Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Universalizability

Universalizability is a foundational principle in moral philosophy, originating in the deontological ethics of Immanuel Kant, which requires that the maxim or subjective principle underlying an action be capable of being willed as a universal law applicable to all rational agents without generating a logical contradiction or practical inconsistency.^[1] Articulated in Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), the Formula of Universal Law states: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."^[2] This criterion emphasizes the rational consistency and impartiality of moral rules, distinguishing Kantian ethics from consequentialist approaches that evaluate actions based on their outcomes rather than their inherent form.^[3] Kant's universalizability test involves two main types of contradictions: a contradiction in conception, where universalizing the maxim renders the action impossible (e.g., a maxim of false promising undermines trust in promises altogether), and a contradiction in will, where the universal law conflicts with the agent's own rational ends (e.g., a maxim of refusing aid to others clashes with the willingness to receive help in need).^[4] The principle forms the first of four equivalent formulations of the categorical imperative, Kant's supreme principle of morality, which commands actions from duty rather than inclination and applies unconditionally to all rational beings.^[5] In practice, universalizability serves as a decision procedure for ethical deliberation, promoting autonomy by aligning individual actions with the rational demands of a "kingdom of ends" where persons are treated as ends in themselves.^[6] Beyond Kant, the concept of universalizability has influenced subsequent ethical theories, notably R.M. Hare's universal prescriptivism, which interprets moral judgments as universalizable prescriptions that must be impartially applicable from any perspective.^[7] Hare argued that moral thinking inherently involves universalizing prescriptions to ensure consistency and avoid special pleading, bridging descriptive and normative elements in ethics.^[8] However, universalizability has faced significant criticisms for its perceived rigidity; for instance, in Kant's essay On a Supposed Right to Lie from Philanthropy (1797), he maintains that lying remains impermissible even to a murderer inquiring about a victim's location, a stance critics contend ignores consequential harms and moral intuitions favoring exceptions in extreme cases.^[9] Philosophers like Hegel have further critiqued it for abstracting from concrete historical and social contexts, reducing ethics to formal rationality without substantive content.^[10] Despite these challenges, universalizability remains a cornerstone for discussions of impartiality and consistency in contemporary moral theory.

Definition and Core Concept

Formal Definition

Universalizability is a fundamental criterion in moral philosophy that requires a proposed moral maxim or rule to be applicable consistently to all rational agents in relevantly similar circumstances without resulting in logical contradiction or practical impossibility.^[11] This principle ensures that ethical judgments maintain impartiality and consistency, serving as a test for the validity of moral prescriptions across diverse situations.^[12] The "universal law" test, originating with Immanuel Kant, evaluates whether the underlying maxim of a proposed action can be willed as a universal law of nature by a rational agent.^[11] Under this test, an action is morally permissible only if its maxim could coherently serve as a binding law for all rational beings, thereby prohibiting self-contradictory or irrational endorsements.^[11] Universalizability manifests in two primary forms: act universalizability, which assesses the maxim of an individual action to determine if it could be willed universally without contradiction, and rule universalizability, which evaluates general moral rules or principles for consistent application across all similar cases.^[4] In the act form, the focus is on the specific intent and context of a single deed, whereas the rule form, as developed in variants like R. M. Hare's universal prescriptivism, emphasizes the impartial prescription of principles that bind all agents equally.^[12]^[4] Formally, if P represents a moral maxim, universalizability examines whether the universalized form \forall x \, P(x) (i.e., applying P to all rational agents x) generates a contradiction in conception—where the law itself becomes logically incoherent—or a contradiction in will—where a rational agent could not consistently endorse the law given their own ends.^[11] This logical structure underscores the principle's role in deriving moral obligations from rational consistency rather than empirical consequences.^[4]

Key Principles

Universalizability rests on the principle of autonomy, which posits that moral agents must self-legislate rules capable of being willed as universal laws, thereby treating themselves and others as ends-in-themselves rather than mere means to an end. This principle underscores the idea that genuine moral legislation arises from the rational will's capacity to impose obligations on itself, independent of external authorities or inclinations. As O'Neill argues, autonomy grounds ethics in consistency and rationality, ensuring that moral principles are not derived from desires but from the self-determining nature of rational agency.^[4] Central to universalizability is the impartiality requirement, which demands that moral rules apply equally to all relevant agents without favoritism or special pleading, thereby eliminating arbitrary exceptions based on personal bias. This ensures that ethical judgments are not parochial but extend symmetrically across all similar situations, promoting a form of moral equality. Nielsen contends that universalizability commits one to impartiality by necessitating that principles be endorsable from any agent's perspective, thus foundational to justice as fairness.^[13] Universalizability also embodies rational consistency, requiring the avoidance of contradictions in the act of willing a maxim as a universal law—for instance, rejecting rules that would undermine their own purpose if generalized. This principle maintains that moral judgments must be logically coherent across agents in comparable circumstances, where an action deemed right or wrong for one must hold for all without inconsistency. Rabinowicz defines this non-substantive universalizability as the idea that moral rightness or wrongness is invariant for all agents in identical situations, serving as a formal constraint on ethical reasoning.^[4] In relation to deontological ethics, universalizability functions as a formal procedure for testing moral maxims based on duty and inherent rightness, distinct from consequentialist calculations that evaluate actions by their outcomes. Unlike consequentialism, which might justify a rule through aggregated benefits, universalizability prioritizes the intrinsic consistency and obligatoriness of principles irrespective of results. This deontological emphasis, as contrasted with Singer's generalization argument, highlights universalizability's focus on rule-governed rationality over empirical consequences.^[4] These principles enable the application of the formal definition's universal law test by providing the rational framework for assessing maxims' coherence and applicability.

