Var
Var is a department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France, situated along the Mediterranean Sea and encompassing diverse terrains from coastal Riviera stretches to inland gorges and forested hills. Named for the Var River marking its eastern border, it serves as an administrative division with Toulon as its prefecture and capital. Covering 5,973 square kilometers, the department supports a population of 1,108,364 residents as of 2022, with high density along the urbanized coastal fringe.[1][2]
The region's 432 kilometers of coastline feature sandy beaches, rocky coves, and ports like Saint-Tropez and Bandol, while the hinterland includes perched villages, the Verdon Canyon, and the second-most wooded department in France.[3] Var's economy relies on tourism, attracting year-round visitors for its mild climate, outdoor activities, and cultural heritage, supplemented by agriculture focused on fruits, vegetables, and renowned wines from appellations such as Bandol.[4] Notable natural assets include the Port-Cros and Porquerolles National Park, emphasizing marine conservation amid the department's emphasis on scenic preservation and Provençal traditions.[3]
Geography
Var (department)
The Var is a department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France, numbered 83, with its prefecture in Toulon. Established on 4 March 1790 during the French Revolution from the former royal province of Provence, it spans an area of 5,973 square kilometers and had an estimated population of 1,108,364 in 2022, yielding a density of approximately 185.6 inhabitants per square kilometer.[5][6] The department borders the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the departments of Bouches-du-Rhône to the west, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and Alpes-Maritimes to the north and east, and includes 153 communes.[7]
Geographically, Var features a diverse terrain transitioning from coastal plains and bays along its approximately 400 kilometers of Mediterranean shoreline to hilly interiors and forested uplands, with elevations rising toward the Prealps. It is France's second-most wooded department after Landes, covering nearly 400,000 hectares of forest, predominantly maquis shrubland, pine, and oak, which accounts for over half its land area. The Var River, after which the department is named, forms its eastern boundary and originates in the Alps before flowing southward into the sea near Nice, contributing to the region's hydrology alongside smaller rivers like the Argens and Endre. The climate is Mediterranean, characterized by mild, wet winters (average temperatures 8–12°C), hot, dry summers (25–30°C), and abundant sunshine—over 2,700 hours annually—interrupted by occasional mistral winds bringing cold northerly gusts.[8][9][10]
Economically, tourism dominates due to the appeal of coastal resorts like Saint-Tropez, Fréjus, and the Îles d'Hyères archipelago, drawing millions of visitors annually for beaches, yachting, and historical sites such as the Roman ruins at Fréjus. Agriculture, though limited by urbanization (with 90% of the population in urban areas), focuses on Mediterranean specialties including vineyards (notably Côtes de Provence wines), olive groves, fruit orchards, and wheat fields in inland valleys, supporting local markets and exports. Toulon hosts France's primary naval base, fostering shipbuilding and defense industries, while aerospace and high-tech sectors have grown in areas like Sophia Antipolis proximity. The department's GDP per capita exceeds the national average, driven by services and retiree influx, though it faces challenges from seasonal employment and water scarcity in summers.[9][11][7]
Var (river)
The Var is a river in southeastern France, measuring 114 kilometers in length and draining a basin of approximately 2,800 square kilometers.[12][13] It originates at an elevation of 1,790 meters south of the Col de la Cayolle in the Maritime Alps within the Alpes-Maritimes department.[14] The river flows predominantly southwest through steep, alpine terrain characterized by torrential flow and high gradients, briefly crossing into the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department before returning to Alpes-Maritimes.[12] Its lower course forms the boundary between the Alpes-Maritimes and Var departments, emptying into the Mediterranean Sea near Nice after traversing urbanized coastal plains.[15]
Major tributaries include the Tinée, Vésubie, and Estéron, which contribute to the river's high sediment load and variability, along with smaller streams such as the Cians, Coulomp, Tuébi, Chalvagne, Barlatte, and Bourdous.[12][14] The basin's geology, dominated by limestone and red pelite contrasts, imparts a distinctive reddish hue to the water and supports a dynamic gravel-bed system in unaltered sections.[16]
Hydrologically, the Var exhibits pronounced seasonal fluctuations, with peak discharges driven by spring snowmelt, autumn rains, and flash floods; historical maxima reached 3,500 cubic meters per second during the 1994 event.[17][18] Its Mediterranean climate fosters intermittency risks under changing conditions, though upstream alpine influences sustain higher base flows than typical coastal rivers.[19]
Human interventions have significantly altered the river's morphology, particularly downstream, where canalization since the 19th century narrowed the floodplain from an average 1,000 meters to 300 meters to facilitate agriculture and urban expansion on former valley slopes.[20] Multiple gravel-retention dams, including those downstream of Nice, mitigate sediment transport and flood risks but have induced ecological shifts, such as fines sedimentation and conversion of gravel beds to forested areas between structures.[21][22] Floods remain a hazard, as evidenced by the 2014 event affecting the Var valley, underscoring ongoing vulnerabilities despite engineering.[23] Historically, the river demarcated the France-Italy border until 1860, influencing regional geopolitics.[24]
Other geographical uses
In addition to the French department and river, "Var" is the name of multiple minor settlements worldwide. Geographical records indicate three places named Var in Iran, two in Romania, two in Hungary, and one in Vanuatu.[25] These are predominantly rural villages, with limited available data on population or historical significance due to their small scale and local prominence.
