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Triplet oxygen

Triplet oxygen, denoted as ^3\mathrm{O_2}, is the electronic ground state of the diatomic molecule dioxygen (O₂), characterized by a triplet spin multiplicity arising from two unpaired electrons occupying degenerate π* antibonding orbitals, which imparts a paramagnetic biradical nature to the molecule.^[1] This configuration, with a formal bond order of 2, represents the lowest-energy state of O₂, lying approximately 0 kcal/mol below the excited singlet states (¹Δ_g at 22 kcal/mol and ¹Σ_g⁺ at 37 kcal/mol relative to the triplet ground state).^[2]^[3] As a colorless, odorless gas at standard conditions, triplet oxygen constitutes about 21% of Earth's atmosphere by volume and is essential for aerobic life, serving as the terminal electron acceptor in cellular respiration.^[4] The paramagnetism of triplet oxygen, first observed in the 1840s and explained via molecular orbital theory in the early 20th century, arises directly from its two unpaired electrons with parallel spins (total spin S = 1), distinguishing it from diamagnetic singlet oxygen.^[1] Physically, it liquefies at -183°C and solidifies at -218.8°C, appearing pale blue in these condensed phases due to weak absorption bands.^[4] Chemically, its biradical structure leads to spin-forbidden reactions with most closed-shell (singlet) molecules, resulting in kinetically sluggish direct reactivity under ambient conditions, though it engages readily in radical chain processes, such as hydrogen abstraction or coupling with other radicals to form peroxides.^[5] This selective reactivity underpins its role in both beneficial and deleterious processes, including enzymatic oxidations (e.g., cytochrome P450-mediated hydroxylations) and the generation of reactive oxygen species that contribute to oxidative stress.^[4] In industrial and synthetic chemistry, triplet oxygen is harnessed as a cheap, abundant oxidant in processes like the Wacker oxidation of ethylene to acetaldehyde or the autoxidation of hydrocarbons, often catalyzed by transition metals to overcome spin restrictions.^[5] Biologically, it is transported by hemoglobin and myoglobin, reduced stepwise via the electron transport chain to water (with a standard reduction potential of +1.229 V in acidic conditions), powering ATP synthesis in mitochondria.^[1] Despite its stability, improper handling or activation (e.g., via photosensitization to singlet oxygen) can lead to uncontrolled oxidations, highlighting its dual-edged significance in sustaining life while posing risks like lipid peroxidation in cells.^[4]

Electronic Structure

Ground State Configuration

Triplet oxygen, the ground state of the dioxygen molecule (O₂), is described by molecular orbital (MO) theory, which constructs molecular orbitals from the atomic orbitals of two oxygen atoms. The valence atomic orbitals involved are the 2s and 2p orbitals, leading to sigma (σ) and pi (π) molecular orbitals. Specifically, the bonding σ orbitals form from head-on overlap (σ_{2s} and σ_{2p_z}), while π orbitals arise from sideways overlap of p_x and p_y orbitals (π_{2p_x} and π_{2p_y}). The corresponding antibonding orbitals (σ_{2s}, σ{2p_z}, π*{2p_x}, π*{2p_y}) are higher in energy, with the σ{2p_z} orbital lying above the π_{2p} orbitals for O₂ due to s-p mixing effects in second-period elements beyond nitrogen.^[6]^[7] The ground state electron configuration of O₂, with 12 valence electrons, is (σ_{2s})^2 (σ{2s})^2 (σ{2p_z})^2 (π_{2p})^4 (π{2p})^2, where the π{2p} notation represents the degenerate pair π_{2p_x} and π_{2p_y}, and similarly for π_{2p}. The two electrons in the degenerate antibonding π_{2p} orbitals are unpaired, occupying separate orbitals with parallel spins according to Hund's first rule, which maximizes spin multiplicity for the lowest energy state. This configuration results in a triplet state (^3Σ_g^-), lower in energy than the singlet excited states (^1Δ_g and ^1Σ_g^+) by approximately 0.98 eV and 1.63 eV, respectively, due to reduced electron-electron repulsion in the higher-multiplicity arrangement.^[6]^[8]^[7] The bond order in this configuration is calculated as half the difference between the number of bonding and antibonding electrons: (8 bonding electrons in σ_{2s}^2, σ_{2p_z}^2, π_{2p}^4 minus 4 antibonding electrons in σ_{2s}^2 and π_{2p}^2)/2 = 2, corresponding to a double bond. This double bond strength is consistent with the observed O-O bond length of 120.7 pm and dissociation energy of 498 kJ/mol. The unpaired electrons in the π* orbitals also confer paramagnetism to O₂.^[9]^[6]

