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Xh

Xh is a digraph consisting of the letters "x" and "h" used in the Latin script within specific orthographies to represent distinct phonetic sounds.^[1] In the Albanian alphabet, "xh" denotes the voiced postalveolar affricate /dʒ/, similar to the "j" in the English word "judge," and is one of nine digraphs in the 36-letter Albanian alphabet established in 1908.^[1]^[2] For example, in Albanian, the name "Xhaka" is pronounced approximately as /ˈdʒaka/.^[3] In the orthography of Xhosa, a Bantu language spoken primarily in South Africa and one of the country's eleven official languages, "xh" specifically represents the voiceless aspirated alveolar lateral click, transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet as /kǁʰ/, produced by placing the side of the tongue against the alveolar ridge and releasing it with aspiration.^[4] This click sound is part of Xhosa's inventory of eighteen click consonants, borrowed historically from Khoisan languages through contact in southern Africa.^[5] Examples include words like xhosa itself, where the initial "xh" produces the characteristic lateral click followed by the vowel /o/.^[5] The use of "xh" highlights how digraphs adapt the Latin alphabet to non-European phonologies, enabling precise representation of unique sounds in both Indo-European (Albanian) and Niger-Congo (Xhosa) language families.^[1]^[4] While less common elsewhere, similar conventions appear in related Nguni languages like Zulu, which share the click system but may vary in exact notation.^[4]

Overview

Definition

A digraph is a pair of adjacent letters in a Latin-script orthography that together represent a single phoneme or sound unit, distinct from the sounds of the individual letters.^[6] In the case of "xh," this combination pairs the letter "x," which typically denotes sounds like /ks/ or /ʃ/ in English orthography, with "h," often a marker for aspiration or phonetic modification in various systems, to produce an entirely different phoneme unrelated to those separate values.^[2]^[7] Digraphs such as "xh" commonly arise from historical sound changes in languages, where evolving consonants require new representations beyond single letters, or from the adaptation of borrowed words incorporating foreign phonemes into the Latin alphabet.^[8] This process mirrors the development of other digraphs like "sh" or "ch," which similarly combine letters to capture specific sounds through orthographic evolution.^[2] In typography, the digraph appears in lowercase as "xh" and uppercase as "XH," with the letters rendered separately unless stylized as a ligature in specific fonts. In certain orthographies, digraphs like "xh" may be treated as a single letter for purposes of sorting, collation, and alphabetization, influencing dictionary order and linguistic indexing.^[9]

Etymology and history

The "xh" digraph emerged from adaptations of the Latin script during 19th- and 20th-century standardizations to represent specific sounds in various languages. In European contexts, it developed as part of digraph systems using "h" as a modifier, similar to conventions for Greek loanwords.^[2] This evolution paralleled the use of other digraphs like "th" and "ph" for Greek theta (θ) and phi (Φ) in loanwords, where "h" served to indicate aspiration or friction.^[2] The earliest documented uses of "xh" appeared in the standardization of Albanian orthography at the Congress of Manastir in 1908, where linguists and nationalists adopted a Latin-based alphabet incorporating digraphs such as "xh" to capture native Albanian sounds, replacing prior scripts influenced by Greek, Arabic, and Ottoman conventions.^[10] This reform, involving figures like Luigj Gurakuqi, marked a pivotal shift toward a unified national writing system amid post-Ottoman independence movements.^[10] Concurrently, in African linguistic traditions, "xh" gained prominence in orthographies for Nguni languages during the 19th and early 20th centuries, as European administrators and scholars adapted Latin script to document Bantu-Khoisan contact phenomena.^[4] Missionaries, linguists, and colonial administrators played a central role in devising notations for African click languages from the 1800s onward, motivated by Bible translation and ethnographic documentation efforts.^[11] Pioneers such as Wilhelm Bleek, working in the mid-19th century, collaborated with indigenous speakers to transcribe southern African languages, influencing orthographic choices that integrated clicks into Latin systems.^[4] These efforts, often conducted by British and German missions, aimed to standardize writing for evangelism and administration, resulting in widespread adoption of digraphs like "xh" across Nguni orthographies by the early 1900s.^[11] Spelling conventions for clicks varied in initial proposals, with unused Latin letters such as "c," "q," and "x" repurposed by early 19th-century missionaries to denote different click types— "c" for dental, "q" for uvular, and "x" for lateral—before conventions stabilized.^[12] The addition of "h" specifically indicated aspiration, as seen in "xh" for the aspirated lateral click, a system refined through iterative fieldwork and linguistic publications in the late 1800s and early 1900s.^[4] This approach ensured compatibility with existing Latin keyboards and printing presses while preserving phonetic distinctions in languages like those of the Nguni group.^[12]

