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Tonto Apache

The Tonto Apache Tribe of Arizona is a federally recognized Native American tribe consisting of descendants from the Tonto band of the Western Apache people.^[1]^[2] The tribe's members trace their origins to groups inhabiting the Payson vicinity in central Arizona prior to European contact.^[1] Following 19th-century conflicts with U.S. forces, many Tonto Apache were forcibly relocated to distant reservations such as San Carlos, enduring exile for nearly a century before federal acknowledgment enabled their return.^[3] In 1972, Congress established the Tonto Apache Reservation on 85 acres of land within the Tonto National Forest near Payson in Gila County, marking the smallest reservation in Arizona and providing a homeland for the tribe's approximately 110 enrolled members out of 140 total.^[4]^[3]^[5] Today, the tribe maintains sovereignty over its territory, focusing on community programs and economic initiatives amid ongoing efforts to preserve cultural heritage on limited land.^[6]^[7]

Name and Identity

Endonym and Self-Designation

The Tonto Apache, as a subgroup of the Western Apache, designate themselves using the term Dilzhe'e (also rendered as Dilzhę́'é), which serves as an endonym specific to their bands and shared with certain other Western Apache communities, such as those at San Carlos.^[8] This self-reference emphasizes localized group identities tied to specific central Arizona locales rather than a monolithic tribal label. The etymology of Dilzhe'e remains uncertain, though linguistic analysis suggests it derives from a Navajo descriptor dilzhé'ii for the call of a jaybird, which Navajos associated with the tonal qualities of Apache speech, indicating it may originally reflect intergroup perceptions rather than an internal descriptive term.^[8] Prior to European contact, Tonto Apache self-designation lacked centralized tribal structures, with individuals and families identifying primarily through kinship bands or local resource territories, such as those along riparian zones and uplands, distinguishing them from northern White Mountain Apache or eastern San Carlos groups by ecological and dialectical variances within the broader Western Apache linguistic continuum.^[9] These band-level designations underscored mobile, adaptive foraging societies without formal political consolidation, aligning with Athabaskan patterns of decentralized autonomy observed across Southern Athabaskan peoples.^[10]

Exonym and External Perceptions

The exonym "Tonto" derives from the Spanish word tonto, meaning "fool" or "foolish," applied by early European observers and possibly neighboring groups to the Western Apache band inhabiting central Arizona's Tonto Basin.^[11] This label likely stemmed from perceptions of their aggressive raiding tactics as reckless or undisciplined, rather than any inherent intellectual deficiency, though some accounts suggest it calqued an Apache self-descriptor akin to "wild rough people" (kounʼnde in Western Apache).^[12] Spanish and Mexican chroniclers, drawing from interactions or reports by indigenous enemies such as the Pima, propagated the term amid broader hostilities, embedding a derogatory connotation that persisted into Anglo-American records without empirical basis in the group's adaptive survival strategies.^[11] External views frequently conflated the Tonto Apache with the Yavapai, a non-Apache Yuman-speaking people with whom they formed close alliances through intermarriage and shared nomadic foraging in the rugged Mogollon Rim region.^[3] U.S. military expeditions and explorers in the mid-19th century, such as those under General George Crook, documented them interchangeably as "Yavapai-Apache" hybrids in official reports, overlooking linguistic and cultural distinctions—Western Apache speakers versus Yuman—due to observational biases favoring tactical groupings over ethnographic precision.^[3] This misclassification, evident in Army dispatches from the 1860s onward, reflected utilitarian priorities in conflict documentation rather than rigorous anthropology, contributing to skewed population estimates and treaty negotiations that treated allied bands as a monolithic threat. Historical non-Native accounts, primarily from U.S. government and settler sources, depicted the Tonto Apache as formidable raiders preying on mining camps and livestock trails, emphasizing their mobility and hit-and-run warfare over any sedentary or pacific traits.^[13] Reports from the 1870s, including those labeling holdouts as "renegades" for evading reservations, underscored their resistance to confinement, portraying a group causally adapted to arid terrains through opportunistic predation rather than romanticized harmony with nature.^[13] Such perceptions, rooted in direct encounters documented in military logs, countered idealized "noble savage" narratives by highlighting empirical patterns of intertribal and intercultural violence, though institutional biases in federal records—favoring expansionist viewpoints—amplified threat assessments without proportionally acknowledging defensive motivations against encroachment.^[11]

Traditional Territory

Geographical Extent

The Tonto Apache, divided into Northern and Southern subgroups, traditionally occupied east-central Arizona's uplands at elevations of 5,000 to 7,000 feet, with core territories centered in the Tonto Basin and along the Mogollon Rim.^[14]^[15] These areas extended westward toward the Verde River, encompassing locales such as Payson and Camp Verde, where the groups maintained semi-nomadic ranges for foraging and raiding.^[14] The Northern Tonto subgroup primarily utilized higher rim areas, with the three westernmost bands intermingling extensively with Yavapai populations in overlapping western sectors.^[14] The Southern Tonto focused on the lower Tonto Basin, while both subgroups shared the broader basin with Yavapai, as indicated by intermixed habitation patterns and protohistoric archaeological evidence of combined Apache-Yavapai pottery and sites in the upper basin.^[3]^[16] Distinct band-specific ranges persisted despite territorial overlap, reflecting separate social organizations amid shared resource use.^[14]

Environmental Adaptations

The Tonto Apache, inhabiting the rugged, semi-arid terrain of central Arizona's transition zone between desert lowlands and higher plateaus, relied on exploiting varied microenvironments for sustenance. In piñon-juniper woodlands at elevations around 5,000-7,000 feet, they gathered piñon nuts and acorns from oak stands, which provided high-calorie staples during seasonal harvests, while hunting mule deer and smaller game like rabbits supplemented protein needs.^[17]^[18] Riparian corridors along streams and rivers, such as those in the Tonto Basin, enabled limited floodwater farming of corn, beans, and squash, capitalizing on seasonal moisture to irrigate plots without extensive canal systems.^[19] Small, mobile bands of 20-50 individuals practiced seasonal transhumance, ascending to woodland areas in fall for acorn and piñon collection—yielding up to several bushels per family group based on ethnographic accounts—and descending to lower elevations for winter hunting and spring gathering of mescal agave. This strategy ensured resource viability in patchy, low-density environments where fixed agriculture alone could not sustain populations, as evidenced by archaeological residues of diverse plant processing in Tonto Apache sites.^[20]^[21] Fire use further adapted the landscape, with controlled burns promoting grass regrowth for game attraction and reducing fuel loads in pine-oak forests, a practice inferred from tree-ring data in Western Apache territories including Tonto lands.^[22] Adaptations extended to material culture suited for steep, rocky terrain: composite bows with sinew backing for accurate shots at deer over distances up to 50 yards, paired with notched arrow points for piercing hides; atlatls for smaller game in earlier periods transitioning to bows; and tightly woven basketry for efficient transport of gathered seeds and nuts across uneven ground. These tools, documented in ethnographic surveys and site assemblages, minimized energy expenditure in foraging while maximizing yields from dispersed resources.^[20]^[21]