Lewis Representation

The Lewis dot structure for triplet oxygen (O₂) is typically represented as two oxygen atoms linked by a double bond (:O=O:), with each oxygen bearing two lone pairs of electrons; however, to emphasize its diradical character, the unpaired electrons are explicitly shown as single dots, one on each oxygen atom, resulting in a structure like •O=O•. This depiction highlights the two unpaired electrons with parallel spins, one localized on each oxygen, while maintaining a formal double bond and avoiding any charges on the atoms. The total of 12 valence electrons is accounted for in this formal representation, where the double bond and lone pairs account for the paired electrons, and the dots represent the unpaired electrons in the antibonding orbitals.^[10] An alternative diradical-focused Lewis representation employs a single bond between the oxygens (•O-O•), with four lone pairs (two on each atom) and one unpaired electron per oxygen, underscoring the molecule's inherent radical-like behavior without relying on multiple bonds. This form visually conveys the triplet oxygen's stability as a diradical, where the unpaired electrons contribute to its reactivity profile, though it deviates from strict octet fulfillment in formal counting. Such structures originated in the early 20th century following Gilbert N. Lewis's 1916 introduction of the electron dot model in his seminal paper, which applied dot notations to shared and unshared electrons in molecules, including simple diatomics like O₂.^[11]^[12] Despite its utility for visualization, the Lewis model has notable limitations for triplet oxygen, as the standard double-bond structure implies fully paired electrons and a diamagnetic species, failing to explain the molecule's observed paramagnetism arising from the two unpaired electrons. In 1931, Linus Pauling addressed this by proposing resonance among multiple valence-bond structures, including diradical and three-electron bond forms (e.g., a π-bond as two orthogonal two-center three-electron bonds), to reconcile the model with the triplet ground state and achieve an effective bond order of two. This resonance approach, while an improvement, still requires supplementary molecular orbital insights to fully capture the delocalized π* electrons responsible for the diradical nature.^[13]^[14]^[15] This Lewis representation aligns briefly with the ground state electron configuration by illustrating the two unpaired electrons in the antibonding π* orbitals as distinct dots, providing a simplified valence bond perspective.^[16]

Spin and Multiplicity

Triplet oxygen, the ground state of molecular oxygen (O₂), is characterized by a total spin quantum number S = 1, resulting from two unpaired electrons with parallel spins. The spin multiplicity, defined as $2S + 1, is thus 3, giving rise to the "triplet" designation. This high-spin configuration distinguishes it from lower-spin states and arises from the occupancy of the ground state electron configuration, where the two electrons occupy degenerate π* orbitals in accordance with Hund's rule.^[17]^[18] In contrast, the excited singlet states of oxygen have S = 0, with all electrons paired, leading to a multiplicity of 1. These singlet states, such as ^1\Delta_g and ^1\Sigma_g^+, lie higher in energy (approximately 0.98 eV and 1.63 eV above the ground state, respectively) and exhibit different spectroscopic and reactive properties due to the absence of net spin.^[18]^[17] The ground state's electronic structure is denoted by the molecular term symbol ^3\Sigma_g^-, which encapsulates key quantum properties. The superscript 3 indicates the triplet multiplicity; \Sigma signifies \Lambda = 0, the projection of orbital angular momentum along the internuclear axis; the subscript g denotes gerade parity, meaning the wavefunction is symmetric under spatial inversion for this homonuclear diatomic; and the superscript - reflects antisymmetry under reflection through a plane containing the molecular axis. This notation highlights the molecule's symmetry in the D_{∞h} point group.^[19] The triplet spin state has significant implications for molecular symmetry and spectroscopic studies. The three-fold spin degeneracy ($2S + 1 = 3) contributes to the overall state degeneracy, influencing selection rules in electronic transitions. In electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy, the unpaired electrons enable direct detection of the triplet state through interactions with an external magnetic field, providing insights into spin dynamics and zero-field splitting parameters characteristic of the molecule's symmetry.^[17]^[20]