Historical Development

Origins in Kantian Ethics

The concept of universalizability emerged in the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant during the late 18th century, as a cornerstone of his effort to establish a rational foundation for ethics independent of empirical influences. Kant first introduced this idea in his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), where he proposed that moral actions must be guided by maxims capable of being willed as universal laws applicable to all rational beings. He elaborated on it further in the Critique of Practical Reason (1788), emphasizing its role in deriving unconditional moral duties from the structure of practical reason itself.^[14] These works positioned universalizability as a test for moral validity, rooted in the autonomy of the rational will. Kant's development of universalizability was motivated by a direct response to the empiricist ethics of thinkers like David Hume, who grounded morality in sentiments and passions rather than reason. Hume's approach, which treated moral judgments as products of emotional responses, prompted Kant to seek a non-empirical basis for ethics, arguing that true moral laws must originate from pure practical reason to ensure their necessity and universality.^[15] By contrast, Kant insisted that morality could not rely on contingent experiences or inclinations, as these would undermine its binding force on all rational agents. This shift aimed to provide a deontological framework where moral obligations are a priori and absolute, free from the variability of human desires. The Enlightenment context profoundly shaped Kant's emphasis on universal reason as the source of morality, moving away from traditional reliance on divine command or cultural customs toward a secular, rational autonomy. Influenced by the era's valorization of individual reason and critique of authority, as articulated in his own essay "What is Enlightenment?" (1784), Kant viewed universalizability as an expression of humanity's emergence from intellectual immaturity into self-legislating rationality.^[16] This approach aligned with broader Enlightenment ideals of progress through reason, positioning ethics as a universal domain accessible to all rational minds regardless of historical or social contingencies.^[11] Early reception of Kant's universalizability included sharp critiques from contemporaries, notably Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who dismissed it as an "empty formalism" lacking substantive content to guide concrete ethical decisions. In his Philosophy of Right (1821), Hegel argued that Kant's criterion reduced morality to abstract consistency without addressing the concrete ethical life embedded in social institutions, rendering it practically inert.^[17] Such objections highlighted tensions in Kant's system during the transition to 19th-century philosophy, though they did not immediately undermine its foundational influence.

Evolution in 20th-Century Philosophy

In the mid-20th century, R.M. Hare significantly advanced the concept of universalizability within analytic ethics, building on but secularizing Kantian ideas through a linguistic lens. In his 1952 book The Language of Morals, Hare introduced universal prescriptivism, arguing that moral judgments are inherently prescriptive—guiding action like imperatives—and must be universalizable, meaning they apply consistently to all relevantly similar situations without logical contradiction.^[12] This framework emphasized the formal properties of moral language, requiring that any prescription one endorses for oneself be extended impartially to others in analogous circumstances. Hare further refined this in Freedom and Reason (1963), where he employed a "Golden Rule" argument to demonstrate how universal prescriptivism resolves ethical dilemmas, such as disputes over property rights, by logically committing the moral agent to consistent, impartial principles that avoid self-contradiction.^[12]^[18] Hare's ideas intersected with the broader currents of logical positivism and ordinary language philosophy, which dominated British analytic thought in the post-war era. Logical positivism, popularized in Britain through A.J. Ayer's Language, Truth and Logic (1936), critiqued metaphysical ethics and promoted empirical and linguistic analysis of moral statements, indirectly paving the way for Hare's focus on the verifiable, non-cognitive nature of moral prescriptions.^[19] Hare, working in the Oxford ordinary language tradition, extended this by insisting on universalizability as a logical constraint on moral discourse, influencing subsequent meta-ethical debates on the rationality of ethics beyond emotive or descriptive interpretations.^[12]^[20] The post-World War II period marked a revival of universalizability in philosophical discussions, particularly as it underpinned secular arguments for universal moral norms amid the global push for human rights. This revival highlighted universalizability's role in fostering rational consensus on human dignity without reliance on religious or metaphysical absolutes.^[21] A key shift in 20th-century philosophy transformed universalizability from Kant's metaphysical grounding in rational autonomy to secular, linguistic analyses centered on language use and logical consistency. Hare's prescriptivism exemplified this transition, relocating moral universality from transcendental principles to the performative and universalizing features of everyday moral utterances, aligning with the analytic rejection of metaphysics in favor of conceptual clarification.^[12]^[22] This linguistic turn enabled universalizability to address modern ethical pluralism while maintaining its core demand for impartiality.^[23]