Pre-Colonial and Early History

Origins and Migration

The Tonto Apache constitute a dialectal subgroup within the Western Apache branch of the Southern Athabaskan language family, whose speakers trace linguistic ancestry to proto-Athabaskan populations originating in the subarctic regions of western Canada and Alaska.^[23] Linguistic divergence analyses indicate that the Southern Athabaskan split from Northern Athabaskan occurred approximately 1,000–1,500 years ago, with proto-Apachean forms emerging around 500–800 years ago, supporting a southward migration into the American Southwest between circa 1000 and 1500 CE.^[24] This timeline aligns with glottochronological estimates of lexical retention rates and shared innovations in verb morphology among Apachean dialects, distinguishing them from northern relatives while retaining core Athabaskan phonological traits like tone and classifiers.^[25] Genetic evidence corroborates this migration pattern, with Y-chromosome haplogroup Q-M3 lineages prevalent among Southwestern Athabaskans showing subarctic affinities and admixture signals consistent with a small founding population moving south from Athabaskan heartlands, followed by intermixing with local groups in the Southwest.^[26] Autosomal and mtDNA studies further reveal bottlenecks during the journey, evidenced by elevated frequencies of recessive alleles in Athabaskan-descended populations, indicative of serial founder effects over multiple generations of dispersal rather than a single mass movement.^[27] These markers cluster Athabaskans distinctly from pre-existing Uto-Aztecan and Puebloan groups, underscoring an influx of mobile hunter-gatherers adapting to arid uplands without requiring large-scale genetic replacement.^[28] Archaeologically, direct traces of early Apachean presence remain elusive due to the migrants' high mobility and minimal material footprint—favoring perishable wickery and hide structures over durable architecture—but correlations emerge in post-1300 CE site distributions across Arizona's uplands, including surface scatters of transitional ceramics blending Athabaskan-influenced plain wares with local Puebloan motifs.^[29] These align with the decline of Ancestral Puebloan (Anasazi) settlements around 1300 CE, which vacated resource niches in the Mogollon Rim and Tonto Basin through environmental stress and social disruption, enabling adaptive occupation by incoming groups without substantiated evidence of violent displacement of substantial populations.^[30] Instead, the pattern reflects opportunistic exploitation of underutilized uplands, with early Apachean sites featuring roasting pits and lithic scatters suited to foraging in oak-juniper woodlands, distinct from preceding Hohokam or Salado agrarian patterns.^[31] This influx likely proceeded via eastern gateways through the Plains or Rockies, fragmenting into localized bands like the Tonto, who specialized in the rugged topography of central Arizona.^[24]

Pre-Contact Society

The Tonto Apache, a band of the Western Apache known as Dilzhe'é, maintained decentralized social structures centered on small, autonomous local groups composed of matrilineal extended families. These units, the primary basis of social and economic organization, typically ranged from 35 to 200 individuals, functioning as self-reliant entities with exclusive rights to specific hunting, gathering, and farming locales.^[32] ^[14] Clan membership, inherited matrilineally, provided cross-group ties for mutual aid and exogamy, reinforcing kinship-based cooperation without centralized authority.^[14] Leadership emerged through prestige rather than heredity or hierarchy, with local group heads—often skilled hunters or warriors—gaining influence via consensus among family heads, emphasizing egalitarian decision-making for raids, hunts, and resource allocation. Resources acquired through raiding or hunting were shared broadly within the group to ensure survival, reflecting norms of reciprocity over accumulation. No formal chiefs imposed rule; instead, authority depended on demonstrated competence and group approval, allowing fluid adaptation to environmental pressures.^[14] ^[33] Women played a pivotal role in the subsistence economy, directing seasonal gathering of wild plants such as mescal and acorns, which supplied 35-40% of caloric needs, supplemented by limited horticulture of corn, beans, and squash yielding another 20-25%. Among the Northern Tonto, farming was minimal due to arid terrain, elevating gathering's proportion and women's oversight of family-based foraging parties as central to group sustenance. Men's contributions focused on hunting large game like deer (35-40% of diet) and raiding, but women's steady labor in processing and storage underpinned self-reliance.^[14]^[34]

Contact Era and Conflicts

Initial Encounters with Europeans

The earliest documented Spanish awareness of groups akin to the Tonto Apache (Dilzhe'é) occurred during 16th-century expeditions, such as Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's 1540-1542 entrada through northern Mexico and southern Arizona, where reports mentioned nomadic hunters in the Sierra Ancha and Mogollon Rim regions but recorded no direct encounters.^[35] These peripheral bands, occupying rugged central Arizona terrain distant from primary Spanish routes into Sonora and New Mexico, were noted in passing by explorers informed of their existence through Pueblo intermediaries, though primary interactions remained with more eastern Apache groups.^[36] By the late 17th and 18th centuries, Tonto Apache involvement emerged in Spanish mission records from Sonora, where Western Apache bands conducted opportunistic raids on livestock herds and outlying settlements as a form of resource extraction amid competition for grazing lands and introduced horses. These actions, often quick strikes targeting cattle and horses rather than sustained combat, reflected adaptive strategies to supplement foraging in their semi-arid homeland, with mission ledgers documenting sporadic incursions—such as those escalating after 1690—that disrupted Pima and Opata converts but avoided wholesale destruction of infrastructure.^[37] ^[36] Spanish responses, including presidio reinforcements and punitive sorties, framed these as defensive measures against "barbarian" incursions, yet empirical tallies from Tubac and other frontier posts indicate raid frequencies correlated with drought cycles and Spanish herd expansions, underscoring mutual economic pressures rather than unprovoked aggression.^[38] Following Mexico's independence in 1821, weakened central authority and reduced garrison funding intensified Tonto Apache raids into northern Sonora during the 1821-1848 period, exploiting understaffed presidios for livestock that bolstered their mobility and trade networks. Records from Arizpe and other districts log heightened depredations, with annual raids averaging dozens by the 1830s, as bands drove off thousands of cattle and sheep to offset territorial encroachments by Mexican ranchers pushing northward.^[39] ^[38] This era's conflicts, documented in Sonoran provincial archives, highlight Tonto strategies of hit-and-run tactics tailored to seasonal vulnerabilities in Mexican herds, positioning raids as pragmatic competition for scarce resources in a destabilized frontier rather than ideological warfare.^[40]