Physical Properties

Paramagnetism

Triplet oxygen exhibits paramagnetism due to its two unpaired electrons in the ground state, leading to a net magnetic moment that aligns with an external magnetic field. This behavior was first demonstrated by Michael Faraday in 1848, with Pierre Curie quantifying its magnetic susceptibility in 1895 as inversely proportional to temperature, establishing the foundation for Curie's law in paramagnetic substances.^[21]^[22] According to Curie's law, the molar magnetic susceptibility χ_m of gaseous oxygen follows χ_m = C/T, where T is the absolute temperature and C is the material-specific Curie constant. For O2, the theoretical Curie constant derives from its spin multiplicity, yielding C = g² ≈ 4.00 in units of N_A μ_B² S(S+1)/(3 k_B) for S=1 and g=2, consistent with experimental values around 3.42 emu K mol⁻¹ in cgs units.^[23]^[24] Experimentally, the paramagnetism is quantified by the effective magnetic moment μ_eff = g √[S(S+1)] μ_B, where g ≈ 2 is the Landé g-factor and μ_B is the Bohr magneton; for triplet oxygen with S=1, this gives μ_eff ≈ 2.83 μ_B, matching measurements from susceptibility data. This moment causes gaseous and liquid oxygen to be weakly attracted to magnetic fields, as demonstrated by the deflection of oxygen streams in strong fields.^[23] The susceptibility adheres to Curie's law at higher temperatures where thermal energy randomizes spin orientations, but deviations occur at low temperatures, particularly in condensed phases. In liquid oxygen near its boiling point of 90 K, susceptibility is suppressed by about 40% relative to the Curie prediction, and further reductions arise below 50 K due to antiferromagnetic interactions in solid phases.^[25]

Spectroscopic Features

Triplet oxygen, in its ground state denoted as ^3\Sigma_g^-, exhibits characteristic absorption in the ultraviolet-visible region primarily through the Schumann-Runge bands, which appear between 175 and 200 nm. These bands arise from the allowed electronic transition from the ground X ^3\Sigma_g^- state to the excited B ^3\Sigma_u^- state, involving promotion of an electron from a \pi^* orbital to a \sigma^* orbital.^[26] This system is crucial for atmospheric photochemistry, as it leads to dissociation into oxygen atoms at higher energies within the continuum extending below 175 nm.^[26] In the infrared and Raman spectra, the ground state of triplet oxygen is infrared inactive due to the absence of a permanent dipole moment in this homonuclear diatomic molecule, preventing changes in dipole moment during vibrational transitions. Similarly, the symmetry of the ^3\Sigma_g^- ground state imposes selection rules that render the pure vibrational Raman spectrum inactive under standard gas-phase conditions, although rotational Raman features display a characteristic triplet structure owing to the spin multiplicity.^[26] Transitions from the triplet ground state to nearby singlet excited states, such as a ^1\Delta_g and b ^1\Sigma_g^+, are spin-forbidden, resulting in very weak absorption intensities governed by magnetic dipole or electric quadrupole mechanisms. The reverse processes, involving radiative decay from these singlet states to the ground triplet state, manifest as weak phosphorescence, with the a ^1\Delta_g \to X ^3\Sigma_g^- emission peaking near 1270 nm and exhibiting a long radiative lifetime of approximately 72 minutes (4300 s) in the gas phase for the isolated molecule.^[26]^[27] The bond dissociation energy of triplet oxygen, approximately 498 kJ/mol, has been confirmed through mass spectrometry via electron impact measurements of appearance potentials and photoelectron spectroscopy by analyzing the convergence limits of dissociative states, aligning with spectroscopic determinations from the Schumann-Runge system.^[28] In nuclear magnetic resonance studies, the paramagnetism of triplet oxygen causes broadening of solvent peaks, providing an indirect spectroscopic signature.^[26]