Philosophical Formulations

Kant's Categorical Imperative

Immanuel Kant introduced the categorical imperative as the supreme principle of morality, serving as the foundational criterion for universalizability in his deontological ethics. Derived from pure practical reason, it demands that moral actions stem from maxims—subjective principles of action—that possess a priori necessity and apply unconditionally to all rational beings, independent of empirical desires or consequences. This imperative ensures that moral laws are not contingent but universally binding, forming the core mechanism for testing the moral permissibility of any proposed action.^[24] The first formulation of the categorical imperative, known as the formula of universal law, states: "Handle nur nach derjenigen Maxime, durch die du zugleich wollen kannst, daß sie ein allgemeines Gesetz werde" (Kant, Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, AA IV:421). In English translation, this reads: "act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law" (Kant 1785, 4:421). This formulation establishes universalizability by requiring that an agent's maxim be willed as a law applicable to everyone without exception; if it cannot be coherently universalized, the maxim fails the test of moral validity, rendering the action impermissible.^[25]^[24] The second formulation, the formula of humanity as an end in itself, provides a complementary basis for universalizability by emphasizing respect for rational beings: "Handle so, daß du die Menschheit, sowohl in deiner Person, als in der Person eines jeden anderen, jederzeit zugleich als Zweck, niemals bloß als Mittel brauchst" (Kant, Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, AA IV:429). Translated, it instructs: "act so that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means, but always at the same time as an end" (Kant 1785, 4:429). This ties directly to universalizability by prohibiting maxims that treat persons instrumentally, as such treatment would contradict the rational autonomy required for any universal moral law; instead, it demands that all rational agents be regarded as ends, ensuring the maxim's consistency across all wills.^[24] To apply the categorical imperative, Kant outlines a structured logical process rooted in practical reason. First, the agent formulates the maxim describing the proposed action, including its subjective conditions and purpose. Second, the maxim is universalized, imagining a world where it governs as a law for all rational beings. Third, consistency is checked for contradictions: a contradiction in conception arises if the universalized maxim renders the action logically impossible (e.g., a maxim of false promising undermines the very concept of promising), while a contradiction in will occurs if the universal law conflicts with the agent's necessary ends as a rational being (e.g., a maxim of refusing aid to those in need would frustrate the will's pursuit of mutual support in a rational community). Only maxims passing both tests are morally universalizable.^[24]^[25] Kant derives the categorical imperative from pure practical reason, arguing that morality cannot rely on hypothetical imperatives (conditioned by desires) but must originate in reason's a priori capacity to legislate unconditionally for the will. In the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), he posits that the good will, acting from duty alone, reveals this necessity: reason demands self-consistency in willing, leading to the imperative as the objective form of practical law, binding all finite rational beings through their shared autonomy. This derivation underscores universalizability as an expression of reason's formal unity, free from empirical contingency.^[24]

Hare's Prescriptivism Variant

R.M. Hare's universal prescriptivism posits that moral judgments are prescriptions—imperatives that guide action—rather than descriptive statements about the world or mere expressions of emotion.^[12] In this framework, universalizability requires that such prescriptions be applicable consistently across all similar circumstances, compelling the moral agent to accept the rule even when reversed roles place them in the position of those affected.^[12] This role-reversal mechanism ensures that moral commitments are not self-serving but extend impartially, aligning with Hare's non-cognitivist view that moral language primarily functions to prescribe behavior.^[12] Central to Hare's theory is the principle outlined in his seminal work Freedom and Reason (1963), where universal prescriptivism serves as a tool to resolve moral disagreements by demanding logical consistency in prescriptions.^[18] Hare argues that when individuals sincerely utter a moral judgment, they commit to a universal rule that they would endorse from any relevant perspective, thereby bridging freedom (personal prescription) and reason (universal consistency).^[12] For instance, prescribing that debtors must repay loans implies accepting imprisonment as a consequence if one were the debtor, preventing arbitrary exceptions.^[18] To differentiate genuine universalizability from superficial consistency, Hare introduces the fanaticism test, which evaluates whether the agent would sincerely subscribe to the prescription even in positions they find undesirable.^[12] Fanatics, committed to abstract ideals like absolute justice over personal welfare, might evade role-reversal by prioritizing impersonal principles, but Hare contends that true moral thinking requires imaginative identification with all affected parties, ensuring prescriptions weigh preferences equitably.^[12] This test underscores prescriptivism's emphasis on sincere, action-oriented commitment rather than detached theorizing.^[12] Unlike Kant's formulation, Hare's prescriptivism treats moral imperatives as non-truth-apt prescriptions focused on guiding conduct through universal consistency, rather than deriving from objective rational laws.^[12] Hare secularized the universalizability test, adapting it to a linguistic, non-cognitivist ethics suited to modern pluralistic societies.^[12]

