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Unity of science

The unity of science is a central thesis in the philosophy of science asserting that all scientific disciplines are interconnected and can be integrated into a single coherent framework through shared logical structures, methodologies, and ultimately, reduction to fundamental physical laws.^[1] This view emphasizes the reducibility of terms and laws from higher-level sciences, such as biology and psychology, to a common basis in observable physical predicates, enabling a unified language for scientific description.^[1] Originating as a logical rather than ontological commitment, it seeks to eliminate metaphysical divisions between sciences by focusing on formal syntax and semantics.^[1] The doctrine emerged prominently in the early 20th century through the logical empiricist tradition of the Vienna Circle, a group of philosophers including Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath, and Carl Hempel, who advocated for scientific knowledge to be expressed in a unified, verifiable language free from metaphysics.^[2] Influenced by earlier thinkers like John Stuart Mill, who proposed methods for deriving higher sciences from lower ones, the Vienna Circle formalized unity as a program for international collaboration, exemplified by the Encyclopedia of Unified Science monograph series launched in the 1930s.^[2] Carnap's work, particularly his 1938 essay "Logical Foundations of the Unity of Science," argued that all scientific terms could be reduced to a "thing-language" of observable properties, providing the syntactic foundation for inter-scientific connections.^[1] A key development came in 1958 with Paul Oppenheim and Hilary Putnam's influential paper "Unity of Science as a Working Hypothesis," which proposed a hierarchical model of micro-reduction where laws of complex sciences are derivable from those of simpler, more fundamental ones, progressing downward to particle physics.^[3] This approach viewed unity not as an absolute truth but as a pragmatic hypothesis guiding scientific progress, promising economy in laws, explanations, and theories by minimizing independent principles across disciplines.^[3] Proponents like Ernest Nagel further refined reduction models, emphasizing bridge laws that connect theoretical terms between levels, as outlined in his 1961 analysis of scientific explanation.^[2] Despite its appeal, the unity thesis faced significant challenges from the 1970s onward, particularly Jerry Fodor's argument for the autonomy of special sciences based on multiple realizability—the idea that higher-level phenomena, like mental states, can be instantiated by diverse physical mechanisms, resisting strict reduction.^[2] Critics such as John Dupré highlighted pluralism in scientific practice, where disciplines employ distinct ontologies and methods suited to their domains, undermining the feasibility of total unification.^[2] In contemporary philosophy, while strong reductionism has waned, more modest forms of unity persist, such as ontological monism positing a single structure of natural kinds underlying all sciences, compatible with epistemic pluralism.^[2] This ongoing debate reflects the tension between integration and diversity in scientific inquiry.

Historical Development

Ancient and Early Modern Origins

The concept of unity in science traces its philosophical roots to ancient Greek thought, where early cosmologists sought a single underlying principle to explain the diversity of phenomena. Pre-Socratic philosophers like Parmenides proposed a monistic view of reality as an unchanging, singular substance, positing that all apparent multiplicity arises from illusion or error, thereby implying a unified ontological foundation for knowledge.^[4] Similarly, thinkers such as Heraclitus emphasized flux as a unifying process, while Empedocles and Democritus invoked four elements or atoms as basic constituents, laying groundwork for a cohesive natural philosophy that integrated diverse observations into one explanatory framework.^[4] Plato advanced this tradition by conceiving knowledge as inherently unified yet divisible into parts, as articulated in the Sophist: "Knowledge also is surely one, but each part… is marked off and given a special name" (257c). This dialectic of oneness and differentiation influenced later views of science as a structured whole encompassing geometry, astronomy, and dialectic under a mathematical order.^[4] In the medieval period, Christian theology reinforced the unity of knowledge by portraying the natural world as a coherent creation of a single divine intellect, prompting encyclopedic compilations that organized disparate fields into systematic wholes. Isidore of Seville's Etymologies (c. 636 CE), an expansive compendium spanning grammar, medicine, and theology, exemplified this approach by deriving all learning from etymological roots, aiming to encapsulate the totality of human understanding in one accessible volume.^[4] Building on Aristotelian integration of science and metaphysics, Ramon Llull (1232–1315) developed the ars magna, a combinatorial system using diagrams and abstract symbols to demonstrate universal logical connections across disciplines, aspiring to a mathesis universalis that unified theology, philosophy, and the sciences through mechanical reasoning.^[4] These efforts reflected a scholastic commitment to harmony between faith and reason, viewing knowledge as a teleologically unified system mirroring divine order.^[4] The Renaissance and early modern era revived and secularized these ideals, emphasizing empirical and rational methods to unify knowledge amid expanding discoveries. Francis Bacon, in The Advancement of Learning (1605), advocated a hierarchical "pyramid of knowledge" built from factual observations to general principles, urging the integration of natural history, philosophy, and mechanics to overcome fragmented scholarship.^[4] René Descartes employed a tree metaphor in Principles of Philosophy (1644), with metaphysics as roots, physics as trunk, and specific sciences as branches, proposing a mechanistic reduction to matter and motion that promised systematic unity through clear and distinct ideas.^[4] Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz extended this with his monadology and vision of a characteristica universalis, a universal language of symbols for deductive reasoning that would link all sciences in a demonstrative chain, as outlined in works like Monadology (1714).^[4] During the Enlightenment, encyclopedic projects crystallized these unification efforts, while Immanuel Kant provided a transcendental foundation. Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie (1751–1772) structured knowledge as a "tree" branching from human faculties, explicitly aiming to interrelate arts and sciences for collective progress, with Diderot describing it as signifying "the unification of the sciences."^[4] Kant, in the preface to Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (1786), defined science as "a whole of cognition ordered according to principles," arguing that true systematic unity arises a priori from reason's architectonic, binding empirical content into a coherent, hierarchical edifice.^[4] This rationalist emphasis on principles as the glue of knowledge distinguished Kant's view from mere aggregation, influencing subsequent conceptions of scientific systematization.^[4]