Condensed Phase Behavior

Liquid oxygen, the condensed phase of triplet oxygen at its boiling point of 90.2 K, exhibits a pale blue color attributed to charge-transfer bands in the visible spectrum. This coloration arises from electronic transitions involving the unpaired electrons characteristic of the triplet ground state, which are more pronounced in the denser liquid phase compared to the gas. The paramagnetism of liquid oxygen, stemming from its two unpaired electrons, allows for striking demonstrations such as magnetic levitation and trapping of droplets. In experiments, liquid oxygen drops in a Leidenfrost state can be manipulated and levitated using applied magnetic fields at room temperature, highlighting the material's response to external magnets due to its paramagnetic nature. These observations extend the paramagnetic behavior seen in the gas phase to the liquid, where molecular interactions enhance magnetic susceptibility.^[29] In the solid state, triplet oxygen forms multiple phases, with the low-temperature α-phase predominant below approximately 24 K at ambient pressure; this phase adopts a blue, monoclinic crystal structure (space group C2/m) and displays antiferromagnetic ordering. The antiferromagnetism arises from superexchange interactions between neighboring O₂ molecules, leading to an ordered spin alignment that aligns with the triplet configuration's magnetic properties.^[30] Experimental confirmation of the triplet ground state in condensed phases emerged in the 1920s through heat capacity measurements and spectroscopic entropy calculations on solid oxygen. Giauque and Johnston's 1929 study of solid oxygen's heat capacity from 12 K to the boiling point, combined with entropy derived from rotational spectroscopic data, provided key evidence supporting the triplet state by matching observed thermodynamic values with theoretical predictions for a molecule possessing two unpaired electrons.^[31]

Chemical Reactivity

Diradical Characteristics

Triplet oxygen, denoted as •OO•, behaves as an open-shell diradical due to the presence of two unpaired electrons with parallel spins in its ground-state configuration, resulting in two non-interacting radical centers on each oxygen atom that confer biradical reactivity.^[32] This diradical character stems from the triplet spin multiplicity (S=1), where the electrons occupy separate π* orbitals without pairing, distinguishing it from typical closed-shell molecules.^[32] In chemical reactions, the diradical nature enforces spin conservation, favoring stepwise radical pathways that maintain the total spin quantum number over concerted mechanisms, which would require spin inversion and are thus kinetically hindered.^[33] This preference arises because direct interactions with singlet-state reagents lead to spin-forbidden transitions, limiting reactivity unless facilitated by intersystem crossing or radical intermediates.^[34] The O–O bond in triplet oxygen undergoes homolytic cleavage more readily than in closed-shell diatomic molecules like N₂, with a bond dissociation energy of approximately 119 kcal/mol (498 kJ/mol), reflecting the weakened σ bond amid the diradical π* occupancy.^[35] In contrast, closed-shell species often exhibit higher dissociation energies due to fully paired electrons strengthening the bond order, underscoring how the diradical configuration lowers the energy barrier for radical formation.^[32] Valence bond theory elucidates this diradical stability through resonance among multiple structures, including dominant non-zwitterionic forms that delocalize the unpaired electrons across the π system, yielding a resonance energy of about 100 kcal/mol that kinetically persists the molecule against decomposition.^[32] These resonant contributions, involving three-electron π bonds, explain the balance between reactivity and persistence inherent to the triplet diradical.^[32]

Comparison to Singlet Oxygen

Singlet oxygen in its lowest excited state, denoted as ^1\Delta_g, lies approximately 0.98 eV (or 94 kJ/mol) above the ground-state triplet oxygen (^3\Sigma_g^-).^[36]^[37] This excited state is commonly generated through photosensitization, where an excited triplet sensitizer transfers energy to ground-state oxygen, or via microwave discharge in oxygen gas flows.^[38]^[39] A key distinction in reactivity arises from their spin states: triplet oxygen, as a diradical, primarily engages in radical-type reactions such as hydrogen abstraction, often initiating chain processes in autoxidation, whereas singlet oxygen enables spin-allowed concerted pathways, including [4+2] cycloadditions with dienes to form endoperoxides.^[40]^[41]^[42] These differences stem from spin restrictions in the triplet state, limiting it to reactions that conserve overall spin multiplicity.^[43] In terms of stability, ground-state triplet oxygen is long-lived in the gas phase, persisting indefinitely under normal conditions, while singlet oxygen has a short lifetime, typically around 3.5 μs in aqueous solution due to rapid physical quenching by water molecules through non-radiative energy transfer back to the triplet ground state.^[44]^[45] The energy diagram for these states shows the ^3\Sigma_g^- ground state at 0 eV, with the ^1\Delta_g state at +0.98 eV and the higher ^1\Sigma_g^+ at +1.63 eV; intersystem crossing from ^1\Delta_g to ^3\Sigma_g^- occurs via spin-orbit coupling, with radiative lifetimes around 74 minutes in the gas phase but accelerated non-radiative rates in condensed media on the order of microseconds.^[46]^[46]