Interactions with Yavapai and Alliances

The Tonto Apache and Yavapai, neighboring groups in central Arizona's Verde Valley and Tonto Basin, developed pragmatic intergroup ties through frequent intermarriage, which fostered bilingual families despite the fundamental linguistic divide between the Athabaskan languages of the Tonto Apache and the Yuman languages of the Yavapai.^[3]^[41] These unions integrated cultural elements, such as the Tonto Apache's adoption of certain Yavapai farming practices, while maintaining distinct group identities rooted in separate ancestral migrations and territorial cores—Yavapai primarily west of the Verde River and Tonto Apache to the east.^[42] Such intermarriages supported fluid alliances against mutual threats from other indigenous groups, including raids on Pima settlements in the mid-19th century, where joint captives and cooperative actions were documented in territorial reports, reflecting shared interests in resource access without formal treaties.^[3] These partnerships were opportunistic, leveraging overlapping seasonal ranges for hunting and gathering in the absence of rigid boundaries, allowing mobility to mitigate resource scarcity.^[42] Tensions over contested water sources or game occasionally arose due to environmental pressures in the arid highlands, but were typically resolved through relocation to alternative foraging zones rather than protracted hostilities, preserving the overall interdependence of the groups.^[3] This pattern of collaboration and accommodation persisted into the contact era, underpinning their intertwined historical narratives amid external incursions.^[41]

Apache Wars Involvement

In the 1860s and 1870s, Northern and Southern Tonto Apache bands intensified raids on miners and settlers entering the Tonto Basin following gold discoveries in 1863 and the establishment of Prescott, targeting livestock and supplies to disrupt encroachments into their territory.^[3] These hit-and-run tactics exploited the rugged terrain, allowing small war parties to strike isolated camps and wagon trains before retreating to mountain strongholds, which heightened tensions and prompted retaliatory expeditions by civilian militias and U.S. Army units.^[3] General George Crook's Tonto Basin campaigns, initiated in November 1872 as part of the broader Tonto War, countered these raids by deploying infantry and cavalry supported by mule pack trains for mobility in the Sierra Ancha and Mogollon Rim areas, augmented by allied Apache, Pima, Maricopa, and Yavapai scouts who provided intelligence on rancheria locations.^[3] U.S. forces systematically destroyed villages and food stores, as exemplified by the Skeleton Cave Massacre in December 1872, where approximately 50-75 Tonto and Yavapai warriors were killed, with only about 20 survivors escaping.^[3] This approach of persistent pursuit and deprivation eroded Tonto resistance, leading to mass surrenders at Camp Verde by April 1873.^[3] The campaigns culminated in the surrender of remaining Tonto bands, contributing to the relocation of roughly 1,500 Yavapai and Tonto Apaches to the Rio Verde Reservation near Camp Verde, though subsequent forced marches to San Carlos Agency in February 1875 resulted in high attrition, with about 100 deaths from disease and starvation among the 1,450 who departed.^[3] These outcomes reflected the tactical shift imposed by Crook's scout-dependent strategy, which inflicted disproportionate casualties on dispersed raiders unable to sustain prolonged engagements or forage effectively under pressure.^[3]

Reservation Period and Adaptation

Surrender and Relocations

Following the Tonto Basin campaigns led by General George Crook from 1872 to 1873, numerous Tonto Apache bands surrendered to U.S. forces, culminating in the placement of approximately 1,500 Tonto Apache and Yavapai individuals on the Rio Verde Reservation near Camp Verde, Arizona, which had been established in 1871.^[3] Crook's policy emphasized military enforcement combined with reservation confinement to end raiding, requiring all roving bands to report by February 15, 1873, with key surrenders including Chief Delshay on April 25, 1873.^[3] This approach achieved relative pacification but prioritized rapid containment over long-term provisioning, as the reservation's arable lands supported initial farming and livestock experiments under Army oversight.^[43] In 1875, federal policy shifted under Interior Department directives to consolidate Apache groups at the San Carlos Reservation, leading to the abrupt dissolution of Rio Verde despite its prior designation as permanent.^[3] On February 27, 1875, about 1,450 Tonto Apache and Yavapai began a 150- to 180-mile forced winter march to San Carlos, conducted without wagons despite Crook's objections for logistical support via a southern route; participants, including the elderly, pregnant women, and children, walked through snow-covered terrain with subfreezing nights, scant rations, and inadequate clothing.^[43] ^[3] At least 100 died en route from exposure and exhaustion, reflecting failures in basic transport and supply planning driven by cost-cutting mandates from Indian Commissioner Edwin Dudley.^[43] ^[3] Upon arrival at San Carlos, overcrowding exacerbated disease outbreaks such as malaria and smallpox, compounded by restricted access to traditional hunting and gathering, inferior rations, and unsuitability of the hot, low-elevation site for highland-adapted groups like the Tonto Apache.^[3] These conditions, rooted in a containment strategy favoring centralized administration over ecological or cultural feasibility, resulted in substantial additional mortality from starvation and illness in the ensuing years.^[3] ^[43] Some individuals escaped during the relocation or shortly after, with groups under leaders like Delshay attempting returns to ancestral areas, though most remained confined until gradual dispersals in the 1880s and 1890s allowed limited repatriation to the Payson vicinity.^[3]