19th-Century Positivism and German Debates

In the 19th century, French philosopher Auguste Comte developed positivism as a foundational framework for unifying scientific knowledge, emphasizing empirical observation over metaphysical speculation. Central to his system was the law of three stages, which posits that human thought and societal development progress through theological, metaphysical, and positive phases, with the positive stage representing mature scientific inquiry focused on observable laws rather than ultimate causes.^[5] This law underpinned Comte's hierarchical classification of the sciences, structured as a pyramid where mathematics forms the unshakeable base due to its abstract generality, followed by astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and culminating in sociology at the apex as the most complex integrative discipline.^[5] In this schema, lower sciences provide methodological foundations for higher ones, ensuring a progressive unity of knowledge while acknowledging increasing complexity and interdependence, thereby promoting a coordinated positivist worldview.^[5] Concurrent with Comte's positivism, German philosophy grappled with the unity of science through debates distinguishing natural sciences (Naturwissenschaften) from human sciences (Geisteswissenschaften), influenced by Romantic ideals of nature's organic wholeness. Early in the century, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling's Naturphilosophie portrayed nature as a dynamic, self-organizing totality, where organic and inorganic realms form an ascending series of polarities and productive forces, rejecting mechanistic reduction in favor of an immanent unity that includes human consciousness.^[6] This organic conception inspired later thinkers to view scientific disciplines as interconnected expressions of a vital whole, bridging empirical investigation with philosophical holism. Toward century's end, Wilhelm Dilthey sharpened this divide by contrasting explanation (Erklären) in the natural sciences—relying on causal laws and abstraction—with understanding (Verstehen) in the human sciences, which interprets lived experiences (Erlebnis) within historical and cultural contexts to grasp individual meanings.^[7] Wilhelm Windelband further refined the discussion with his nomothetic-idiographic distinction, classifying natural sciences as nomothetic (law-seeking, generalizing) and human sciences as idiographic (singular, value-oriented descriptions of unique events), emphasizing that these approaches reflect differing aims rather than inherent objects, thus allowing for methodological pluralism within a broader scientific enterprise.^[8] Extending these 19th-century foundations into the early 20th century, Ernst Mach advanced a phenomenalist reduction that reinforced positivist unity by dissolving traditional boundaries between physical and psychological sciences. Mach's approach reduced all scientific concepts to "elements" of sensation—neutral phenomena experienced relationally—eliminating metaphysical entities like absolute space or atoms in favor of economical descriptions grounded in empirical functions.^[9] This biological-empiricist perspective, articulated in works like The Analysis of Sensations (1886), unified sciences under a common sensory foundation, influencing subsequent anti-metaphysical turns in philosophy of science.^[9]

Logical Empiricism and the Vienna Circle

The Vienna Circle emerged in the mid-1920s in Vienna, Austria, as an informal group of philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians led by Moritz Schlick, who began hosting regular meetings in 1924 to discuss foundational issues in science and philosophy.^[10] By the late 1920s and into the 1930s, the group expanded to include key figures such as Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath, Herbert Feigl, and Philipp Frank, fostering a movement toward logical empiricism that emphasized empirical verification and logical analysis as the basis for scientific knowledge.^[11] Central to their program was the rejection of metaphysics, which they viewed as meaningless pseudoproblems arising from linguistic confusions rather than empirical or logical content, advocating instead for a unified empirical language to express all scientific statements in verifiable terms.^[10] This push for a unified empirical language was advanced through Carnap's principle of tolerance, introduced in his 1934 work The Logical Syntax of Language, which permitted the free choice of logical and mathematical frameworks for scientific discourse as long as they adhered to syntactic rules and empirical testability, thereby avoiding dogmatic prescriptions and enabling flexible yet unified expression across sciences.^[12] Neurath complemented this with his holistic view of scientific knowledge, illustrated by the metaphor of Neurath's boat: "We are like sailors who on the open sea must reconstruct their ship but are never able to start afresh from the bottom," emphasizing that scientific theories are continuously revised within an interconnected web of empirical statements without foundational certainty.^[13] This approach rejected absolute foundations in favor of a pragmatic, boat-like reconstruction that supported unity through ongoing empirical coordination among sciences.^[14] Building briefly on earlier positivist ideas like Auguste Comte's hierarchical classification of sciences, the Circle shifted focus to logical tools for integration.^[10] A key institutional effort was the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, launched in 1938 under the editorship of Neurath and Charles W. Morris, with contributions from Carnap and others, intended as a series of interconnected monographs forming a "mosaic" of empirical knowledge to promote interdisciplinary cooperation and systematic integration of scientific fields.^[15] The project, rooted in the pre-war International Congresses for the Unity of Science (1934–1941), aimed to encapsulate unified science through analytical studies on topics like logic, semiotics, and empirical procedures, avoiding a rigid hierarchy in favor of collaborative encyclopedic synthesis.^[15] Neurath envisioned this unity not as a top-down pyramid but as an "orchestration" of sciences, where pragmatic cooperation among researchers builds interconnected insights without imposing a single overarching system.^[16] Following World War II, the unity of science program persisted through institutions like the Minnesota Center for Philosophy of Science, founded in 1953 by Herbert Feigl at the University of Minnesota, which hosted seminars and published the influential Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science series to explore logical empiricist themes, including unification via explanatory frameworks.^[17] Concurrently, Unity of Science conferences and related gatherings, such as those organized by the Institute for the Unity of Science (revived in 1947 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation), continued in the United States and Europe, facilitating discussions on empirical integration amid the Cold War era's emphasis on interdisciplinary scientific collaboration.^[18] These post-war developments sustained the Circle's legacy by adapting logical empiricism to new contexts, prioritizing practical unity through shared empirical languages and cooperative projects.^[17]