Applications in Ethics

Moral Decision-Making Processes

Universalizability serves as a procedural tool in ethical deliberation by providing a structured method to evaluate the moral permissibility of actions through rational consistency, ensuring that moral judgments align with principles applicable to all rational agents. This approach builds on the core principle that moral rules must be derived from reason rather than empirical inclinations or consequences.^[11] The step-by-step process begins with identifying the maxim underlying the proposed action, which is the subjective principle or rule that the agent adopts for their conduct. Next, one imagines this maxim universalized as a law binding on all rational beings, recasting it as if it were a universal law of nature. Finally, the agent assesses whether this universalized maxim leads to a contradiction in conception—where the law's adoption undermines the very action it permits—or a contradiction in will, where it conflicts with the rational agent's necessary ends, such as self-preservation or the pursuit of happiness; for instance, a maxim permitting deception might result in a regress where communication becomes impossible if universally adopted.^[11]^[26] In deontological frameworks, universalizability prioritizes duty and rational obligation over consequential outcomes, establishing moral rules as universally binding imperatives that derive their authority from the autonomy of the rational will rather than external factors. This ensures that ethical decisions are grounded in the inherent dignity of rational agents, making duties categorical and non-negotiable.^[11]^[27] Universalizability integrates with other Kantian tests, such as the formula of the kingdom of ends, by extending its application to interpersonal duties; here, agents act as legislators in a systematic union of rational beings, willing maxims that respect all as ends in themselves rather than mere means. This complementarity reinforces the procedural rigor of moral reasoning.^[11] Among its advantages, universalizability promotes consistency in ethical judgments by requiring impartial application of rules across all situations and agents, fostering reliability in personal moral choices and professional ethical standards. It also encourages impartiality, as decisions must withstand scrutiny from the perspective of any rational being, thereby mitigating bias rooted in self-interest.^[11]^[28]

Practical Examples

A classic illustration of universalizability arises in Kant's analysis of promise-breaking. Consider the maxim: "When I believe myself to be in difficulty, I will borrow money and promise to repay it, even though I intend not to do so." If universalized as a law of nature, this would mean everyone makes false promises in times of need, rendering the institution of promising meaningless since no one could rely on assurances, creating a contradiction in conception as the maxim presupposes trust to function.^[11] Another example from Kant involves violations of property rights, akin to theft. The maxim here is: "I will increase my wealth by every safe means," applied to denying a deposit entrusted without proof of receipt after the depositor's death. Universalizing this as a universal law would eliminate trust in such transactions, annihilating the practice of deposits entirely and leading to a contradiction in conception, as the maxim presupposes the existence of trustworthy deposits to function.^[11] In R.M. Hare's variant of universal prescriptivism, universalizability is tested through role-reversal to ensure prescriptions apply impartially. For instance, a self-serving prescription permitting suicide only in one's own dire circumstances fails if, upon reversal, one would not prescribe it for others in identical situations, revealing non-universalizability due to inconsistent application across perspectives. Similarly, a maxim to help others only when it directly benefits oneself cannot be universally prescribed, as role-reversal exposes the bias: one would reject such limited aid if in the position of the needy.^[12] Variations of universalizability appear in dilemmas like the trolley problem, where act universalism evaluates the specific maxim of an individual action (e.g., diverting a trolley to sacrifice one life to save five), while rule universalism assesses broader principles (e.g., a general rule permitting sacrifice of the few for the many) for consistent universal willing; these approaches distinguish permissible from impermissible cases without fully resolving conflicting intuitions.^[29]