Mythology and Religion
Vár (goddess)
Vár, also spelled Vór, is a minor goddess (Ásynja) in Norse mythology, primarily attested as the overseer of oaths, pledges, and contractual agreements, especially those involving romantic or marital commitments between individuals. Her name derives from the Old Norse term vár, signifying a "pledge," "vow," or "surety," reflecting her domain over binding promises and the consequences of their violation. In ancient Norse society, where oral agreements held legal weight without widespread written records, Vár's role emphasized the sanctity of spoken covenants, with oath-breakers facing divine retribution, such as misfortune or punishment in the afterlife.[26]
Vár appears in the Prose Edda, composed by Snorri Sturluson around 1220 CE, where she is enumerated ninth among the goddesses in the Gylfaginning section. There, High describes her as attending to "compacts and agreements between men and women," deriving the Old Norse words várar (trusts) and veror (compacts) from her name, underscoring her guardianship over interpersonal bonds. This portrayal positions Vár as a figure of judicial oversight, ensuring fidelity in vows and potentially linking her to broader themes of cosmic order (rökstær) maintained by the gods. Some interpretations connect her to Frigg's retinue, as a handmaiden enforcing marital oaths, though this association stems more from later folkloric extensions than direct textual evidence.[27]
In the Poetic Edda, a collection of oral traditions compiled in the 13th century but preserving earlier material, Vár is invoked in the poem Þrymskviða (Lay of Thrym), where the giant Þrymr calls upon the "blessing of Vár" during a mock wedding ceremony intended to seal his union with the disguised god Thor. This reference, in stanza 15, highlights her ritual invocation at betrothals or unions, implying her presence sanctifies the rite and binds participants under penalty of her wrath.[28] No myths detail her exploits or attributes beyond these functions, indicating her obscurity compared to major deities like Odin or Freyja; surviving accounts likely represent fragmented pre-Christian beliefs filtered through Christian-era Icelandic scholarship.[29]
Archaeological or runic evidence for Vár is absent, with knowledge reliant on these literary sources, which blend pagan lore with euhemeristic framing by authors like Snorri. Modern reconstructions, such as in neopagan practices, amplify her as a patron of truthfulness and justice, but these lack attestation in primary texts and should be distinguished from historical cultic worship, which appears negligible given her limited mentions.[30]
Arts and Entertainment
In literature, Var the Stick serves as the protagonist in Piers Anthony's 1972 science fiction novel of the same name, part of the Battle Circle trilogy set in a post-apocalyptic world where survivors engage in ritual combats using weapons personified by their wielders' names. The character is portrayed as a genetically mutated half-man, half-animal figure, initially living as a savage until rescued and civilized by the warrior Sos the Sword.[31]
In video games, Var appears as a supporting non-player character in Pathologic, the 2005 survival horror title developed by Ice-Pick Lodge, where he operates a shop in the town's Bridge Square specializing in the purchase and trade of human organs, exhibiting a crass and pragmatic demeanor amid the game's plague-ravaged setting. His precise motives for handling the organs remain ambiguous within the narrative.[32]
The 2019 independent horror film The Kingdom of Var, directed by Thomas Declercq, features the demonic sorcerer Var as its central antagonist, summoned by a college student named Sonja after she views a 500-year-old reel containing his trapped spirit, leading to supernatural terror and a battle for control over reality. The film, with a runtime of 85 minutes, received mixed reviews for its low-budget effects and premise originality.[33]
In the Halo universe, Var 'Gatanai is a Sangheili warrior and potential Arbiter introduced in expanded media around 2024, depicted as a formidable leader amid ongoing Covenant conflicts, with discussions in fan communities speculating his role in supplanting predecessors like Thel 'Vadam due to narrative shifts in the franchise's lore.[34]
The naming convention "var" denoting "son of" appears in Andrzej Sapkowski's The Witcher fantasy series, as in Emhyr var Emreis, the calculating Emperor of Nilfgaard first introduced in the 1994 novel Blood of Elves, who pursues expansionist conquests through political intrigue and military campaigns across the Continent. This character recurs in subsequent books, video games by CD Projekt Red starting with The Witcher (2007), and the Netflix adaptation premiering in 2019.[35]