Varieties of Unity

Epistemological Unity

Epistemological unity in the philosophy of science refers to the idea that diverse scientific disciplines share common epistemic relations, such as confirmation, evidence evaluation, and justification, thereby producing a coherent body of knowledge despite their apparent differences.^[4] This form of unity emphasizes the cognitive outcomes of scientific inquiry, where explanations and inferences across fields adhere to unified standards of rationality and evidential support. For instance, Bayesian approaches provide a framework for unified inference by modeling how evidence updates beliefs probabilistically across scientific domains, treating confirmation as a process of posterior probability adjustment via Bayes' theorem.^[19] In this view, the unity arises from the application of the same inferential logic—prior probabilities combined with likelihoods to yield posteriors—enabling consistent justification of hypotheses from physics to biology.^[20] A prominent model of epistemological unity is Philip Kitcher's account of explanatory unification, introduced in his 1981 paper, which posits that scientific explanations unify knowledge by deriving a large set of explananda from a minimal number of explanans patterns.^[21] Kitcher argues that the value of a theory lies in its ability to maximize the scope of explained phenomena while minimizing the variety of argumentative schemas used, thus reducing cognitive complexity and enhancing understanding.^[22] For example, Newtonian mechanics unifies diverse phenomena like planetary motion and tides through shared principles, illustrating how fewer patterns cover more ground compared to disjointed explanations.^[23] This approach highlights unity as an epistemic virtue that promotes economy in the representation of scientific facts, distinct from mere descriptive overlap.^[24] Complementing Kitcher's emphasis on explanation, Malcolm Forster and Elliott Sober develop a model where epistemological unity manifests through increased predictive accuracy via shared laws and simpler theoretical structures.^[25] In their 1994 analysis, they demonstrate using Akaike's information criterion that unified theories, by positing fewer parameters or ad hoc assumptions, tend to outperform fragmented ones in out-of-sample predictions, as unification selects models that generalize better across data sets.^[26] This predictive focus underscores how common epistemic standards, like model selection for accuracy, foster unity by favoring theories that integrate laws from multiple domains, such as evolutionary biology and ecology.^[27] Reductionism plays a supporting role here, enabling epistemic hierarchies where higher-level predictions are refined through lower-level mechanisms, though the core unity remains in the shared inferential goals.^[21] Unlike methodological unity, which concerns procedural similarities in scientific practice, epistemological unity centers on the shared cognitive architecture of knowledge production and validation, ensuring that evidential relations and justificatory norms transcend disciplinary boundaries.^[28]

Methodological Unity

Methodological unity in the philosophy of science refers to the idea that diverse scientific disciplines share common procedures, such as hypothesis testing, controlled experimentation, and mathematical modeling, which enable systematic inquiry regardless of the subject matter.^[29] This approach posits that science operates through a unified set of investigative tools that transcend specific domains, fostering consistency in how knowledge is generated and validated.^[30] A foundational example of this unity is Galileo's advocacy for the mathematization of nature, which extended the application of quantitative methods from astronomy to mechanics and beyond, establishing mathematics as a universal language for describing physical phenomena across sciences.^[31] By emphasizing precise measurement and mathematical formulation in his studies of motion, Galileo demonstrated how experimental procedures could be generalized, influencing the development of empirical methods in fields like physics and engineering.^[32] In modern contexts, methodological unity manifests through concepts like trading zones, where scientists from different disciplines interact and exchange tools or concepts without requiring full theoretical reduction, as articulated by Peter Galison in his analysis of microphysics collaborations. Complementing this, interfield theories bridge gaps between fields by integrating elements from each, such as linking biochemical mechanisms with genetic explanations, thereby facilitating methodological borrowing and problem-solving across boundaries.^[33] These mechanisms allow for pragmatic cooperation, enhancing confirmation processes in interdisciplinary research. Practical illustrations of shared methods include the widespread adoption of statistical inference techniques, originally developed in biology and agriculture by Ronald Fisher, now integral to hypothesis testing in physics for particle data analysis and in social sciences for survey validation.^[34] Similarly, computer simulations serve as a unifying tool, enabling the modeling of complex systems—from quantum interactions in physics to population dynamics in biology and economic behaviors in social sciences—through iterative numerical computations that mimic experimental conditions.^[35] Otto Neurath, a key figure in logical empiricism, emphasized protocol sentences as a universal observational language in physicalist terms, arguing that all sciences should report basic empirical data in a shared, intertranslatable format to ensure methodological coherence and avoid solipsistic interpretations.^[36] This framework supports the unity of science by standardizing the foundational statements upon which higher-level theories are built, promoting collective verification across disciplines.

Metaphysical Unity

Metaphysical unity in the philosophy of science refers to the ontological thesis that the structure of reality itself exhibits a unified character, where all phenomena in the universe are ultimately reducible to a set of fundamental laws and entities, often anchored in physics.^[4] This view posits that higher-level sciences, such as biology or psychology, describe aspects of the world that supervene on lower-level physical processes, meaning that changes in higher-level properties cannot occur without corresponding changes in the physical base.^[37] Physicalism, as a core proponent of this unity, asserts that everything is physical or supervenes on the physical, ensuring that the entities and laws of special sciences are not ontologically independent but dependent on fundamental physics.^[37] A key distinction within metaphysical unity is between vertical and horizontal forms. Vertical unity emphasizes hierarchical relations across levels of organization, where higher-level phenomena emerge from and are explained by lower-level components, such as molecular interactions giving rise to cellular functions.^[4] In contrast, horizontal unity involves connections between domains at the same organizational level, facilitating integration across disciplines like chemistry and geology without invoking reduction across scales.^[4] This hierarchical structure supports the idea of a layered ontology where unity is achieved through compositional relations rather than mere analogy. Emergence and downward causation offer mechanisms for partial metaphysical unifiers, allowing higher-level properties to arise from lower-level interactions while potentially exerting influence back on them. Weak emergence occurs when macro-level properties are derivable from their constituents through simulation, preserving unity without irreducibility, as seen in complex systems like weather patterns from atmospheric physics.^[38] Stronger forms involve downward causation, where emergent wholes constrain or affect their parts, yet this can align with unity if higher-level laws supervene on micro-dynamics without violating fundamental physical laws.^[38] William Wimsatt's concept of robust aggregates exemplifies this, describing stable higher-level structures that persist across multiple realizations and perturbations, thus providing ontological stability and partial unification in complex systems without full reduction.^[39] The seminal formulation of metaphysical unity as an ontological hypothesis appears in Paul Oppenheim and Hilary Putnam's 1958 paper, which proposes micro-reduction as a progressive unification of sciences to the level of quantum mechanics or particle physics.^[3] They argue that sciences form a hierarchy of fields, with each level reducible to the one below through bridge laws connecting predicates, culminating in elementary particle physics as the foundational domain.^[3] This "unity of science as a working hypothesis" treats ontological reduction as empirically testable, predicting increasing success in deriving higher-level laws from micro-structures over time.^[3] Methodological tools, such as mathematical modeling, can support these metaphysical claims by demonstrating supervenience in practice.^[4]