Criticisms and Limitations

Major Objections

One prominent objection to universalizability, particularly in its Kantian formulation, is the charge of empty formalism, which posits that the principle provides a mere procedural test devoid of substantive moral content, ignoring consequences and contextual factors in favor of abstract rigorism. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel argued that universalizing maxims results in an "empty formalism" because any maxim can be reframed to pass the test without yielding determinate duties, leading to a morality that is rigorous but practically inert.^[30] Similarly, Arthur Schopenhauer critiqued the categorical imperative's universalizability as illusory, claiming it reduces to hypothetical imperatives dependent on empirical motives rather than pure reason, thus failing to ground genuine moral obligation independent of self-interest or outcomes.^[31] Another key criticism concerns the ambiguity surrounding what constitutes a "contradiction" in the universal law test, rendering the criterion unclear and prone to inconsistent application. John Stuart Mill contended that this test, by focusing on logical consistency in a universalized maxim, favors moral inaction or absurd conclusions, while failing to distinguish harmful from benign actions based on their effects.^[32] Universalizability also faces challenges regarding its inflexibility in handling moral conflicts, particularly supererogatory acts and "dirty hands" scenarios where agents must choose between duties or exceed obligations for greater goods. Critics argue that the principle cannot accommodate supererogatory actions—morally praiseworthy but non-obligatory deeds like self-sacrifice—since universalizing such maxims would impose them as universal duties, eliminating the distinction between duty and heroism. In dirty hands cases, where moral agents must perform a wrong to prevent a greater wrong (e.g., a leader torturing to avert war), universalization breaks down, as the maxim cannot consistently apply without endorsing pervasive immorality. Finally, universalizability is challenged by cultural relativism, which disputes its assumption of universal rationality and shared moral cognition across diverse societies. Relativists contend that varying cultural values—such as differing norms on honor killings or communal obligations—cannot be uniformly universalized without imposing a parochial rational framework, thereby undermining the principle's claim to cross-cultural applicability.^[33]

Contemporary Responses

In contemporary ethical theory, John Rawls's veil of ignorance functions as a procedural analog to universalizability, designed to generate impartial principles of justice by placing rational agents in a hypothetical original position where they lack knowledge of their personal attributes, social status, or natural endowments. This setup ensures that selected rules would be endorsable regardless of one's circumstances, thereby promoting fairness akin to the consistency demanded by a universal moral law. Rawls argues that from behind this veil, agents would converge on principles maximizing the position of the least advantaged, providing a contractualist framework that operationalizes impartiality without relying solely on abstract maxims. Christine Korsgaard advances a constitutivist defense of universalizability by reconstructing it as an internal norm constitutive of rational agency itself, rather than an external imposition. In her view, human agents constitute their identities through reflective endorsement of principles that enable coherent action, and only those principles capable of universal willing—per Kant's categorical imperative—satisfy this requirement, as they unify the self across temporal and interpersonal contexts. Korsgaard contends that rejecting universalizability would undermine agency, since endorsing non-universalizable maxims leads to practical contradictions in self-constitution, such as valuing one's reasons while denying them to others in similar situations. This approach grounds moral obligation in the necessary structure of rationality, emphasizing that universal laws emerge from the activity of valuing humanity as an end in itself. Hybrid approaches further modify universalizability by integrating it with virtue ethics, positing that moral character traits must themselves be universalizable to cultivate impartial sensitivity in agents. For example, virtues like justice or benevolence are understood as stable dispositions to adopt maxims that can be willed consistently for all rational beings, thereby addressing concerns about deontology's rigidity by embedding universal principles within habituated character development. Philosophers such as Nancy Sherman argue that this Kantian-inflected virtue ethics allows for contextual judgment while maintaining the test of universal law, ensuring that virtuous actions align with duties that respect others' autonomy. Such hybrids preserve the core of universalizability but enrich it with Aristotelian emphasis on phronesis, or practical wisdom, to guide application in diverse situations.^[34] Empirical research in moral psychology bolsters these philosophical defenses by demonstrating that universalizability resonates with intuitive moral reasoning, particularly in how individuals evaluate actions by considering their generalized implications. A 2020 study found that both adults and children spontaneously apply a logic of universalization, judging an action's permissibility based on outcomes if "everybody felt free to do the same," with participants showing consistent preferences for collective utility over self-interest in threshold dilemmas (e.g., 77% endorsement rate in high-impact scenarios). This aligns with cross-cultural intuitions on harm avoidance and fairness, as evidenced by post-2000 analyses of moral development stages across societies, where universalizable principles like reciprocity underpin judgments regardless of cultural variance. These findings suggest that universalizability is not merely abstract but psychologically embedded, countering objections to its practicality by highlighting its alignment with innate moral cognition. Recent critiques, such as a 2025 review, continue to question the principle's universal applicability as a moral model, emphasizing ongoing debates.^[28]^[35]^[36]