Selective Reactions

Triplet oxygen participates in combustion and oxidation processes primarily through radical chain mechanisms, where it readily reacts with alkyl radicals to form peroxy radicals (ROO•). In the autooxidation of hydrocarbons, the propagation steps involve the addition of triplet oxygen to a carbon-centered radical (R•), yielding ROO•, which then abstracts a hydrogen atom from another hydrocarbon molecule (RH), regenerating R• and producing hydroperoxides (ROOH). This chain reaction is self-sustaining once initiated by heat or light-generated radicals and is responsible for the oxidative degradation of fuels and polymers.^[32]^[47] The reaction of triplet oxygen with alkali metals leads to the formation of superoxides (MO₂) or peroxides (M₂O₂), depending on the metal and oxygen availability, via electron transfer processes that stabilize the O₂⁻ or O₂²⁻ ions. For instance, potassium reacts directly with excess oxygen to form potassium superoxide (KO₂), where the superoxide ion adopts a bent geometry due to partial charge transfer from the metal cation. Sodium, under similar conditions, forms sodium peroxide (Na₂O₂), reflecting the varying ionic radii and lattice energies that influence product stability. These reactions highlight triplet oxygen's diradical character facilitating one- or two-electron reductions.^[48]^[49] A notable spin-allowed reaction of triplet oxygen involves nitric oxide, proceeding via a radical pathway to form nitrogen dioxide: $2NO + O_2 \rightarrow 2NO_2. This third-order process occurs through the formation of a transient (NO)₂O₂ intermediate, where the diradical nature of both NO and O₂ enables efficient coupling without spin prohibition, making it kinetically favorable in atmospheric and combustion environments. The mechanism has been elucidated through ab initio calculations, confirming a two-step pathway involving NO dimerization followed by oxygen addition.^[50] Illustrative of triplet oxygen's reactivity with radicals, the reaction H + O₂ → OH + O exhibits a rate constant of approximately $10^{14} \, \mathrm{cm^3 \, mol^{-1} \, s^{-1}} at high temperatures (e.g., above 2000 K), underscoring its role in flame propagation and high-temperature oxidation chains. This bimolecular process is endothermic but accelerated at elevated temperatures, contributing to the branching in hydrogen-oxygen combustion systems.^[51]

Biological and Environmental Role

In Respiration and Energy Transfer

In aerobic respiration, triplet oxygen serves as the terminal electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, where it is reduced to water by cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) in mitochondria and bacterial membranes.^[52] This process couples the four-electron reduction of O₂ with proton pumping across the membrane, generating an electrochemical gradient for ATP synthesis. The binding of triplet O₂ to the ferrous heme a₃ in CcO's binuclear center is spin-allowed due to matching triplet multiplicities, initiating a catalytic cycle with intermediates like the oxy-form (A state) that cleave the O-O bond without spin-forbidden transitions, facilitated by antiferromagnetic coupling among metal centers and a cross-linked tyrosine residue.^[52] Subsequent electron and proton transfers reduce the intermediates to two water molecules, conserving energy efficiently.^[52] In photobiology, triplet oxygen interacts with triplet states of chlorophyll in photosynthetic systems, but this quenching often generates damaging singlet oxygen rather than providing direct protection. Chlorophyll triplets, formed during excess light conditions, transfer energy to ground-state triplet O₂, producing singlet O₂ that can oxidize cellular components.^[53] To mitigate this, photosynthetic organisms employ carotenoids, which quench chlorophyll triplets via triplet-triplet energy transfer faster than O₂ can, preventing singlet oxygen formation and photobleaching in light-harvesting complexes like Lhcb5.^[53] This carotenoid-mediated quenching exemplifies how triplet oxygen's reactivity necessitates protective mechanisms in oxygenic photosynthesis. Triplet oxygen contributes to reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation through one-electron reduction, yielding superoxide anion (O₂⁻•), a key precursor to oxidative stress in biological systems. This reduction occurs in mitochondria during electron leakage from the transport chain or enzymatic reactions, where O₂ accepts an electron to form O₂⁻•, which can dismutate to hydrogen peroxide and initiate chain reactions damaging lipids, proteins, and DNA.^[54] Superoxide's role in oxidative stress is amplified in conditions like ischemia or inflammation, where antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase mitigate its effects to maintain cellular homeostasis.^[54] The evolutionary significance of triplet oxygen traces to oxygenic photosynthesis by cyanobacteria, which around 2.4 billion years ago initiated the Great Oxidation Event (GOE), dramatically increasing atmospheric O₂ levels and enabling aerobic respiration.^[55] This event, driven by water-splitting photosystems producing O₂ as a byproduct, transformed Earth's anoxic environment, allowing the rise of oxygen-dependent life forms while posing challenges from ROS toxicity that shaped antioxidant defenses.^[55] The GOE marked a pivotal shift, linking energy transfer in photosynthesis to respiration's reliance on O₂.^[55]