Arguments Supporting Unity

Reductionism and Hierarchical Models

Reductionism posits that higher-level scientific theories and phenomena can be explained by deriving them from more fundamental, lower-level theories, thereby supporting the unity of science through a hierarchical structure of explanation. This approach assumes that complex systems in sciences like biology or psychology ultimately rest on the principles of microphysics, allowing for a cohesive scientific worldview.^[40] A seminal model of this reductive unity is Ernest Nagel's account of theory reduction, outlined in his 1961 work The Structure of Science. Nagel describes reduction as the logical derivation of the laws of a secondary science from the postulates of a primary science, facilitated by bridge laws that connect the vocabularies of the two theories. These bridge laws are typically biconditionals expressing identities or empirical correlations between terms, such as linking temperature in thermodynamics to average kinetic energy in statistical mechanics. For instance, the laws of thermodynamics are reduced to statistical mechanics by deriving macroscopic thermodynamic behaviors from the probabilistic motions of microscopic particles via such bridges, demonstrating how higher-level regularities emerge from fundamental ones.^[40]^[41] Building on similar ideas, Paul Oppenheim and Hilary Putnam proposed in their 1958 paper "Unity of Science as a Working Hypothesis" an empirical hypothesis for scientific unity based on a hierarchical ordering of disciplines. They envisioned a layered structure where elementary particle physics forms the base, progressing upward through atomic physics, chemistry, molecular biology, cellular biology, organismic biology (physiology), psychology, and social sciences like sociology. This hierarchy supports token physicalism, the view that every particular event or entity is ultimately physical, even if not every type of higher-level phenomenon corresponds type-wise to physical kinds. Oppenheim and Putnam argued that this model serves as a testable working hypothesis, guiding research toward intertheoretic connections that unify scientific knowledge.^[3] A more radical form of reductionism, eliminative reduction, advocates discarding certain higher-level concepts altogether when they prove inadequate, replacing them with fundamental scientific terms. Philosopher Paul Churchland advanced this in his 1981 essay "Eliminative Materialism and the Propositional Attitudes," targeting folk psychology—the everyday framework of beliefs, desires, and intentions—as a prime candidate for elimination. Churchland contended that folk psychology's posits, such as propositional attitudes, fail to form a successful theory, lacking predictive and explanatory power comparable to mature sciences like physics or neuroscience. Instead, he proposed that neuroscience would eventually supplant these concepts, eliminating them rather than reducing them, to achieve a unified physicalist ontology.^[42] These reductive models offer several benefits in pursuing scientific unity, including enhanced simplicity by consolidating diverse phenomena under fewer fundamental principles, akin to Ockham's razor. They also bolster predictive power, as lower-level theories enable more precise forecasts for higher-level events, and help avoid explanatory gaps by providing complete derivations that close off mysteries between levels.^[40]

Explanatory and Predictive Unification

Explanatory unification provides a non-reductive argument for the unity of science by emphasizing how scientific theories enhance understanding through the integration of diverse phenomena under shared explanatory schemas. Philip Kitcher, in his 1981 analysis, proposes that explanations unify by deriving a large set of explananda—descriptions of phenomena—from a small set of argument patterns in the explanans, evaluated by a criterion of stringency that balances the breadth of coverage with the restrictiveness of the patterns.^[22] This approach measures the value of a scientific theory by its ability to maximize the number of explained facts while minimizing the independent principles required, thereby promoting economy and coherence across domains.^[23] A classic illustration is Newton's law of universal gravitation, which unifies Kepler's three laws of planetary motion by deriving them from a single set of principles involving inverse-square attraction, thus replacing disparate descriptions with a more integrated explanatory framework.^[22] Building on this, predictive unification extends the case for unity by demonstrating how shared models across scientific fields improve predictive accuracy without necessitating reduction to a foundational level. Malcolm Forster and Elliott Sober, in their 1994 work, argue that unified theories impose additional constraints on data, which, under conditions of curve-fitting problems, lead to better generalization and higher long-run predictive success compared to disjointed models. For instance, Darwinian evolutionary theory serves as a unifying model that enhances predictions in both biological systematics and ecological dynamics by linking patterns of adaptation and species distribution through common mechanisms of natural selection and descent.^[26] This predictive power arises because unification reduces the degrees of freedom in model parameters, constraining hypotheses in a way that favors accuracy over fragmented approaches.^[27] Connective unity further supports non-eliminative unification by focusing on layered, interactive explanations that bridge scientific fields without requiring full derivational reduction. Sandra D. Mitchell, in her 2002 account of integrative pluralism, describes connective unity as the integration of models from different levels or domains through interfield relations, allowing for mutual constraints and partial alignments that enrich explanations.^[43] An example is the interfield theories connecting classical genetics and developmental biology, where concepts like gene regulation link molecular mechanisms to phenotypic outcomes, creating a cohesive explanatory network without subsuming one field entirely into the other.^[44] This form of unity emphasizes horizontal and vertical connections that facilitate problem-solving across disciplines. These approaches highlight pragmatic benefits of unity, such as deepened comprehension and more robust scientific practice, without presupposing a metaphysical hierarchy among sciences. By prioritizing integrative explanations and predictions, they echo the positivist ideal of a coherent scientific worldview while accommodating the complexity of empirical domains.^[4] Overall, explanatory and predictive unification fosters progress in science through shared intellectual resources that amplify insight across fields.