Establishment of Reservations

Following the forced relocation of Tonto Apache to the San Carlos Reservation in 1875, many members resisted permanent confinement due to the harsh environmental and social conditions there, which contrasted sharply with their traditional semi-nomadic lifestyle in the Tonto Basin and Mogollon Rim areas.^[3] Beginning in the 1890s and continuing into the early 1900s, groups gradually returned to ancestral territories near Payson, Arizona, engaging in seasonal movements between the Tonto Basin in winter and higher elevations in summer.^[44] This dispersal was enabled by inconsistent federal enforcement of reservation residency requirements, allowing Tonto Apache to supplement subsistence through wage labor, such as woodcutting, farming assistance, and construction work on projects like Roosevelt Dam, while camping on public lands.^[13] As adaptive responses to exclusion from formal land bases, splinter groups integrated into allied communities through intermarriage and historical alliances, particularly with Yavapai bands.^[3] Tonto Apache individuals and families joined the Fort McDowell community, where a reservation was established by executive order on September 15, 1903, encompassing approximately 40 square miles north of Phoenix for Yavapai and affiliated Apache groups.^[45] Similarly, descendants affiliated with the Yavapai-Apache Nation, reflecting shared linguistic and cultural ties developed during pre-reservation interactions.^[9] These integrations provided access to reserved lands amid ongoing displacement pressures. Efforts to secure small, dedicated allotments in the Payson vicinity emerged in the early 20th century as petitions and homestead claims, though federal recognition as a distinct tribe lagged, limiting formal grants until later decades.^[44] For instance, in 1919, Delia Calbalechis obtained a 97.5-acre homestead trust allotment along the East Verde River, representing one of the initial individual land holdings amid broader off-reservation wanderings.^[44] Such modest acquisitions underscored the Tonto Apache's pragmatic adaptations to policy constraints, prioritizing proximity to traditional resources over large-scale reservations.^[3]

Post-Relocation Challenges

Following the forced relocation of approximately 1,450 Yavapai and Tonto Apache to the San Carlos Reservation in 1875, the Tonto Apache experienced profound loss of their traditional territories in central Arizona's Verde Valley and Tonto Basin, which had sustained foraging, hunting, and seasonal migration patterns essential to their subsistence economy.^[3] This displacement severed access to familiar resources, compelling reliance on inadequate government-issued rations that often failed to meet nutritional needs amid inconsistent distribution and spoilage in the arid Gila River environment. By the late 1890s, scarcity drove many Tonto Apache men toward off-reservation wage labor in mining, ranching, and construction, marking a shift from self-sufficient mobility to proletarian dependency, as traditional economic autonomy eroded under reservation confinement.^[46] Compounding resource shortages were devastating epidemics of introduced diseases, including tuberculosis and lingering smallpox outbreaks, exacerbated by overcrowding, malnutrition, and limited medical infrastructure on San Carlos, derisively termed "Hell's Forty Acres" by contemporaries due to its harsh conditions.^[47] At least 100 perished during the initial 1875 march alone from exhaustion and exposure, with subsequent years seeing further attrition; tuberculosis incidence among Apaches on the reservation reached 1% annually by the early 1930s, reflecting earlier unchecked patterns that halved or more some subgroup populations in the prior decades.^[3] U.S. Indian agents documented these tolls in annual reports, attributing declines to "virgin soil" vulnerability and poor sanitation, though systemic underfunding of health services prolonged suffering.^[47] Internal factionalism further strained adaptation, as agent correspondences highlighted divisions between accommodationists—who collaborated as scouts or accepted reservation authority for survival—and resistors who evaded confinement or raided for resources, fostering distrust and splintered leadership amid survival pressures.^[48] These tensions, rooted in differing responses to federal coercion, impeded unified strategies against scarcity, yet underscored resilience through selective integration into wage economies and kin-based mutual aid, enabling gradual reconstitution despite demographic lows nearing 600 for Tonto Apache by early 1900s enumerations.^[49]

Cultural Practices

Language and Linguistics

The Tonto dialect constitutes a variety of Western Apache, a Southern Athabaskan language spoken in east-central Arizona. It occupies the westernmost position in the Western Apache dialect continuum, alongside Northern Tonto, Southern Tonto, Cibecue, San Carlos, and White Mountain varieties, with Tonto exhibiting the greatest divergence due to geographic isolation and historical contact influences.^[50]^[51] Phonologically, Tonto Apache aligns with Western Apache in possessing a rich consonant inventory, including a four-way stop contrast—voiced, voiceless unaspirated, aspirated, and ejective—and lateral fricatives such as /ɬ/, which distinguish Athabaskan languages from neighboring families. Unlike some loanword-limited phonemes like /p/, core Tonto structures retain these features without significant innovation, though grammatical verb paradigms feature Athabaskan-typical classifiers, tense-aspect-mood systems, and polypersonal agreement marking subject, object, and shape.^[52]^[53] Historical bilingualism with Yavapai, a Yuman language, introduced loanwords into Tonto Apache, reflecting intergroup alliances and territorial overlap in the Tonto Basin. The dialect is severely endangered, with only 6–12 fluent speakers reported among the Tonto Apache Tribe as of language revitalization efforts in the 2010s. Documentation commenced in the 1930s through anthropologist Grenville Goodwin's fieldwork, yielding word lists and notes from Tonto speakers, supplemented by later dialectological analyses.^[3]^[54]^[55]

Subsistence and Economy

The traditional subsistence economy of the Tonto Apache, a subgroup of the Western Apache, relied on a flexible mix of hunting, gathering wild plants, and limited horticulture, adapted to the arid landscapes of central Arizona. Approximately 40% of the diet came from gathered wild foods such as mesquite beans, agave, and piñon nuts, 35% from hunted game including deer and smaller mammals, and 25% from cultivated crops like corn, beans, and squash grown in small floodplain gardens.^[34]^[32] This seasonal pattern involved spring and summer farming alongside gathering, transitioning to intensified hunting in fall and winter, yielding a self-sufficient caloric intake without dependency on any single resource.^[40] Post-contact with Europeans in the 16th–18th centuries, the Tonto Apache demonstrated adaptability by incorporating horses into their resource strategies, which expanded hunting ranges and enabled more effective raiding for livestock and trade goods, thereby increasing overall productivity and mobility in their foraging economy.^[56] By the 19th century, this equestrian shift had transformed sporadic acquisitions into systematic economic gains through expanded access to bison hunts and Mexican settlements, supplementing traditional yields.^[56] Following reservation establishment in the 1870s–1880s, subsistence transitioned toward introduced livestock herding of cattle and sheep provided by U.S. agents, alongside continued small-scale farming on irrigated reservation plots, though environmental constraints limited agricultural output to under 20% of needs in early decades.^[32] In the modern era, the Tonto Apache Tribe's economy centers on gaming revenue from the Mazatzal Casino, opened in 1994 and expanded in 2007 for $40 million, which employs over 300 people—primarily tribal members—and generates self-sufficiency through compact-regulated operations under the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act.^[5]^[57] This gaming focus, comprising the bulk of tribal income, supports diversification efforts like planned hospitality and beverage partnerships, reducing reliance on federal aid.^[58]^[59]