Influence and Extensions

In Metaethics and Normative Theory

Universalizability plays a pivotal role in metaethical debates, particularly in discussions of moral realism and anti-realism. In Kantian ethics, the principle supports moral realism by positing the categorical imperative as an objective, rationally necessary principle that binds all rational agents unconditionally, independent of empirical inclinations or subjective ends.^[11] This rational necessity grounds moral laws in the a priori structure of reason, ensuring their universal validity and truth-aptness as objective requirements.^[11] In contrast, R. M. Hare's universal prescriptivism advances an anti-realist, non-cognitivist metaethics, where universalizability functions as a consistency requirement for prescriptive moral judgments rather than a test of objective truth.^[12] Hare views moral statements as imperatives that must apply impartially across similar cases, rejecting the existence of moral facts while emphasizing practical rationality to guide action.^[12] Within normative ethical theory, universalizability positions deontological approaches in opposition to consequentialism and virtue ethics. Unlike consequentialist theories, which evaluate actions based on their aggregate outcomes to maximize overall good, universalizability is non-aggregative, treating each rational agent as an end in themselves and prohibiting the instrumentalization of individuals for collective benefits.^[37] This rule-based focus contrasts with virtue ethics, which prioritizes the cultivation of moral character traits over adherence to universal principles, viewing virtues like justice as intrinsic dispositions rather than derivable from maxims testable for consistency.^[38] Consequently, universalizability emphasizes impartial duties applicable to all, without reliance on personal excellences or consequential calculations.^[38] Debates surrounding universalizability also intersect with motivational internalism, the thesis that moral judgments inherently provide reasons for action. In Kantian frameworks, universalizable rules motivate rational agents by appealing directly to their capacity for autonomy, where grasping the categorical imperative as a law of reason compels compliance without external incentives.^[39] This internalist view holds that sincere endorsement of a universalizable maxim generates motivation through rational endorsement, as opposed to desire-based externalism.^[39] Onora O'Neill's Constructions of Reason (1989) elucidates universalizability's significance in normative theory by reconstructing Kant's practical philosophy as a constructivist method, where moral obligations arise from principles that agents can will as universal laws without contradiction.^[40] O'Neill argues that this approach avoids modern misinterpretations of rationality, reinforcing universalizability as a tool for generating coherent ethical constructs applicable across contexts.^[40] Such formulations strengthen responses to relativism by demonstrating how universalizable principles transcend cultural or subjective variances through rational consistency.^[11]

Interdisciplinary Applications

In legal theory, the principle of universalizability has informed the development of international human rights law, particularly through post-1948 treaties that emphasize rules applicable to all nations without exception. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted in 1948, establishes fundamental rights as inherently universal, drawing on Kantian ideas of humanity and moral universality to ensure protections like equality and non-discrimination apply globally, regardless of cultural or national differences.^[21] This approach tests legal norms for global applicability, as seen in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), where state obligations must align with principles that could be willed as universal laws, promoting consistency in human rights enforcement across borders.^[41] Scholars argue that this Kantian foundation underpins the argument for human rights as derived from the categorical imperative, making observance a prerequisite for international community membership.^[42] In AI and technology ethics, universalizability guides efforts to ensure algorithmic fairness by requiring decision-making rules that can be applied consistently without bias or discrimination. The EU AI Act, which entered into force in August 2024 and whose obligations for high-risk AI systems apply from August 2, 2026, mandates that high-risk AI systems undergo assessments to prevent discriminatory outcomes, aligning with Kantian deontology by treating individuals as ends in themselves and testing algorithms against universal moral principles.^[43] This involves evaluating whether AI maxims, such as data processing protocols, can be universalized to avoid perpetuating inequalities, as explored in frameworks integrating Kantian ethics into fairness metrics for AI alignment.^[44] For instance, in deploying AI for hiring or lending, developers must ensure rules promote equity for all users, reflecting the imperative that ethical AI respects human autonomy universally.^[45] Public policy applications of universalizability appear prominently in environmental ethics, where sustainability maxims are evaluated for their potential as global norms. The Paris Agreement of 2015 commits nations to limit global warming to well below 2°C, embodying a universalizable duty to protect the planetary commons by requiring emission reductions that all states could rationally adopt without contradiction. This draws from Kantian principles by framing climate action as an imperfect duty to future generations, justifying fair share contributions based on equal per capita emissions to sustain collective freedom and environmental integrity.^[46] Policies under the agreement thus test national commitments for universal applicability, ensuring that sustainability rules do not privilege one group's interests over the global whole.^[47] Recent developments in the 2020s extend universalizability to bioethics, particularly in regulating CRISPR gene editing to prevent inequalities in access or outcomes. Ethical frameworks for CRISPR emphasize that germline modifications must adhere to principles universalizable without creating heritable disparities, as non-therapeutic enhancements risk violating the categorical imperative by treating humans as means to perfection rather than ends. Guidelines from bodies like the Nuffield Council on Bioethics stress that CRISPR rules should uphold social justice by ensuring equitable application, testing interventions against maxims that all could endorse without undermining human dignity. For instance, in May 2025, leading scientific societies called for a 10-year international moratorium on heritable human genome editing to ensure ethical consistency and safety.^[48] Prohibitions on heritable editing in many jurisdictions reflect this by requiring universal moral consistency to avoid eugenic risks.^[49]