Other cultural references
"Var" serves as the title of the closing track on the Icelandic post-rock band Sigur Rós's seventh studio album Kveikur, released on June 17, 2013, by XL Recordings.[36] The song features the band's signature atmospheric sound with layered vocals and instrumentation, contributing to the album's theme of emotional intensity.[37]
An Icelandic post-rock band named VAR, formed in Reykjavík, has produced music blending ambient and experimental elements, including a self-titled debut album released on July 17, 2024, via Bandcamp.[38] The group, active since the early 2010s, draws from influences like Sigur Rós and has performed at local festivals, emphasizing improvisational structures in their live sets.[39]
In Georgian folk tradition, the song "Akac me var, ikac me var" (translated as "I am the father, I am the mother") is a polyphonic piece commonly sung during supra feasts, reflecting themes of familial roles and heritage; it gained visibility through performances by artist Katie Melua in 2025 events.[40] This traditional composition exemplifies Georgia's UNESCO-recognized choral singing practices, often accompanied by male voices in table songs.
Science and Technology
Variety (biology)
In botanical nomenclature, variety (abbreviated var.) is a formal infraspecific taxonomic rank positioned below subspecies and above form, used to classify populations within a species that exhibit consistent, heritable differences in morphology, physiology, or other traits insufficient for subspecies recognition.[41] These differences are typically minor and stable across generations, often arising from natural genetic variation rather than human intervention.[42] The rank adheres to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), which authorizes its use for naming such groups with a trinomial format: the italicized binomial species name followed by "var." and the italicized, lowercase variety epithet, such as Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme.[43] [41]
The distinction between variety and subspecies emphasizes scale and context: subspecies generally denote larger, often geographically isolated populations with broader divergence, warranting recognition as potentially incipient species, whereas varieties capture finer-scale variations, such as localized adaptations or ecotypes without strict geographic barriers.[44] [45] In practice, this rank is predominantly botanical, as zoological codes like the ICZN do not recognize variety below subspecies, reflecting differing emphases on evolutionary divergence versus descriptive utility.[41] Varieties must be typified by a designated type specimen, with names validly published under ICN rules requiring Latin descriptions or diagnoses until 2012, after which English equivalents suffice.[43] This framework ensures nomenclatural stability amid ongoing taxonomic revisions driven by genetic data, though overuse of variety has prompted critiques for inflating ranks without phylogenetic justification.[46]
Historically, the variety rank traces to Carl Linnaeus's Species Plantarum (1753), where it categorized wild plant variants systematically, distinguishing them from cultivated forms later formalized as cultivars.[47] Linnaeus applied it to describe traits like leaf shape or fruit size in species such as Rosa (roses), establishing a precedent for hierarchical precision in pre-Darwinian classification.[48] Modern examples include Quercus robur var. pedunculata (with elongated acorns and peduncles up to 20 cm), native to central Europe and differing subtly from the type variety in habitat preference for wetter soils, and Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera (Brussels sprouts progenitor), illustrating how varieties document ecotypic diversity within widespread species.[49] Unlike cultivars—horticulturally selected and denoted non-italicized with single quotes (e.g., Rosa 'Peace')—botanical varieties pertain to naturally occurring wild populations, avoiding conflation with artificial breeding.[50] Contemporary taxonomy increasingly integrates molecular markers to validate varieties, reducing reliance on morphology alone, as seen in phylogenetic studies reclassifying some as synonyms.[46]
Video assistant referee (VAR)