Religion and Ceremonies

The traditional religion of the Tonto Apache, a subgroup of the Western Apache, centers on animism, wherein natural elements and beings possess inherent diyin (supernatural power) that influences human affairs and requires ritual propitiation to maintain harmony. Central to this cosmology are the Ga'an, or Mountain Spirits, anthropomorphic deities residing in sacred mountains and invoked for protection, healing, and success in warfare; these spirits are neither wholly benevolent nor malevolent but embody potent forces that demand respect through ceremonial observance. Ethnographic accounts from the early 20th century document Tonto Apache beliefs in a pantheon of powers derived from animals, weather phenomena, and landscapes, with taboos prohibiting desecration of sacred sites such as caves and peaks, where spirits dwell and violations could provoke illness or misfortune.^[60]^[32] Key ceremonies include the Na'ídes, or Mountain Spirit Dance, performed for healing the sick, preparing for raids, or ensuring communal well-being; masked dancers, representing the Ga'an, emerge from sweat lodges amid chants and rhythmic drumming, distributing blessed pollen and cattail wands to participants while embodying the spirits' purifying presence. These rites, observed among Tonto groups in the 1930s, involve communal participation and last several nights, with prohibitions on photography or outsider interference to preserve spiritual efficacy. Shamanic curing, conducted by di-yin (medicine people) who acquire power through visions or inheritance, employs diagnostic extraction techniques, herbal poultices (such as those from bear root or tobacco), and extended chanting sessions to expel malevolent influences and restore balance disrupted by taboo breaches.^[61]^[62]^[63] Post-1900 interactions with missionaries introduced syncretism, with Lutheran and Catholic denominations establishing missions on Apache reservations, leading some Tonto Apache to incorporate Christian elements like baptism alongside traditional rites; however, core animistic cosmology—emphasizing diyin and Ga'an—persisted, as evidenced by continued performance of Mountain Spirit dances into the mid-20th century despite conversion pressures. This dual practice reflects pragmatic adaptation rather than wholesale replacement, with ethnographic records noting that many shamans integrated Christian prayers into curing chants without altering foundational beliefs in spirit powers.^[32]^[64] The Tonto Apache kinship system was matrilineal, with descent, inheritance, and clan membership traced exclusively through the female line, forming the core of social organization among Western Apache groups including the Tonto bands. Clans, numbering over 50 and often named after localities tied to plant gathering or farming sites, enforced exogamy to prevent inbreeding and foster inter-clan alliances through marriage, thereby stabilizing extended networks across local groups. ^[65] ^[66] Residence patterns were predominantly matrilocal, whereby a husband relocated to reside with or near his wife's maternal kin following marriage, reinforcing women's authority over household resources and child socialization within familiar kin clusters. This arrangement granted women primary rights to property, including use of clan-associated lands for gathering and cultivation, as well as ownership of dwellings like wickiups, which supported efficient transmission of ecological knowledge and economic self-sufficiency tied to maternal lineages. ^[67] ^[68] ^[69] Gender roles exhibited a clear division of labor that aligned with environmental demands: men acted as primary hunters, raiders, and warriors, providing meat and protection through mobility and combat skills, while women oversaw gathering, horticulture, food processing, and textile production, leveraging localized knowledge of flora and family-based labor pools for sustained subsistence. This complementarity minimized overlap in tasks, maximized productivity in arid terrains, and upheld matrilineal continuity by centering women's roles in resource stewardship and progeny rearing. ^[32] ^[70]

Sociopolitical Structure

Local Group Organization

The local group constituted the primary unit of Tonto Apache social organization within the broader Western Apache framework, emphasizing autonomy at the band level to enable flexible, decentralized decision-making among small, kin-based populations adapted to rugged terrains and variable resources. Each local group maintained its own territory for hunting, gathering, and seasonal farming, operating independently while linked to larger subgroups like the Northern or Southern Tonto through shared customs, dialects, and kinship ties rather than centralized authority. This structure, observed by ethnographer Grenville Goodwin in the 1930s, reflected a non-hierarchical system where groups coordinated loosely for defense or raids but retained self-sufficiency in daily affairs.^[14]^[32] Tonto Apache subgroups typically encompassed several local groups—estimated at 5 to 10 across Northern and Southern divisions—each comprising 35 to 100 individuals organized into 9 to 30 households or extended family clusters dominated by members of the same matrilineal clan. Leadership fell to headmen selected not by heredity or coercion but by demonstrated prowess in warfare, hunting, mediation, or resource management, with positions sustained through communal consensus and revocable if the group deemed the leader ineffective. Absent paramount chiefs overseeing multiple groups, decisions on migration, conflict, or resource allocation arose from collective deliberation, often influenced by senior women who directed food procurement and distribution within matrilocal residences.^[14]^[71] Resource sharing and mutual aid flowed primarily through matrilineal networks, where clan exogamy and maternal inheritance reinforced obligations stronger on the mother's side, enabling reciprocity in times of scarcity without formal redistribution mechanisms. Clan members extended assistance in childcare, defense, or provisioning, cross-cutting local group boundaries to buffer environmental uncertainties, as documented in Goodwin's fieldwork among Western Apache communities including Tonto affiliates. This decentralized ethos prioritized adaptive resilience over rigid hierarchy, aligning with the ecological demands of their semi-nomadic lifeways in central Arizona's mountains and canyons.^[14]