Criticisms and Alternatives

Antireductionist Challenges

Antireductionist challenges to the unity of science emerged prominently in the mid-20th century, questioning the feasibility of reducing all scientific knowledge to a single, hierarchical framework. These critiques highlighted limitations in earlier positivist efforts, such as the Vienna Circle's aspirations for physicalist reductions, which struggled to fully integrate diverse scientific domains despite their emphasis on a unified language.^[45] Instead, philosophers argued that scientific progress and practice reveal inherent barriers to such unification, rooted in conceptual, methodological, and ontological discontinuities. A central objection came from Thomas Kuhn's concept of paradigms and incommensurability, introduced in his 1962 work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Kuhn posited that scientific theories operate within paradigms—shared frameworks of concepts, methods, and standards—that resist direct translation across revolutionary shifts, preventing a unified scientific language.^[46] For instance, the phlogiston theory of combustion, which explained burning as the release of a substance called phlogiston, could not be fully reconciled with the later oxygen theory, as practitioners viewed empirical phenomena through fundamentally different conceptual lenses, leading to overlapping but non-equivalent observations.^[47] This incommensurability implies that sciences do not accumulate knowledge linearly toward unity but undergo discontinuous revolutions, undermining reductionist hierarchies.^[47] Paul Feyerabend extended these ideas in his 1975 book Against Method, advocating methodological anarchy and the slogan "anything goes" to describe effective scientific practice. Feyerabend argued that no universal methodological rules govern all sciences, as historical successes often involved violating proposed norms, such as relying on ad hoc hypotheses or propagating counterexamples.^[48] He emphasized the proliferation of theories as essential for progress, claiming that encouraging diverse, even incompatible alternatives enhances critical scrutiny and innovation, while enforced uniformity stifles development and erodes the adaptability of scientific inquiry.^[49] This "anarchistic theory of knowledge" directly challenges the notion of methodological unity, portraying science as a pluralistic endeavor driven by contingency rather than fixed principles.^[48] Ian Hacking's historical analyses further underscored the contingency of scientific evolution, portraying the growth of sciences as discontinuous and non-hierarchical through his framework of "styles of reasoning." In works like Historical Ontology (2002), Hacking illustrated how distinct styles—such as probabilistic reasoning or taxonomic classification—emerge sporadically in response to cultural and intellectual contexts, without progressing toward a unified structure. These styles enable new objects of inquiry but do not reduce to one another, as seen in the independent development of statistical methods in the 17th century, which disrupted deterministic paradigms without subordinating them. Such contingency reveals sciences as evolving through ruptures and loops, resisting the reductive integration posited by unity advocates.^[50] Finally, Jerry Fodor's 1974 essay "Special Sciences" articulated the challenge of multiple realizability, arguing that higher-level scientific properties cannot be strictly reduced to lower-level ones due to their realization in diverse physical bases. Fodor contended that while laws in special sciences like psychology or biology may supervene on physics, they are not derivable from it because the same higher-level kind—such as pain—can be instantiated by varied neural mechanisms across species or systems, complicating inter-theoretic reductions.^[51] This disunity preserves the autonomy of special sciences, as predictive and explanatory power at higher levels does not require exhaustive mapping to fundamental physics, thus blocking metaphysical unity.^[52]

Scientific Pluralism and Disunity

Scientific pluralism posits that the sciences do not converge toward a single unified framework but instead exhibit a diversity of methods, ontologies, and standards that are irreducible and contextually appropriate for different domains. This view challenges the traditional ideal of unity by arguing that such disunity is not a temporary stage but a fundamental feature of scientific practice, allowing for richer explanations tailored to specific phenomena. Proponents emphasize that this pluralism fosters innovation and avoids the oversimplifications inherent in reductionist approaches. John Dupré's 1993 book articulates the disunity of science as a "patchwork" rather than a hierarchical pyramid, where scientific disciplines operate independently without a foundational unity.^[53] In biology, for instance, Dupré highlights multiple causal levels—from molecular interactions to ecological systems—that resist integration into a single explanatory structure, underscoring the ontological diversity across fields. This perspective rejects metaphysical assumptions of a unified reality underlying all sciences, proposing instead that scientific progress thrives on localized, disparate theories.^[53] Nancy Cartwright extends this pluralism through her concept of nomological machines, introduced in 1999, which describes scientific laws as emergent from specific, local arrangements rather than universal principles.^[54] These machines are domain-specific setups that shield capacities to produce regularities, but their effects do not hold broadly outside controlled conditions, leading to a "dappled" world of patchy laws. Cartwright's framework thus supports methodological disunity, where predictive success depends on engineering appropriate local contexts rather than discovering timeless universals.^[54] Helen Longino's contextual empiricism further bolsters pluralism by integrating social values into the formation of scientific standards, arguing that objectivity arises from diverse community critiques rather than value-neutral methods.^[55] In her view, social and cultural contexts shape the uptake of evidence and theoretical preferences across disciplines, resulting in varied empirical standards that reflect plural perspectives. This approach accommodates disunity by promoting transformative discourse among differing viewpoints, ensuring that scientific knowledge remains robust without imposing a monolithic epistemology.^[55] Peter Galison's analysis of horizontal disunity, developed in 1997, portrays scientific disciplines as distinct "creoles" formed within loosely connected trading zones, where practitioners from different subcultures negotiate shared practices without full integration.^[56] These zones facilitate collaboration—such as between experimentalists and theorists in physics—through pidgin-like languages that evolve into stable but limited creoles, preserving autonomy across fields. Galison's model highlights how this lateral diversity enables scientific advancement via boundary-spanning interactions, rather than vertical unification.^[56]