The video assistant referee (VAR) is a match official in association football who reviews decisions using video footage to assist the on-field referee, primarily to correct clear and obvious errors or serious missed incidents related to goals and goal situations (including offside), penalty decisions, direct red card events, and mistaken identity.[51] Introduced to enhance decision-making accuracy amid human limitations in real-time officiating, VAR operates under the principle of minimum interference with maximum benefit, meaning interventions occur only when necessary to avoid factual inaccuracies, with the referee retaining final authority.[51] The system was first trialed experimentally following approval by the International Football Association Board (IFAB) in March 2016, building on earlier concepts from the Netherlands' Referee 2.0 project in the early 2010s.[52] [53]
VAR's protocol involves a team typically comprising the VAR, one or more assistant VARs (AVARs), and support staff operating from a video operation room (VOR) equipped with multiple camera angles, including semi-automated offside technology in advanced implementations.[51] [54] The VAR monitors live action and reviews incidents on replay monitors; if an error is identified, they communicate via headset to the referee, who may then review footage on a pitchside monitor or accept the recommendation without review.[55] Full VAR systems require at least four cameras, while lighter setups use fewer, as standardized by FIFA for consistency across competitions.[54] It was integrated into the Laws of the Game for the 2018/19 season and debuted at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, where it influenced 20 decisions across 62 matches.[54] [55] Major leagues followed: Germany's Bundesliga and Italy's Serie A in 2017/18 trials, England's Premier League in 2019/20 after unanimous club approval in November 2018.[56] [57]
Empirical studies indicate VAR substantially boosts referee accuracy, raising it from a pre-VAR baseline of 92.1% to 98.3% across analyzed national leagues, primarily by reducing errors in subjective but reviewable incidents.[58] In the 2024/25 A-League season, 98.8% of VAR decisions were verified as correct by independent referee assessors, reflecting ongoing refinements.[59] Premier League data for 2025 shows a 96% accuracy rate, up from 82% pre-introduction, with 108 overturns recorded in recent seasons, though penalties and red cards remain error-prone categories.[60] These gains stem from VAR's ability to provide multiple angles and slow-motion review, countering perceptual limitations like optical illusions in offside calls or obscured contact in fouls, as validated in perceptual research.[61] However, effectiveness varies by match context; some analyses suggest it may alter game dynamics, such as reducing fouls or influencing outcomes differently in high-stakes versus low-stakes fixtures, without evidence of systematic bias against stronger teams when properly applied.[62] [63]
Despite accuracy improvements, VAR has drawn criticism for prolonging matches—adding up to several minutes per intervention—and disrupting flow, as referees pause play for reviews, which empirical data links to increased mental fatigue for officials and players.[64] Controversies often arise from subjective thresholds for "clear and obvious" errors, leading to inconsistent applications, such as marginal offside rulings reliant on body-part measurements (e.g., armpits or toenails) that fans perceive as overly pedantic.[65] High-profile errors persist, including 14 penalty misjudgments in the 2023-24 Premier League season and red-card oversights, fueling manager complaints like Arsenal's Mikel Arteta labeling some as "unacceptable" in 2024.[66] [67] Critics argue it shifts focus from game momentum to technical precision, amplifying human inconsistencies in VAR teams rather than eliminating them, though proponents counter that pre-VAR error rates justified the trade-offs for fairness in pivotal moments.[68] Ongoing IFAB protocols emphasize training to mitigate these issues, but fan surveys and expert commentary highlight persistent frustration with perceived overreach.[51]
Computing
var (programming keyword)
In C#, the var keyword declares implicitly typed local variables, allowing the compiler to infer the static type from the initializer expression rather than requiring explicit specification. Introduced in C# 3.0 as part of .NET Framework 3.5, released on November 19, 2007, this feature supports type safety while reducing verbosity in scenarios involving complex or anonymous types.[69] The inferred type is determined at compile time and cannot be changed, distinguishing it from dynamic typing.