Leadership and Chiefs

In traditional Tonto Apache society, a subgroup of the Western Apache, leadership roles were achieved through personal merit rather than heredity, with individuals earning influence primarily via success in warfare, raiding, and hunting expeditions.^[32] Leaders functioned as advisors rather than rulers, guiding decisions on resource allocation or conflict through persuasion and demonstrated competence, as authority derived from voluntary consensus among autonomous local groups rather than enforced hierarchy.^[72] For instance, temporary war leaders emerged for specific raids, selected by participants based on prior victories and strategic acumen, leading small parties of warriors without broader command over the band.^[33] This fluid system emphasized individualism and situational expertise, where a leader's sway in one context, such as organizing a hunt, did not extend to peacetime governance or kinship matters.^[73] Influence waned without ongoing success, preventing entrenched power and aligning with the band's decentralized structure of matrilineal clans and extended families.^[32] Post-contact with U.S. forces in the mid-19th century, federal agents imposed formal "chief" designations to facilitate negotiations and reservations, often selecting amenable individuals regardless of traditional standing, which disrupted consensus-based authority and sparked factions within groups.^[40] These appointed figures, sometimes patrilineally oriented to align with agency preferences, clashed with indigenous norms, leading to internal divisions as bands resisted externally validated leadership lacking proven merit in raids or counsel.^[40]

Intergroup Relations

The Western Apache groups, encompassing the Tonto Apache, maintained a loose confederation characterized by cooperative defense against external adversaries like Spanish, Mexican, and American incursions, while emphasizing band-level autonomy in governance and resource management. This decentralized structure, rooted in matrilineal clans that spanned groups but lacked overarching political hierarchy, enabled pragmatic alliances for warfare or large-scale hunts but permitted local leaders to operate independently without coercive authority. Ethnographic accounts highlight how such flexibility fostered resilience, as bands could dissolve or reform ties based on immediate needs rather than rigid ideology.^[69] Relations among bands involved periodic raiding for captives and horses, driven by economic imperatives and status competition rather than enduring enmity. Captives, typically women and children from rival groups, were adopted to sustain demographics and labor, with horses serving as prestige goods that signified raiding success and mobility advantages post-acquisition from Spanish sources in the 17th-18th centuries. These interactions underscored non-ideological pragmatism, where autonomy often trumped unity, leading to intra-Apache conflicts alongside defensive coalitions.^[74]^[39] Trade networks linked Tonto Apache bands with Puebloan peoples, involving exchanges of hides, meat, and baskets for ceramics, corn, and textiles, as documented in historical ethnographies and supported by distributed artifacts indicating reciprocal economic ties. Such barter, conducted at established sites or during seasonal gatherings, mitigated subsistence risks in arid environments without formal treaties, reflecting adaptive interdependence amid territorial overlaps.

Modern Communities

Tonto Apache Reservation

The Tonto Apache Reservation comprises 85 acres of land situated near Payson in Gila County, Arizona, within the Tonto National Forest. It represents the tribe's primary contemporary land base, designated as the smallest reservation in the state. Federal recognition and establishment occurred on October 6, 1972, through Public Law 92-470, providing a permanent homeland following historical displacements.^[3] Governance is vested in the Tonto Apache Tribal Council, composed of a chairman, vice chairman, and three additional members elected by tribal citizens to staggered two-year terms. The council manages reservation affairs, including land use decisions and economic initiatives, under the tribe's constitution originally organized pursuant to the Indian Reorganization Act.^[7] Land use centers on economic development through gaming operations, prominently featuring the Mazatzal Hotel & Casino, which generates substantial revenue and employs hundreds, funding tribal services and infrastructure improvements. Recent expansions, such as the Apache Corners mixed-use project, allocate approximately 75 acres for commercial growth to diversify the economy and accommodate population needs.^[75] ^[76] The reservation supports around 110 enrolled tribal members, with total population approximating 140 individuals. Educational efforts include the Tonto Apache Community School, operational since 2023 as the tribe's inaugural on-reservation K-8 institution to enhance local access to culturally relevant instruction. Housing programs address limited space through tribal initiatives and federal partnerships aimed at maintenance and new construction.^[1] ^[77]

Affiliations with Other Tribes

The Yavapai-Apache Nation of the Camp Verde Indian Reservation integrates descendants of the Dilzhe'e (Tonto Apache) with the Wipukyipai Yavapai through historical intermarriages and shared territorial use in the Verde Valley region.^[9]^[42] This bi-tribal structure, federally recognized since 1934, encompasses approximately 2,600 enrolled members as of 2019, with Tonto Apache lineage contributing to the Apache subgroup while maintaining distinct linguistic and cultural elements such as Athabaskan dialects separate from Yuman languages.^[78]^[3] Intermarriages fostered hybrid identities, diluting exclusively Tonto affiliations within the nation's governance and enrollment criteria, though Tonto-specific traditions like certain subsistence practices persist in communal memory.^[42] The Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation similarly reflects hybrid integrations, with historical connections to Tonto Apache via intergroup marriages, nomadic overlaps, and joint relocations during 19th-century U.S. military actions, such as the 1875 forced march to San Carlos.^[3]^[45] Some Tonto descendants are enrolled here, blending Apache heritage into the predominantly Yavapai framework, which emphasizes shared struggles over strict lineage purity.^[3] This has resulted in a diluted Tonto identity amid the nation's focus on Yavapai sovereignty, yet without erasing Apache-influenced social norms or historical narratives. These affiliations, rooted in pre-reservation alliances and post-removal consolidations, have not entailed complete sovereignty forfeiture for Tonto Apache; the standalone Tonto Apache Tribe retains federal recognition and cultural autonomy on its 85-acre reservation near Payson.^[1] Distinctives like Tonto-specific kinship patterns and ceremonial knowledge endure across these entities, even as multi-tribal enrollment disperses pure Tonto descent lines.^[3]

Demographics and Governance

The Tonto Apache Tribe maintains a small enrolled membership of approximately 110 individuals, with a total population on the reservation estimated at around 140. The 2020 U.S. Decennial Census reported 130 residents for the Tonto Apache Reservation and Off-Reservation Trust Land. Of these, about 102 tribal members reside on the reservation, reflecting the tribe's compact community structure.^[1] Governance is vested in a five-member Tribal Council comprising a Chairman, Vice-Chairman, and three council members, as defined in the tribe's constitution ratified on December 22, 1979, pursuant to Section 16 of the Indian Reorganization Act. The Chairman and Vice-Chairman are elected to four-year terms, while the three council members serve two-year terms; elections occur annually via secret ballot on the second Saturday in June.^[79] Federal recognition was established by congressional act in 1972, affirming the tribe's sovereign status.^[7] This recognition enables self-governance, with Bureau of Indian Affairs oversight limited to specific areas such as land-into-trust decisions and approval of major amendments to the constitution, thereby minimizing external administrative intervention in tribal affairs.^[79]