Contemporary Perspectives

Interdisciplinarity and Integration

The rise of interdisciplinarity after the 1960s marked a significant shift toward partial unity in science, driven by frameworks like general systems theory and cybernetics that bridged disparate fields such as biology and engineering. General systems theory, pioneered by Ludwig von Bertalanffy, emphasized holistic principles applicable across disciplines, promoting collaborative approaches to complex phenomena beyond traditional boundaries. Cybernetics, building on Norbert Wiener's foundational work, further facilitated this by modeling feedback and control mechanisms shared between biological organisms and engineered systems, enabling cross-disciplinary applications in areas like ecology and automation.^[57] These developments responded to societal demands for integrated scientific responses to global challenges, fostering environments where scientists from multiple domains collaborated on unified problem-solving. A key aspect of this modern unity is integration without full reduction, as articulated by Sandra D. Mitchell, who advocates for "integrative pluralism" wherein partial, context-specific connections link scientific levels without subsuming higher-level phenomena under lower ones.^[44] This approach allows for the coexistence of multiple models and explanations tailored to specific investigative contexts, enhancing explanatory power across fields. For instance, cognitive science exemplifies this by synthesizing insights from psychology, neuroscience, and artificial intelligence to model mental processes, where neural mechanisms inform psychological theories without reducing cognition entirely to brain activity.^[58] Such integrations preserve disciplinary autonomy while building connective bridges, contrasting with stricter reductionist ideals. Advancements in big data and computational modeling have further propelled this partial unity by enabling the synthesis of vast datasets from diverse domains into coherent frameworks. In climate science, integrated assessment models (IAMs) combine physical climate simulations, ecological dynamics, and economic projections to assess global impacts, relying on big data to refine predictions and policy recommendations.^[59] These tools facilitate interdisciplinary collaboration by processing heterogeneous data streams—such as satellite observations, biodiversity records, and socioeconomic indicators—into unified simulations that reveal interconnected risks.^[60] This data-driven integration underscores how modern technologies support unity without erasing disciplinary differences, aligning with broader trends in computational science. In recent philosophical discussions, as of 2021, Tuomas Tahko has argued for a modest form of unity of science, positing an ontological basis where a single structure of natural kinds underlies all sciences, compatible with epistemic pluralism and addressing challenges from disunity debates.^[61] Otto Neurath's vision of collaborative encyclopedias, rooted in the Vienna Circle's projects for an International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, emphasized collective knowledge-building to achieve empirical unity across sciences.^[62] In the digital age, this legacy manifests in open-access platforms and networked databases that enable real-time, global contributions to scientific synthesis, reviving Neurath's encyclopedic ideal through hyperlinked, multimedia resources.^[63]

Applications in Modern Sciences

In physics and chemistry, the unity of science manifests through the successful reduction of chemical phenomena to quantum mechanics, particularly in quantum chemistry, where molecular structures and behaviors are explained via principles like the Schrödinger equation. For instance, the concept of molecular orbitals, which describe electron distributions in molecules, emerges directly from quantum mechanical wavefunctions, enabling precise predictions of chemical bonding and reactivity without invoking distinct chemical laws. This approximate reduction has been demonstrated in computational models that align chemical properties with quantum calculations, achieving high accuracy for isolated molecules such as CH₂, though limitations arise in complex systems due to approximations like the Born-Oppenheimer method.^[64]^[65] In biology, evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo) and systems biology illustrate partial unity by integrating genomics with developmental processes, revealing how genetic mechanisms underpin evolutionary changes across species. Genomics provides a unifying framework through conserved regulatory genes, such as Hox genes, that control body plans from flies to humans, demonstrating how alterations in gene expression drive morphological evolution. However, pluralism persists at multiple levels, as gene-environment interactions—often mediated by epigenetic factors—introduce variability that resists full reduction to genetic determinism, emphasizing the interplay between molecular and organismal scales in systems biology models.^[66]^[67] Social sciences exhibit unity through behavioral economics, which integrates psychological insights into economic models to explain decision-making deviations from rational choice theory. Pioneering work by Kahneman and Tversky incorporated cognitive biases, such as prospect theory, to unify psychological heuristics with economic utility maximization, improving predictions in areas like risk assessment and market behavior. Yet, debates on physicalist reduction highlight tensions, as attempts to derive social phenomena solely from neurobiological or physical bases overlook emergent cultural and intentional factors, favoring antireductionist views that preserve disciplinary autonomy.^[68]^[69] In emerging fields like neuroscience and artificial intelligence, token physicalism upholds unity by positing that individual mental states are physically realized, often in neural or computational substrates, aligning with Putnam's early functionalist arguments for multiple realizability. This allows mental functions, such as cognition, to be implemented in diverse systems—from biological brains to AI algorithms—without type-identity to specific physical structures. As of 2025, the U.S. BRAIN Initiative has advanced this integration by developing AI-powered tools that standardize and synthesize neuroscience data, enabling seamless collaboration and revealing unified mechanisms across neural and computational models.^[70] Nevertheless, methodological pluralism endures, as neuroscience employs varied approaches like connectomics and dynamical systems modeling, while AI leverages symbolic and connectionist paradigms, reflecting Putnam's later critiques of strict computationalism in favor of broader realism.^[71]^[72]