csharp
var count = 42; // Inferred as [int](/page/INT)
var message = "Hello"; // Inferred as [string](/page/String)
var numbers = new[] { 1, 2, 3 }; // Inferred as int[]
var count = 42; // Inferred as [int](/page/INT)
var message = "Hello"; // Inferred as [string](/page/String)
var numbers = new[] { 1, 2, 3 }; // Inferred as int[]
In JavaScript, var declares variables with function scope or global scope if outside a function, a mechanism present since ECMAScript 1, standardized in June 1997.[70] Unlike block-scoped alternatives, var declarations are hoisted to the top of their scope, permitting usage before declaration but initializing to [undefined](/page/Undefined) until the assignment executes, which can lead to bugs in conditional or looped contexts. ECMAScript 2015 (ES6), released June 2015, deprecated var in favor of let and const for block scoping and to avoid hoisting pitfalls, though var remains supported for backward compatibility.
javascript
function example() {
console.log(x); // undefined due to hoisting
var x = 10;
console.log(x); // 10
}
function example() {
console.log(x); // undefined due to hoisting
var x = 10;
console.log(x); // 10
}
Several other languages employ var for variable declaration with distinct semantics. In Swift, released June 2, 2014, var marks mutable variables that can be reassigned, contrasting with immutable let.[71] Kotlin uses var similarly for mutable properties since its 1.0 stable release on February 15, 2016, preferring val for immutability to encourage functional patterns. Scala, since version 2.8 in 2010, distinguishes var (mutable) from val (immutable), aligning with its multi-paradigm design. Java introduced var in version 10, released March 20, 2018, exclusively for local variables with type inference, mirroring C#'s approach but limited to non-lambda contexts.[72] These implementations prioritize either mutability indicators or inference to balance expressiveness and safety, varying by language philosophy.
Finance and Business
Value at risk (VaR)
Value at Risk (VaR) is a statistical metric employed in financial risk management to quantify the maximum potential loss in the value of a portfolio or asset over a specified time horizon, under normal market conditions, at a given confidence level. For instance, a one-day VaR at the 99% confidence level of $10 million indicates that there is only a 1% probability that the portfolio will experience a loss exceeding $10 million within that day. This measure focuses exclusively on downside risk by identifying a quantile of the loss distribution, rather than expected returns or average outcomes.[73] VaR is typically expressed in monetary terms and relies on historical data, statistical models, or simulations to estimate potential adverse movements in asset prices, volatilities, and correlations.[74]
The concept of VaR traces its formal adoption to the 1990s, when J.P. Morgan developed the RiskMetrics system in 1994 to standardize market risk assessment across its trading portfolios, replacing fragmented internal limits with a unified quantile-based approach.[75] Although precursors existed as early as the 1920s in statistical risk analysis, VaR gained prominence through RiskMetrics' public release of methodologies, variance-covariance matrices, and data sets, facilitating widespread use in banking.[75] Regulatory endorsement followed, with the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision incorporating VaR into market risk capital requirements under the 1996 Market Risk Amendment and expanding it in Basel II (effective 2007), where banks could use internal VaR models subject to backtesting and validation to determine capital charges, typically at a 99% confidence level over a 10-day horizon. This integration aimed to align capital with empirical risk exposure but presupposed robust model assumptions.
VaR estimation employs three primary methods, each balancing computational efficiency, data requirements, and distributional assumptions. The parametric (variance-covariance) method assumes returns follow a normal distribution, calculating VaR as \text{VaR} = Z \times \sigma \times V \times \sqrt{t}, where Z is the z-score corresponding to the confidence level (e.g., 2.33 for 99%), \sigma is portfolio volatility, V is value, and t is the time horizon; this approach excels in speed but falters under non-normality, underestimating fat-tailed risks.[74] The historical simulation method reconstructs the portfolio's loss distribution from empirical past returns, sorting outcomes to find the percentile threshold without parametric assumptions, thus capturing real-world dependencies but relying on the stationarity of historical data and requiring large samples for rare events.[76] The Monte Carlo simulation method generates thousands of future scenarios via stochastic processes (e.g., geometric Brownian motion for assets), valuing the portfolio under each to derive the loss quantile; it accommodates complex instruments and non-linearities but demands significant computational resources and accurate model specifications for underlying processes.