References

[1]
[PDF] Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals - Early Modern Texts
Groundwork. Immanuel Kant. Chapter 1 ingratitude for how well the world is governed. Rather, it's based on the idea of another and far nobler purpose for ...
[2]
[PDF] Kant's Formula of Universal Law - Harvard DASH
Kant's first formulation of the Categorical Imperative, the Formula of Universal. Law, runs: Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the.
[3]
[PDF] Kant's Formula of Universal Law as a Moral Principle | Aporia
It is widely held that Kant's moral philosophy is an attempt to provide an account of moral principles. It is unclear how he intends it to do.
[4]
[PDF] Essays on Ethical Universalizability - UNL Digital Commons
The entailment relation between singular and universal moral judgments holds because the principle of universalizability holds and the truth or validity of this ...
[5]
[PDF] Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals
Kant uses the same title himself, however, as a subtitle to the section of the introduction to the Metaphysics of Morals titled ''Preliminary Concepts of the ...
[6]
[PDF] The Universalizability Criterion of Reason and the Final Value of ...
Jul 14, 2010 · PART I: OVERVIEW OF KANT'S ETHICAL THEORY: GOOD WILL, DUTY, AND UNIVERSALIZABILITY. In this section, I'll outline a common and widely ...
[7]
[PDF] HARE ON UNIVERSALIZABILITY - Journals@KU
descriptive meaning are universalizable, it follows that moral judgements, which possess descriptive meaning, are universalizable. Were Maclntyre to ...
[8]
"Introduction from <i> Morality and Universality: Essays on Ethical ...
The aim of the present volume is to show that recent philosophical thought on universalizability is multifaceted and alive, and is making advances. This has ...
[9]
[PDF] The Right to Lie: Kant on Dealing with Evil - Harvard DASH
If Kant is wrong in his conclusion about lying to the murderer at the door, it is for the interesting and important reason that morality itself sometimes allows ...Missing: criticism | Show results with:criticism
[10]
[PDF] On Hegel's Critique of Kant's Ethics
38 Kant hopes that his identification of the supreme principle of morality as involving universalizability can play a significant role in helping us ...
[11]
Kant's Moral Philosophy
Feb 23, 2004 · In Kant's view, the CI is an objective, rationally necessary and unconditional principle that all rational agents must follow despite any ...
[12]
Richard Mervyn Hare - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jun 4, 2014 · Thus moral reflection generates a universalized prudence. Moral ideals register within this framework simply as universal preferences; to allow ...
[13]
Universalizability and the Commitment to Impartiality - SpringerLink
In fine, can we get the principle of impartiality from the principle of universalizability? ... Normative Ethics. Author information. Authors and ...
[14]
The Critique of Practical Reason, by Immanuel Kant
Principles of self-love may, indeed, contain universal precepts of skill (how to find means to accomplish one's purpose), but in that case they are merely ...
[15]
Kant and Hume on Morality - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Mar 26, 2008 · Hume's method of moral philosophy is experimental and empirical; Kant emphasizes the necessity of grounding morality in a priori principles.Missing: empiricism | Show results with:empiricism
[16]
Kant. What is Enlightenment
Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-imposed nonage. Nonage is the inability to use one's own understanding without another's guidance.
[17]
Hegel's Social and Political Philosophy
Jun 3, 2021 · Hegel's criticisms centre on Kant's Formula of Universal Law stating we should “act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at ...
[18]
R. M. Hare, Freedom and Reason - PhilPapers
The thesis maintained here (universal prescriptivism) retains what is sound in descriptivism (natural and non‐natural), improving upon it by revealing the ...
[19]
Is Hume's Law a valid argument against empirical bioethics? - PMC
Ayer's version of logical positivism influenced a generation of analytic philosophers. If Ayer's critique of ethics resembles that of Hume, Hare and Nowell‐ ...<|separator|>
[20]
Metaethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Logical Positivism of the Vienna Circle adopted ... universalizability—hence, Hare's metaethical position is referred to as “universal prescriptivism.
[21]
Beyond National Sovereignty: The Post-World War II Birth of “Human ...
Perhaps the most radical among post-World War II transnational innovations was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which challenged collectivism ...
[22]
[PDF] Universal Human Rights: A Generational History
Human rights are universal. Not in the sense of being the same positive laws, at all times and places, but rather as being aspirational goals, at all.
[23]
[PDF] From Metaphysics to Ethics. - RCIN
Through its deeper understanding of language, linguistic philosophy was to solve the problems that metaphysics failed to solve once and for all, and by doing so ...
[24]
Philosophy Texts - 20th Century - Google Sites
Ordinary Language Philosophy shifted the emphasis from the ideal or formal language of Logical Positivism to everyday language and its actual use, and it saw ...
[25]
[PDF] Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals - Early Modern Texts
Groundwork. Immanuel Kant. Chapter 1 ingratitude for how well the world is governed. Rather, it's based on the idea of another and far nobler purpose for ...