References

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[PDF] Unity of science as a working hypothesis
Unity of Science is the aim of this paper, referring to an ideal state of science and a trend within science, with three broad concepts.
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The Unity of Science - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 9, 2007 · Philosophy was once thought to stand for the systematic unity of the sciences. The foundational character of unity became the distinctive ...Historical development in... · Varieties of Unity · Epistemological Unities
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Auguste Comte - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Oct 1, 2008 · The second pillar of positive philosophy, the law of the classification of the sciences, has withstood the test of time much better than the law ...
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Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling
Oct 22, 2001 · The Naturphilosophie includes ourselves within nature, as part of an interrelated whole, which is structured in an ascending series of ...
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Wilhelm Dilthey - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jan 16, 2008 · Wilhelm Dilthey was a German philosopher who lived from 1833–1911. Dilthey is best known for the way he distinguished between the natural and human sciences.Dilthey's Life and Thought · Dilthey's Main Philosophical... · BibliographyMissing: Naturwissenschaften | Show results with:Naturwissenschaften
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Wilhelm Windelband - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 18, 2020 · Windelband emphasizes that the distinction between nomothetic and idiographic sciences is a purely formal and teleological one. One and the same ...The Factual, the Normative... · The Natural and the Historical... · Bibliography
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Ernst Mach - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 21, 2008 · Ernst Mach (February 18, 1838 – February 19, 1916) made major contributions to physics, philosophy, and physiological psychology.Ernst Mach
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[PDF] The Scientific Conception of the World: The Vienna Circle
The goal ahead is unified science. The endeavour is to link ... Originally the Vienna Circle's strongest interest was in the method of empirical science.
[11]
The Vienna Circle | The Story of Logical Empiricism | Sahotra Sarkar |
Dec 2, 2024 · Known as the Vienna Circle, they proposed to practice philosophy in continuity with science; their movement became known as Logical Empiricism.
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Rudolf Carnap > H. Tolerance, Metaphysics, and Meta-Ontology ...
The principle of tolerance was central to Carnap's philosophy, as was the pluralism about possible language (and logic) forms that comes with it.Missing: unified | Show results with:unified<|separator|>
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[DOC] Neurath's boat - PhilArchive
He suggests that “we are like sailors who have to rebuild their ship on the open sea, without ever being able to dismantle it in dry-dock and reconstruct it ...
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[PDF] A Neurathian Conception of the Unity of Science - PhilSci-Archive
An historically important conception of the unity of science is explanatory reductionism, according to which the unity of science is achieved by explaining ...
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[PDF] International Encyclopedia of Unified Science. Volume I. Part 1 (Nos ...
This edition combines in two cloth-bound vol- umes the ten numbers of Volume I of the In- ternational Encyclopedia of Unified Science. Copyright 1938, 1939, ...
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The Orchestration of the Sciences by the Encyclopedism of Logical ...
I should again use the Kallenian expression, "orchestration." OTTO NEURATH. OXFORD, ENGLAND. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE UNITY OF SCIENCE MOVEMENT. I. Horace ...
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History | Philosophy of Science | College of Liberal Arts
The Minnesota Center for Philosophy of Science (MCPS) was established in 1953 by Professor Herbert Feigl (assisted by others), who became its first director.
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Guide to the Unity of Science Movement Records 1934-1968
The Unity of Science Movement was a philosophic program that developed from the positions of the "Vienna Circle" philosophers of the late 1920s.Missing: original | Show results with:original<|separator|>
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Bayesian epistemology - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jun 13, 2022 · Bayesian epistemology studies how beliefs, or degrees of belief (credences), change in response to evidence, focusing on how much credence ...
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Bayesian Cognitive Science, Unification, and Explanation
The prior of each hypothesis is updated in light of new data according to Bayesian conditionalization, which yields new probabilities for each hypothesis.
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[PDF] Explanatory Unification Philip Kitcher Philosophy of Science ... - MIT
Mar 7, 2008 · Explanatory Unification. Philip Kitcher. Philosophy of Science, Vol. 48, No. 4. (Dec., 1981), pp. 507-531. Stable URL: http://links.jstor.org ...
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Explanatory Unification - jstor
Instead, I shall show that some tra- ditional problems of scientific explanation can be solved without more detailed specification of the conditions on unifying ...
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Explanatory Unification | Philosophy of Science | Cambridge Core
The goal of the present paper is to explore an unofficial view of explanation which logical empiricists have sometimes suggested, the view of explanation as ...
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Explanatory unification - Philip Kitcher - PhilPapers
Abstract. The official model of explanation proposed by the logical empiricists, the covering law model, is subject to familiar objections.
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[PDF] How to Tell When Simpler, More Unified, or Less Ad Hoc Theories ...
How to Tell When Simpler, More Unified, or Less Ad Hoc Theories Will Provide More. Accurate Predictions. Author(s): Malcolm Forster and Elliott Sober.
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How to Tell When Simpler, More Unified, or Less Ad Hoc Theories ...
How to Tell When Simpler, More Unified, or Less Ad Hoc Theories will Provide More Accurate Predictions. MALCOLM FORSTER and; ELLIOTT SOBER.
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Malcolm R. Forster & Elliott Sober, How to Tell When Simpler, More ...
How to Tell When Simpler, More Unified, or Less A d Hoc Theories Will Provide More Accurate Predictions · Malcolm R. Forster & Elliott Sober · British Journal ...Missing: predictive | Show results with:predictive
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[PDF] Unity of Science - PhilSci-Archive
Abstract: Unity of science was once a very popular idea among both philosophers and scientists. But it has fallen out of fashion, largely.
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The Methodological Unity of Science - Book - SpringerLink
Free delivery 14-day returnsThe present volume collects some of the talks given at the Bertrand Russell Colloquium on Exact Philosophy, attached to the McGill University Foundations ...
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Philosophy of Science | A Unified Approach - Taylor & Francis eBooks
Nov 20, 2013 · ... philosophy of science: behind the diversity of scientific fields one can recognize a methodological unity of the sciences. This unity is ...
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[PDF] Galileo's Mathematical Natural Philosophy - UCL Discovery
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was an initiator of that process of mathematization of nature. As is well known, over the past four centuries, Galileo has been the ...
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The Back Page | American Physical Society
Galileo believed that nature was inherently mathematical, that mathematics was the language of nature, and that mathematics was the key to understanding the ...
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Interfield Theories | Philosophy of Science | Cambridge Core
Apr 1, 2022 · This paper analyzes the generation and function of hitherto ignored or misrepresented interfield theories, theories which bridge two fields of science.
