal (Gold) by the Southern African Association ...Missing: fellowships | Show results with:fellowships
[90]
Timothy David Noakes (1949 – ) | The Presidency
Prof Tim Noakes was born in Harare, Zimbabwe, and he matriculated from Diocesan College in Cape Town in 1966. He was awarded an American Field Service Student ...
[91]
The Real Meal Revolution - Quivertree Publications
Tim has now dedicated his life to opening people's eyes to the myth of low fat eating and the nutritional and environmental crisis it has created. In this book, ...
[92]
Tim Noakes's Real Meal Revolution fuels low-carb dieting | News24
Dec 12, 2013 · It contains research which backs the low carbohydrate, high fat style of eating, graphs documenting its success in studies, testimonials from ...
[93]
Prof. Tim Noakes - The Effect of PUFAs on Metabolic Health: Ep 54
Prof. Tim Noakes discusses the subject of Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs) in metabolic health and his defence of the maicious charges against him.Missing: international speaking
[94]
Metabolic Health Conference. Prof (Dr) Tim Noakes. From Lore of ...
Nov 8, 2023 · Metabolic Health Conference India's 1st Low Carb Conference Theme: Low-Carb Across the Globe Dates: 27th, 28th, & 29th Oct 2023 Prof (Dr) Tim ...Missing: speaking | Show results with:speaking
[95]
Save the Date! World Nutrition Summit 2025 Get ready ... - Facebook
Nov 27, 2024 · The World Nutrition Summit 2025 is happening from 16 to 18 October, and it's set to be the event of the year for the Low Carb High Fat (LCHF) ...
[96]
Tim Noakes on Trial | Runner's World
Apr 5, 2016 · Noakes fired off a tweet to a woman who asked whether a low carb, high fat diet was OK for breastfeeding mothers. He responded it was, and ...
[97]
Lore of Running, 4th Edition: Noakes, Timothy - Amazon.com
Book details ; Publisher. Human Kinetics ; Publication date. December 3, 2002 ; Dimensions. 7.04 x 1.92 x 10 inches ; ISBN-10. 0873229592 ; ISBN-13. 978-0873229593.
[98]
Book Review: The Lore of Running | Runner's World
Jan 1, 2003 · The Lore of Running by Tim Noakes (Human Kinetics, 2002). We welcome the new edition of Noakess runners bible, beloved by serious runners for years.Missing: details | Show results with:details
[99]
Lore of Running by Tim Noakes - Goodreads
Rating 4.2 (1,894) Lore of Running gives you incomparable detail on physiology, training, racing, injuries, world-class athletes, and races. Author Tim Noakes blends the ...
[100]
The Real Meal Revolution: Tim Noakes: 9780992206277
Publisher, Tim Noakes ; Publication date, January 1, 2013 ; Language, ‎English ; Print length, 297 pages ; ISBN-10, 0992206278.
[101]
The Real Meal Revolution by Tim Noakes | Goodreads
Rating 4.1 (683) Dec 1, 2013 · HealthNonfictionNutritionCookingCookbooksFoodReference ...more. 295 pages, Paperback. First published December 1, 2013. Book details & editions ...
[102]
Lore of Nutrition: Challenging conventional dietary beliefs eBook
30-day returnsBook details ; Accessibility: Learn more ; Publication date: November 1, 2017 ; Language: English ; File size: 6.2 MB ; Screen Reader: Supported ...
[103]
Lore of Nutrition: Challenging conventional dietary beliefs - Goodreads
Rating 4.3 (162) Nov 1, 2017 · In December 2010, Professor Tim Noakes was introduced to a way of eating that was contrary to everything he had been taught and was accepted ...
[104]
Lore of Nutrition: Challenging Conventional Dietary Beliefs
Rating 4.5 (48) Book details ; Print length. 488 pages ; Language. English ; Publisher. Zebra Press ; Publication date. 27 Oct. 2017 ; Dimensions. 15.24 x 3.18 x 22.86 cm.<|separator|>
[105]
Carbohydrate ingestion eliminates hypoglycemia and improves ...
This study examines the belief that very-low-carbohydrate diets (LCHF) impair prolonged exercise performance during strenuous exercise.<|separator|>
[106]
Carbohydrate ingestion eliminates hypoglycemia and improves ...
Feb 1, 2025 · This study examines the belief that very-low-carbohydrate diets (LCHF) impair prolonged exercise performance during strenuous exercise.
[107]
Low carbohydrate high fat ketogenic diets on the exercise crossover ...
We show that adaptation to the LCHF diet shifts the crossover point to a higher %VO 2 max (>80%VO 2 max) than previously reported.Missing: personal reassessment
[108]
Postprandial Responses to Meals Enriched With Canola or Coconut ...
We investigated the metabolic response to meals with canola or coconut oil (rich in unsaturated vs. rich in saturated fatty acids [FAs]).
[109]
IN-DEPTH: Tim Noakes on RFK, beating cancer, diabetes, obesity
Jun 19, 2025 · Professor Tim Noakes challenges mainstream medicine and nutrition with a relentless pursuit of truth. In a candid interview, he critiques ...