In Atmospheric Chemistry

Triplet oxygen, the ground state of molecular oxygen (O₂ in its ³Σ_g⁻ electronic configuration), plays a central role in stratospheric chemistry through its photodissociation, which initiates the formation of the ozone layer. Ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths shorter than 242 nm, corresponding to the Schumann-Runge and Herzberg continuum absorption bands, dissociates triplet O₂ into two ground-state oxygen atoms: O₂ + hν (<242 nm) → 2O(³P). These O(³P) atoms then react with another O₂ molecule in the presence of a third body (M, typically N₂ or O₂) to form ozone: O(³P) + O₂ + M → O₃ + M. This two-step process establishes the odd-oxygen cycle that maintains the stratospheric ozone concentration, absorbing harmful UV radiation between 200 and 300 nm.^[56]^[57] In the troposphere, triplet O₂ contributes to photochemical smog formation by oxidizing nitric oxide (NO) to nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), a key step in the production of oxidants like ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate. The reaction occurs via the termolecular process 2NO + O₂ → 2NO₂, which is slow at ambient temperatures but accelerates under polluted conditions with elevated NO concentrations from combustion sources. This conversion shifts the NO/NO₂ equilibrium, enabling NO₂ photolysis (NO₂ + hν → NO + O(³P)) to generate O(³P) atoms that form tropospheric ozone, perpetuating the photochemical oxidant cycle responsible for urban air quality degradation. Triplet O₂'s diradical nature facilitates this reactivity with trace gases like NO, though peroxy radicals dominate faster oxidation pathways in modern models.^[58] Within stratospheric dynamics, triplet O₂ serves as the primary reservoir of molecular oxygen, absorbing UV in the Hartley-Huggins region indirectly through the ozone cycle, where O₃ photolysis can yield excited singlet O₂ (a¹Δ_g) alongside O(¹D) atoms via channels like O₃ + hν (200–310 nm) → O₂(a¹Δ_g) + O(¹D). Although triplet O₂ itself has weak absorption above 242 nm, its recombination with O atoms reforms O₃, sustaining the layer where singlet O₂ production occurs as a minor but influential byproduct affecting energy transfer and trace gas reactions. Additionally, variations in O₂ isotopic ratios, particularly δ¹⁸O/¹⁶O, provide a proxy for global biosphere productivity; photosynthesis discriminates against ¹⁸O, depleting atmospheric O₂ δ¹⁸O relative to ocean water, while respiration and decomposition reverse this fractionation, allowing net primary production to be inferred from air archive measurements spanning decades.^[59]^[60]

Industrial and Medical Applications

In steel production, the basic oxygen process (BOP) employs high-purity triplet oxygen, typically at 99.5% concentration, blown through a water-cooled lance into molten pig iron at supersonic speeds to oxidize carbon and other impurities, thereby reducing the carbon content and producing low-carbon steel. This method, which replaced slower open-hearth processes, allows for rapid conversion—often completing in under 40 minutes per batch—and accounts for a significant portion of global steel output due to its efficiency in leveraging oxygen's diradical reactivity for selective oxidation.^[61]^[62] Wastewater treatment utilizes aeration with triplet oxygen to provide dissolved oxygen essential for aerobic microbial communities, facilitating the biological oxidation of organic pollutants into carbon dioxide, water, and biomass in processes like activated sludge systems. Pure oxygen aeration, as opposed to air, achieves higher dissolved oxygen levels (up to 30-40 mg/L versus 8-10 mg/L with air), enabling more compact treatment facilities and improved removal of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in high-strength effluents, such as those from industrial sources.^[63]^[64] Medical oxygen therapy delivers triplet oxygen at concentrations ranging from 21% (ambient air equivalent) to 100% via nasal cannulas, masks, or ventilators to alleviate hypoxia in patients with conditions like pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or acute respiratory distress, thereby increasing arterial oxygen saturation and supporting tissue oxygenation. Medical-grade oxygen meets USP standards with at least 99.0% purity to minimize risks from impurities.^[65]^[66]^[67] In space exploration and diving operations, liquid triplet oxygen is stored cryogenically at approximately -183°C in insulated tanks to maintain its liquefied state, where it exhibits a characteristic pale blue color arising from charge-transfer bands in its molecular orbitals. During the Apollo missions of the 1960s and 1970s, such storage systems supplied oxygen for both propulsion as an oxidizer in fuel cells and crew respiration, demonstrating reliable handling under vacuum-insulated conditions to prevent boil-off. For diving, liquid oxygen storage supports the preparation of breathing gas mixtures like nitrox, allowing efficient, high-density transport before vaporization for use in scuba or rebreather systems.^[68]^[69]^[70]