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Full article: Using Computer Simulation Methods to Teach Statistics
Dec 1, 2017 · The purpose of this paper is to summarize and critically evaluate the literature on how CSMs are used in the statistics classroom and their potential impact on ...
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Using simulation studies to evaluate statistical methods - PMC
Simulation studies are computer experiments that involve creating data by pseudo‐random sampling from known probability distributions. They are an invaluable ...
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[PDF] LOGICAL POSITIVISM - HIST-Analytic
Apr 21, 2015 · And the same holds for protocol sentences. In unified science we try to construct a non-contradictory system of protocol sentences and non- ...
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https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/
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https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/emergence/
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[PDF] Wimsatt, William, Robustness, Reliability, and Overdetermination, In ...
Wimsatt, William, Robustness, Reliability, and Overdetermination, In Scientific Inquiry and the Social Sciences, A volume in honour of Donald T. Campbell ...
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Scientific Reduction - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Apr 8, 2014 · The Nagel model describes reduction in terms of direct theory ... –––, 1961, The Structure of Science. Problems in the Logic of ...
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Reductionism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
For example, in Paul Oppenheim and Hilary Putnam's paper “Unity of Science as a Working Hypothesis,” this model of reduction is employed in the context of a ...Three Models of Theoretical... · Reduction as Derivation · Reduction as Explanation
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Eliminative Materialism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 8, 2003 · Eliminative materialists argue that the central tenets of folk psychology radically misdescribe cognitive processes; consequently, the posits of ...A Brief History · Contemporary Eliminative... · Arguments Against Eliminative...
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Integrative Pluralism | Biology & Philosophy
In this paper I consider severalphilosophical accounts of scientific pluralismthat explain the persistence of bothcompetitive and compatible alternatives.
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Biological Complexity and Integrative Pluralism
This fine collection of essays by a leading philosopher of science presents a defence of integrative pluralism as the best description for the complexity of ...Missing: connective | Show results with:connective
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Vienna Circle - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jun 28, 2006 · Thus the Circle rejected the knowledge claims of metaphysics as being neither analytic and a priori nor empirical and synthetic. (On related but ...
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The Structure of Scientific Revolutions: 50th Anniversary Edition ...
$$12.50With The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn challenged long-standing ... paradigm and incommensurability, and applies Kuhn's ideas to the science of today.
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The Incommensurability of Scientific Theories
Feb 25, 2009 · In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), Thomas Kuhn used the term 'incommensurable' to characterize the holistic nature of the ...
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Paul Feyerabend - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 26, 1997 · He also outlined his new “'position'” to be entitled “Against Method”, according to which “anything goes”. In this way, Feyerabend reversed ...
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Against Method | The Anarchist Library
Paul Feyerabend Against Method Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge ... methodology” with “anything goes” as its one “basic principle”. But in ...
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Luca Sciortino, Ian Hacking's Styles of Reasoning, Contingency and ...
In this chapter, I shall consider a number of connections between various ideas of the theory of styles of reasoning and the issue of the contingency and ...
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Special sciences (or: The disunity of science as a working hypothesis)
Fodor, JA Special sciences (or: The disunity of science as a working hypothesis). Synthese 28, 97–115 (1974).Missing: URL | Show results with:URL
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Multiple Realizability - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 18, 2020 · Jerry Fodor (1974) extended Putnam's initial argument by arguing that reductionism ... Fodor, Jerry A., 1974, “Special Sciences (or: The Disunity ...Multiple Realizability Arguments · Initial Multiple Realizability...
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https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674212619
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(PDF) Integrative Pluralism - ResearchGate
Aug 5, 2025 · As Mitchell (2002) argues, the complex, multi-level, and context-sensitive nature of many scientific domains resists integration into a single ...Missing: connective | Show results with:connective<|control11|><|separator|>
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Integrated Assessment Models of Climate Change | NBER
Integrated assessment models (IAMs) can be defined as approaches that integrate knowledge from two or more domains into a single framework.
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The Applicability of Big Data in Climate Change Research - Frontiers
The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the interrelationship between data science and climate studies, as well as describes how sustainability ...
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Foundations of the Unity of Science - Google Books
The purpose of the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, as originally conceived by the late Otto Neurath, was to explore in numerous volumes the ...
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[PDF] From Texts to Pictures: The New Unity of Science - NYIRI
The phi- losopher and sociologist Otto Neurath, a leading member of the Vienna ... the coming of the digital age however, I noted, we now observe.
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Has Chemistry Been at Least Approximately Reduced to Quantum ...
Feb 28, 2022 · In order to discuss the question of the reduction of chemistry it will be necessary to begin with a brief review of what philosophers mean ...
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An alternative approach to unifying chemistry with quantum mechanics
May 20, 2017 · Why molecular structure cannot be strictly reduced to quantum mechanics ... orbitals that enriched chemistry's understanding of molecular ...
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Evolutionary Developmental Biology (Evo-Devo): Past, Present, and ...
Jun 8, 2012 · Such interactions are often termed “epigenetic,” meaning that they direct gene activity using mechanisms that are not encoded in the DNA of the ...
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EvoDevo Shapes the Extended Synthesis | Biological Theory
May 22, 2014 · Problems for explanatory pluralism that derive from “program” views of development, from the assumed universality of adaptation, and from ...Evodevo Shapes The Extended... · Explore Related Subjects · Author Information
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(PDF) Behavioral Economics: Reunifying Psychology and Economics
Abstract. "Behavioral economics" improves the realism of the psychological assumptions underlying economic theory, promising to reunify psychology and economics ...
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Against Reductionist Explanations of Human Behaviour: John Dupré
Aug 10, 2025 · This paper attacks some prominent contemporary attempts to provide reductive accounts of ever wider areas of human behaviour.
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(PDF) Identity theory ,Multiple Realizability and Functionalism
Jan 11, 2020 · This claim relies on the concept of multiple realizability of the mental states, which was introduced by Hilary Putnam. This paper analyzes ...
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[PDF] Defending the Multiple Realization Argument against the Identity ...
The influence of this Putnam/Fodor criticism was enough to make what came to be called nonreductive physicalism the received theory of mind. And, from what I ...