[26]
Kant: AA IV, Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der ... , Seite 421
06, Der kategorische Imperativ ist also nur ein einziger und zwar dieser: ; 07, handle nur nach derjenigen Maxime, durch die du zugleich wollen.
[27]
(PDF) Categorical Imperative - ResearchGate
Sep 11, 2022 · PDF | The term “categorical imperative” was introduced into moral philosophy by Immanuel Kant (see Kant, Immanuel).
[28]
Deontology - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Another example of a categorical imperative, or moral law, according to Kant, is the requirement never to treat people solely as a means to an end[1].
[29]
The logic of universalization guides moral judgment - PNAS
Oct 2, 2020 · Universalization may play a key role in allowing people to construct new moral rules when confronting social dilemmas such as voting and environmental ...
[30]
Immanuel Kant - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 20, 2010 · To see why, consider Kant's example of a man who commits a theft (5:95ff.) ... imperative, which Kant calls a categorical imperative. A categorical ...Kant's Moral Philosophy · Kant's Account of Reason · Kant's Critique of Metaphysics
[31]
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/schopenhauer/
[32]
On Hegel's Critique of Kant's Ethics: Beyond the 'Empty Formalism ...
This chapter argues that there is a deeper issue underlying Hegel's 'empty formalism' critique of Kant, which goes beyond the familiar worry that Kant's ...
[33]
Schopenhauer's Criticism of Kant's Theory of Ethics - jstor
The so-called Categorical Imperative turns out to be in reality hypothetical, and points behind and ahead to other considera- tions, be they what they may.
[34]
Are Virtue Ethics and Kantian Ethics Really so Very Different?
Jan 1, 2024 · I argue that both ethical approaches promote and sustain the same sort of sensitivity to contextual variables and impartiality, and hence character.
[35]
Moral judgment development across cultures: Revisiting Kohlberg's ...
This article revisits Kohlberg's cognitive developmental claims that stages of moral judgment, facilitative processes of social perspective-taking, and moral ...
[36]
[PDF] NON-CONSEQUENTIALISM AND UNIVERSALIZABILITY - Philip Pettit
If non-consequentialists are to embrace the requirement of universaliz- ability, then they will have to adopt a surprisingly relativistic stance. Not.Missing: aggregative | Show results with:aggregative
[37]
Virtue Ethics - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jul 18, 2003 · Following (and adapting) Aristotle, virtue ethicists draw a distinction between full or perfect virtue and “continence”, or strength of will.
[38]
Moral Motivation - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Oct 19, 2006 · Motivational judgment internalism, hereafter “internalism,” holds that a person cannot sincerely make a moral judgment without being motivated ...
[39]
Constructions of Reason: Explorations of Kant's Practical Philosophy
Onora O'Neill traces the alleged incoherences to attempts to assimilate Kant's ethical writings to modern conceptions of rationality, action and rights. When ...
[40]
Universal Declaration of Human Rights - the United Nations
It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected and it has been translated into over 500 languages.
[41]
(PDF) Humanity and Universalizability: A Kantian Interpretation of ...
This article observes that 'considerations of humanity' was previously a notion pertaining exclusively to the field of international humanitarian law and human ...
[42]
[PDF] The Kantian Theory of International Law - Scholarship Repository
The argument for human rights is universal since it is derived from the Kantian categori- cal imperative.
[43]
AI Act | Shaping Europe's digital future - European Union
The AI Act is the first-ever legal framework on AI, which addresses the risks of AI and positions Europe to play a leading role globally.
[44]
Kantian Deontology Meets AI Alignment: Towards Morally Grounded ...
Nov 9, 2023 · This paper explores the compatibility of a Kantian deontological framework in fairness metrics, part of the AI alignment field.
[45]
Full article: Artificial intelligence (AI) and ethical concerns: a review ...
According to Kantian ethics, it is the moral responsibility of developers and users to create and use technology responsibly, considering the impact of their ...
[46]
A Kantian Justification of Fair Shares: Climate Ethics and Imperfect ...
Oct 8, 2024 · They argue that our ethical obligations to reduce emissions are derived from the existence of or the effort to bring about collective agreements ...
[47]
[PDF] A Kantian Look at Climate Change - PhilArchive
Jan 14, 2010 · 1 This is quoted by Stephen Gardiner in his “Ethics and Global Climate Change,” in. Environmental Ethics: Readings in Theory and Practice, ...
[48]
Seeking perfection: a Kantian look at human genetic engineering
It is tempting to argue that Kantian moral philosophy justifies prohibiting both human germ-line genetic engineering and non-therapeutic genetic engineering.
[49]
[PDF] Ethical Frameworks for Genetic Editing: Navigating Moral ...
Keywords: Genetic Editing, CRISPR-Cas, Bioethics, Germline Modification, Somatic Editing ... The universalizability principle of Kantian ethics requires.
[50]
[PDF] a framework for CRISPR germline genome editing ethics and ...
The. Nuffield Council on Bioethics report on genome editing and human reproduc- tion stressed that GGE may be ethical if an alteration upholds “principles of ...