Notable Figures

Historical Chiefs

Delshay, also known as Del-che-ae or Delcha, emerged as the principal chief of the Southern Tonto Apache bands during the Apache Wars of the 1870s, leading resistance against U.S. forces in the Tonto Basin region of central Arizona.^[3] In November 1871, Delshay and Shelter-Pau, designated as head chiefs of the Tonto Apaches, participated in peace negotiations at Camp McDowell, where they discussed terms for halting hostilities amid ongoing military pressure.^[80] By April 25, 1872, Delshay surrendered to General George Crook, delivering approximately 100 warriors, 40 women, and 60 children to Fort Verde, effectively concluding major Southern Tonto resistance in the campaign that resulted in over 200 Apache casualties from combat and privation.^[3]^[81] Delshay's leadership extended to post-surrender instability; after initial compliance, he fled the reservation in late 1873 with sub-chiefs including Chunz, Cochinay, and Chan-deisi, prompting Crook to deploy Apache scouts for recapture and offering bounties that underscored the fragility of Tonto surrenders.^[48] Military records indicate Delshay's band utilized strongholds in the Sierra Ancha and Mazatzal Mountains for guerrilla tactics prior to capitulation, reflecting adaptive strategies against superior U.S. firepower and logistics.^[82] Among Northern Tonto figures, Charley Norman of the Mormon Lake band stands out in ethnographic documentation for his role as a scout in late-19th-century U.S. Army operations against Apache holdouts, providing critical intelligence on band movements and social structures.^[83] Norman's accounts, recorded in the 1930s but drawing from his experiences during the reservation era's enforcement, highlight Northern Tonto autonomy, including clan intermarriages and territorial claims extending to areas near modern Flagstaff.^[66] While Aravaipa leader Eskiminzin engaged in broader Apache diplomacy, including 1871 conferences alongside Tonto representatives, his influence on Tonto bands remained peripheral, with Southern and Northern groups maintaining distinct leadership under Delshay and figures like Norman rather than integrating Aravaipa strategies.^[48]

Contemporary Leaders

Calvin Johnson has served as Chairman of the Tonto Apache Tribe since at least 2020, leading efforts to enhance tribal sovereignty through economic diversification and land expansion.^[84] Under his guidance, the Tribal Council prioritized pragmatic development initiatives, including the Apache Corners master plan launched in 2020, which aims to generate revenue streams independent of federal allocations.^[85] This approach reflects a deliberate shift toward self-reliance, with Johnson advocating for projects that leverage tribal lands for sustainable income, such as a $200 million phased development featuring recreational and commercial facilities.^[86] A key economic endeavor under Johnson's leadership is the partnership with Heritage Distilling Company, announced on August 3, 2023, to establish Arizona's first tribally owned and operated distillery on reservation land spanning approximately 75 acres.^[58] The initial phase, budgeted at $60 million, includes the distillery alongside an RV park and tasting room, designed to create jobs and tourism revenue while advancing economic sovereignty.^[85] Tribal Vice Chairman Charles Lopez and council members Lucinda Flores, Joe Morgan, and Steven Johnson support these initiatives, emphasizing governance that prioritizes internal capacity-building over prolonged reliance on external aid.^[1] On land claims, Johnson's administration has pursued federal legislation to reclaim culturally significant acreage, culminating in the Tonto Apache Land Transfer Act introduced by U.S. Senators Mark Kelly and Kyrsten Sinema on October 21, 2024.^[87] The bill proposes transferring 3,060 acres of national forest land to the tribe, addressing historical encroachments and enabling expanded self-governed use for economic and cultural purposes.^[88] This legislative push underscores a post-1934 evolution in tribal leadership toward assertive reclamation of resources, aligning with broader patterns of indigenous groups seeking autonomy through targeted federal negotiations rather than dependency.^[87]

Recent Developments

Economic Sovereignty Efforts

The Apache Corners initiative, launched in 2020, constitutes a $200 million mixed-use commercial development on approximately 75 acres of Tonto Apache trust land straddling Arizona State Route 87 near Payson.^[76] This project emphasizes retail outlets, hospitality venues, and entertainment facilities to drive revenue generation and job creation, with projections estimating $90 million in annual economic impact, over 1,000 new positions, and $30.5 million in wages for the tribe and region.^[89] Managed in partnership with aLocal Solutions, it received the International Economic Development Council's 2024 Gold Excellence Award for advancing tribal-led economic planning.^[90] A key component of Apache Corners, the tribe's August 2023 partnership with Heritage Distilling Company established Arizona's inaugural tribally owned and operated distillery and tasting room on reservation land.^[58] Integrated into the Tribal Beverage Network framework, the facility—located adjacent to the Mazatzal Hotel & Casino—produces Heritage's established spirits alongside proprietary Tonto Apache brands, capitalizing on sovereign authority to bypass certain federal alcohol regulations historically restrictive on reservations.^[91] The tasting room commenced operations in 2024, contributing to a broader $100 million tribal expansion aimed at diversifying income streams beyond gaming.^[92] Ongoing phases through 2025 have advanced infrastructure such as an entertainment district with outdoor patios and a travel center, positioning the tribe to sustain growth via private-sector collaborations and internal revenue, thereby diminishing dependence on federal welfare programs.^[5] These market-oriented ventures prioritize self-generated capital over subsidies, aligning with post-2020 strategies to bolster fiscal autonomy amid regional tourism and logistics demands.^[85]