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The most common means of singlet oxygen generation is photosensitization or, more precisely, energy transfer to O2(3Σg-) from an excited state of a ...
[32]
Oxidation of a Polymer Surface with Gas-Phase Singlet (1Δg) Oxygen
Singlet molecular oxygen (1Δg) produced by the microwave discharge of ground state oxygen in a flow system was passed over a film of cis-polybutadiene.
[33]
The Diverse Modes of Oxygen Reactivity in Life & Chemistry - 2022
Oct 10, 2022 · The direct generation of singlet oxygen from triplet oxygen by light absorption is not very effective due to the low concentration and low ...
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Spin-Restricted Descriptions of Singlet Oxygen Reactions from XMS ...
May 13, 2024 · Common reaction motifs of singlet oxygen considered in this study: (a) 1,4-cycloaddition, (42) (b) the “ene” reaction, (c) 1,2-cycloaddition, ...
[35]
Singlet oxygen-mediated selective C–H bond hydroperoxidation of ...
Nov 27, 2017 · Singlet oxygen is widely recognized owing to its reactivity towards alkenes, such as ene reactions, cycloaddition, and heteroatom oxidation, as ...
[36]
[PDF] CYCLOADDITIONS WITH SINGLET OXYGEN - Chemistry | Illinois
Mar 18, 2004 · In 1976, Dewar calculated that a reaction pathway through a perepoxide intermediate would be lower in energy than the concerted cycloaddition ...
[37]
Review Singlet oxygen: Properties, generation, detection, and ...
The lifetime of 1O2 is 3.5 μs in water, which may be extended up to several hundred times in organic solvents (Table S1). The inherent lifetime of 1O2 in ...
[38]
Is There a Simple and Easy Way to Detect Singlet Oxygen ...
O2 is short lived because it reacts with biomolecules and collisions with water molecules rapidly causing the return of 1O2 to the ground state, and is ...
[39]
Production and loss of O2(1Δg) at atmospheric pressure using ... - NIH
Mar 24, 2023 · ... singlet oxygen quenching on ground state oxygen. The discharge ... (0.98 eV). It is stable against radiative (~74 minute lifetime [10]) ...
[40]
[PDF] Triplet Oxygen in Organic Synthesis - Baran Lab
Dec 1, 2018 · Most prevalent means of triplet oxygen-mediated oxidation. -. - Relevant in food spoilage, industrial chemical production, polymer stability etc ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[41]
Superoxide Ion: Generation and Chemical Implications
Feb 15, 2016 · Superoxide ion (O2•–) is of great significance as a radical species implicated in diverse chemical and biological systems.
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Main Group Oxides Reactions - Chemistry LibreTexts
Jun 30, 2023 · With excess oxygen, the alkali metals can form peroxides, M2O2, or superoxides, MO2. Lithium: Reacts with oxygen to give 2Li2O, lithium oxide.
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Mechanism of Nitric Oxide Oxidation Reaction (2NO + O2 → 2NO2 ...
The reaction between molecular oxygen and two nitric oxide(II) molecules is studied with high-level ab initio wave function methods.Supporting Information · Author Information · Acknowledgment · References
[44]
Rate constant for H+O2→O+OH by laser absorption spectroscopy of ...
The rate constant expression, k = 6.0 × 1014 exp (−95 kJ/RT) cm3 mol−1 s−1, for H + O2→O + OH was determined from cw laser absorption spectroscopic measurements ...
[45]
Oxygen Activation and Energy Conservation by Cytochrome c Oxidase
Jan 19, 2018 · This review focuses on the type A cytochrome c oxidases (CcO), which are found in all mitochondria and also in several aerobic bacteria.
[46]
Chlorophyll Triplet Quenching and Photoprotection in the Higher Plant Monomeric Antenna Protein Lhcb5
### Summary of Triplet Oxygen Interaction with Chlorophyll Triplets in Photobiology
[47]
Mitochondrial formation of reactive oxygen species - PMC - NIH
Superoxide anion (O2−•), the product of a one-electron reduction of oxygen, is the precursor of most ROS and a mediator in oxidative chain reactions.