In practice, VaR informs trading limits, stress testing, and liquidity planning at institutions like JPMorgan, where it underpins daily risk monitoring, though backtesting—comparing realized losses against VaR forecasts—reveals occasional exceedances, prompting multipliers on capital charges (e.g., from 3 to 4 under Basel if exceedances exceed 4 in 250 days).[77] Despite its utility in aggregating diverse risks into a single threshold, VaR faces substantive critiques for failing coherence axioms, notably subadditivity, where the risk of a combined portfolio may exceed the sum of individual risks, incentivizing risk concentration rather than diversification.[78] Artzner et al. (1999) formalized this in defining coherent measures, which require monotonicity, subadditivity, positive homogeneity, and translation invariance—properties VaR violates due to its quantile nature ignoring loss severity beyond the threshold, as evidenced in events like the 2008 crisis where tail realizations dwarfed VaR predictions.[78] Consequently, regulators and practitioners often supplement VaR with expected shortfall (conditional VaR) to address these gaps, though VaR persists for its simplicity and regulatory entrenchment.[79]
Value-added reseller (VAR)
A value-added reseller (VAR) is a firm that acquires products from original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) or vendors, enhances them by incorporating custom features, integrations, software modifications, or supplementary services such as installation, training, and ongoing support, and then resells the augmented offering as a complete solution to end-user customers.[80][81] This model distinguishes VARs from basic resellers by emphasizing the "value-added" component, which typically generates higher margins through expertise-driven customization rather than mere distribution.[82] VARs operate primarily within technology sectors like information technology (IT) hardware, software, and networking equipment, where off-the-shelf products often require tailoring to specific business needs.[83]
The VAR ecosystem emerged prominently in the 1980s alongside the growth of personal computing and enterprise IT, with early examples including firms like PC Connection, Inc., founded in 1982 to provide customized information technology solutions.[84] By the 1990s, VARs had become integral to OEM sales channels, enabling vendors to extend market reach without direct involvement in complex implementations.[85] In practice, a VAR might purchase servers from a vendor like Dell, integrate proprietary management software, configure security protocols, and bundle professional services, delivering a turnkey system that addresses client-specific requirements such as scalability or compliance.[86] This process often involves partnerships where VARs receive discounted pricing in exchange for handling post-sale responsibilities, reducing vendor overhead.[87]
VARs play a critical role in bridging the gap between product vendors and end-users, particularly in B2B environments where technical complexity demands localized expertise.[88] They facilitate faster deployment by leveraging industry knowledge to preempt integration challenges, often achieving implementation timelines 20-30% shorter than vendor-direct efforts, according to sector analyses.[89] For vendors, VARs expand distribution networks and offload support costs, allowing focus on core innovation; one study estimates that channel partners like VARs account for over 70% of technology sales revenue in mature markets.[90] End-users benefit from holistic solutions that minimize vendor lock-in risks and provide accountable single-point contact, enhancing return on investment through optimized total cost of ownership.[91] However, VAR efficacy depends on their technical proficiency; ineffective customization can lead to compatibility issues or inflated costs, underscoring the need for rigorous vendor qualification.[92]
Prominent examples include CDW Corporation, which reported $21.4 billion in revenue for 2023 primarily from customized IT hardware and services resales, and SHI International, specializing in enterprise software integrations for sectors like government and healthcare.[93][94] AVI-SPL serves as a VAR in audiovisual and unified communications, bundling Cisco hardware with custom installation for Fortune 500 clients.[94] These firms demonstrate VAR scalability, with top performers often achieving multi-billion-dollar annual sales by maintaining certified engineer teams and vendor certifications.[95] In evolving markets, VARs are adapting to cloud and subscription models, shifting from one-time hardware sales to recurring service revenues.[96]
Other Uses
Abbreviations and acronyms