Environmental and Legal Disputes

The Tonto Apache Tribe participates in Arizona's general adjudication of water rights in the Gila River system and source, asserting federally reserved rights established upon the reservation's creation by executive order on November 15, 1881. These claims encompass surface water from the East Verde River and groundwater, essential for sustaining tribal agriculture, domestic use, and economic activities on the 112-acre reservation.^[93] The adjudication process, initiated in 1979, involves litigation against state surface water doctrines that subordinate Indian reserved rights, leading to challenges under federal law such as the Winters doctrine.^[94] In San Carlos Apache Tribe v. Superior Court (1999), the Arizona Supreme Court reviewed claims by the Tonto Apache Tribe alongside the San Carlos Apache and Yavapai-Apache Nation, affirming tribal reserved rights while partially invalidating state statutes like A.R.S. § 45-141 that conflicted with federal supremacy. The ruling emphasized quantification of rights through negotiation or court decree to avoid protracted uncertainty.^[93] As of October 2024, the tribe remains in active federal settlement negotiations, part of broader efforts resolving 14 Arizona tribes' claims amid competing demands from non-Indian users and municipalities.^[95] ^[96] These legal proceedings underscore trade-offs between securing quantified water for tribal revenue generation—such as expanded ranching or tourism—and environmental risks like over-allocation depleting riparian habitats or aquifer drawdown affecting downstream ecosystems. Proponents of settlement argue it enables development without endless litigation, potentially yielding infrastructure like pipelines, while critics among settlers highlight reduced availability for agriculture amid Arizona's arid conditions and growing populations.^[97] No major mining-specific environmental disputes directly implicate the Tonto Apache Reservation, though broader Apache cultural concerns over resource extraction in adjacent Tonto National Forest persist in related tribal advocacy.^[87]

Cultural Revitalization

The Tonto Apache Tribe has pursued cultural preservation through a dedicated roadmap for language and heritage revitalization, encompassing strategic plans and cultural resource surveys to document and sustain traditions amid historical assimilation pressures.^[98] Grant-supported initiatives have enabled the establishment of Apache language classes targeted at both youth and adults, fostering direct engagement with the Western Apache dialect spoken by the tribe.^[54] Traditional arts form a core component of these efforts, with tribal members renowned for intricate basket weaving and beadwork that embody cultural motifs and techniques passed down generations.^[6] Workshops and hands-on activities in these crafts, alongside field trips and community events, actively involve younger members in practical skill-building to maintain artisanal knowledge.^[98] Ceremonial practices, including public expressions of sacred dances like the Apache Crown Dance, continue to be revived in the Payson area, drawing youth participation to reinforce spiritual and communal bonds central to Tonto Apache identity.^[99] Powwows and similar gatherings further promote youth involvement, integrating song, dance, and storytelling to counter cultural erosion and build intergenerational continuity.^[98] These programs emphasize empirical community outcomes, such as increased participation in language and arts sessions, though the tribe's small population of approximately 110 enrolled members limits scale.^[1]

References

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Tonto Apache Tribe - Inter Tribal Council of Arizona |
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22 Federally Recognized Tribes in Arizona
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[PDF] The Tonto Apache Tribe - Department of Energy
• The Tonto Apache Tribe gained Federal recognition in 1972 ... • Original Territory includes North Central Arizona (Mogollon Rim & surrounding areas).
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Section 1. The governing body of the Tribe shall be known as the Tonto Apache Tribal Council, hereinafter referred to as the "Tribal Council".
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TALK WITH DEL-SHAY AND SHELTER-PAU, HEAD CHIEFS OF THE TONTO APACHES, AT MCDOWELL. CAMP MCDOWELL, ARIZONA TERRITORY, November 2, 1871. SIR: I have the honor ...
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Oct 21, 2024 · Kelly and Sinema's legislation supports the Tonto Apache Tribe's proposal to expand their reservation. This land is culturally significant ...<|separator|>
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Oct 22, 2024 · Kyrsten Sinema and Mark Kelly introduced the "Tonto Apache Land Transfer Act" would fulfill the tribe's goal to expand its reservation and ...Missing: IRA | Show results with:IRA<|separator|>
[89]
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Aug 5, 2023 · Apache Corners is expected to create nearly $90 million in economic impact, including more than 1,000 new jobs and $30.5 million in new wages. " ...<|separator|>
[90]
aLocal and Apache Corners Receives The 2024 Excellence in ...
Aug 28, 2024 · aLocal and Apache Corners received the 2024 Excellence in Economic Development Gold Award from the International Economic Development Council ( ...
[91]
The Tonto Apache Tribe to Partner with Heritage Distilling
Aug 3, 2023 · Heritage's Tribal Beverage Network to provide new revenue, destination amenities and employment opportunities, and advance economic sovereignty ...
[92]
Tonto Apache Tribe Announces First Tribal Distillery in Arizona
Sep 12, 2023 · The new Heritage Distilling tasting room at the Mazatzal Hotel & Casino will open in 2024 and is part of the Tonto Apache Tribe's $100 million expansion ...
[93]
San Carlos Apache Tribe, Tonto Apache Tribe, & Yavapai-Apache ...
... water rights. Following Judge Goodfarb s retirement, this court assigned the case to Judge Bolton on December 8, 1994. thereafter, DWR s Adjudication.1 ...
[94]
Arizona tribes were left out of water decisions until 1908. Here's how ...
May 19, 2024 · Arizona tribes were left out of water decisions until 1908. Here's how they negotiate today.
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Indian Water Rights Settlements Teams and Tribes List (10/2/2024)
List of Indian water rights settlement teams and relevant Tribes. ... Tonto Apache AZ Tonto Apache Tribe San Luis Rey CA La Jolla Band of Luiseno ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] The Status of Tribal Water Rights in the Colorado River Basin1
Apr 9, 2021 · Tonto Apache Tribe. AZ. Settlement negotiations ongoing. Not available. Ute Indian Tribe (Uintah-Ouray). UT. Pending litigation. 370,37059.
[97]
Tribal Water Rights - Central Arizona Project
14 of 22 Arizona tribes have resolved or partially resolved water rights claims. 46% of CAP water is allocated to tribes, with 6 having outstanding claims. ...Missing: litigation | Show results with:litigation
[98]
Strengthening Our Communities - The MICA Group
The grant will connect 1,624 people, 422 households, 123 farms, 11 businesses, and 4 educational facilities in Maricopa, Pima, and Pinal Counties in Arizona.
[99]
Sacred Apache Crown Dance celebrates ancient culture
The dance of the masked Apache Crown Dancers were among the most vivid events, a public version of a deeply sacred ceremony with deep roots in Apache culture.Missing: youth | Show results with:youth