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The Great Oxygenation Event as a consequence of ecological ...
Jun 28, 2021 · The Great Oxygenation Event (GOE), ca. 2.4 billion years ago, transformed life and environments on Earth. Its causes, however, are debated.
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[PDF] Lecture 7: Photochemistry of Important Atmospheric Species
Photolysis rate for O2 is strongly altitude dependent because the lower you go the less UV radiation capable of breaking O2 is available (self-shielding).<|control11|><|separator|>
[50]
Stratospheric ozone and the ozone layer - atmo.arizona.edu
The top two equations show how ozone is produced in the stratosphere. Ultraviolet (UV) light splits an O 2 molecule into two O atoms (photodissociation). Each ...
[51]
Photochemical Smog - Chemistry LibreTexts
Mar 10, 2023 · Formation of Photochemical Smog. Step 1: People begin driving in the morning, nitrogen is burned or oxidized. (1) N 2 + O 2 → 2 ⁢ N ⁢ O.
[52]
Rotational Distributions and Imaging of Singlet O2 Following Spin ...
Aug 4, 2023 · The O2(a1Δg) fragment was previously shown to conserve the symmetry of the parent O3 following Hartley band dissociation at cold temperatures, ( ...
[53]
Triple oxygen isotope constraints on atmospheric O2 and biological ...
Dec 15, 2021 · Reconstructing the history of biological productivity and atmospheric oxygen partial pressure (pO2) is a fundamental goal of geobiology.Missing: 18O/ | Show results with:18O/
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Basic Oxygen Furnace Process: Key to Steelmaking Success
Once the furnace is charged, pure oxygen (about 99.5% purity) is blown into the molten iron through a water-cooled lance at supersonic speeds. Here's how oxygen ...
[55]
Basic Oxygen Process - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Basic oxygen process (BOP) is defined as a steelmaking method that utilizes high purity oxygen blown into molten pig iron to oxidize impurities, allowing for ...
[56]
The use of pure oxygen for aeration in aerobic wastewater treatment
It employs aeration to supply the microbial consortia with the dissolved oxygen (DO) required so that they will degrade the organic matter in wastewater ...
[57]
[PDF] Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet Oxidation Ditches
The aeration sharply increases the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration but decreases as biomass uptake oxygen as the mixed liquor travels through the ditch.
[58]
Chapter 11 Oxygen Therapy - Nursing Skills - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Room air contains 21% oxygen concentration, so the FiO2 for supplementary oxygen therapy will range from 21% to 100% concentration. In addition to administering ...
[59]
Fraction of Inspired Oxygen - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Nov 29, 2022 · A patient breathing ambient air is inhaling a FiO2 of 21%. Oxygen delivery devices determine the flow rate and FiO2 based on predicted equipment ...
[60]
Theory, Instrumentation, and Applications of EPR Oximetry - NIH
Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), also called electron spin resonance, is a magnetic resonance based technique capable of measuring oxygen levels in ...
[61]
[PDF] Apollo Experience Report - The Cryogenic Storage System
During an Apollo mission, the cryogenic storage system (CSS) of the service module provides (1) oxygen for the flight crew and (2) oxygen as the oxidizer and ...Missing: blue | Show results with:blue
[62]
H&S Section 7: Safe Handling of Cryogenic Liquids
Most of them have no color as a liquid although liquid oxygen is light blue. However, the extremely cold liquid and vapor have a built in warning property ...Missing: Apollo | Show results with:Apollo<|control11|><|separator|>
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Liquid Oxygen: Applications, Production and Storage - Fullcryo
Jun 12, 2025 · Liquid oxygen storage tanks should comply with ASME standards and be installed in a well-ventilated area far away from combustible materials ( ...