Phonetic values

In non-click languages

In non-click languages, the digraph "xh" typically represents fricative or affricate consonants, varying by language and dialect without involving click sounds. In Albanian, "xh" denotes the voiced postalveolar affricate /dʒ/, articulated as a stop-fricative sequence where the tongue tip contacts the alveolar ridge and palate before releasing into frication with vocal cord vibration.^[2] For example, the word xhami is pronounced /ˈd͡ʒami/ and means "mosque."^[13] In Walloon, a Romance language spoken in Belgium, "xh" often represents the voiceless palatal fricative /ç/, produced by directing airflow against the hard palate to create turbulent frication without vocal cord vibration, though realizations vary by dialect to include /h/, /ʃ/, or /x/. An illustrative example is texhe, pronounced /tɛç/ in Common Walloon, meaning "to knit." Among Mayan languages, in Mam spoken in Guatemala, "xh" corresponds to the voiceless postalveolar fricative /ʃ/, articulated with the tongue blade near the palate to produce a hissing fricative similar to English "sh" in "ship."^[14] This sound appears in words like place names such as Xhob'oj /ʃoxˈbox/ or terms like nu'xh /nuʃ/ "baby." In the Na-Dene language Tlingit of Alaska and Canada, "xh" indicates the voiceless uvular fricative /χ/, formed by constricting the airflow at the uvula in the back of the throat for a raspy fricative quality.^[15] A representative example is the personal name element Xhú, pronounced /χuː/.^[16] These non-click realizations of "xh" highlight its phonetic diversity across language families, contrasting with its use for click consonants in certain African languages.

In click languages

In click languages of southern Africa, the digraph "xh" specifically denotes aspirated lateral clicks, a type of ingressive consonant produced via the velaric airstream mechanism. This mechanism involves the tongue forming two closures—one forward with the sides against the upper molars and one rearward at the velum—to create a partial vacuum through suction, followed by the release of the forward closure to produce the click sound, with the "h" indicating breathy aspiration upon efflux.^[17]^[4] These sounds occur in languages such as Xhosa, Zulu, Hadza, and Khoekhoe, where "xh" corresponds to the International Phonetic Alphabet symbol /ǁʰ/ for the aspirated lateral click (sometimes notated as /ᵏǁʰ/ to emphasize the velar closure). In Xhosa and Zulu (Nguni languages), /ǁʰ/ is a voiceless aspirated lateral click, as in the Xhosa self-name xhosa /ǁʰɔ́sà/ "person of the Xhosa nation."^[18]^[4] Similarly, in Hadza (a language isolate with clicks), "xh" represents /ǁʰ/.^[19] In Khoekhoe (a Khoe language), "xh" marks the aspirated lateral click /ǁʰ/, as in personal names and words, reflecting its use in denoting natural features or ethnographic descriptors.^[20]^[21] The articulation of the lateral click requires the tongue sides to seal against the upper molars, with the tongue body lowered to rarefy the air pocket; the release occurs laterally (air escaping one side) accompanied by aspiration, distinguishing it from non-aspirated variants and contributing to phonemic contrasts in these languages.^[4] This breathy release follows the click burst, often with a duration of around 60-80 ms for the aspirated portion, aiding in perceptual clarity amid the complex airstream dynamics.^[4] The orthographic convention of "xh" for aspirated clicks emerged in the 19th century through the work of linguists documenting Khoisan languages, notably Wilhelm Bleek, who pioneered systematic notation for click sounds in his comparative studies of southern African languages during the 1850s-1870s, influencing modern systems in Bantu and Khoe languages.^[22]

Usage in European languages

Albanian

In the Albanian alphabet, the digraph "xh" occupies the position immediately after "x" and before "y", forming the thirty-second of the standard 36 letters, and is regarded as a single indivisible unit for purposes of dictionary ordering and collation.^[1]^[23] This treatment underscores its status as a distinct grapheme dedicated to a unique phoneme in the language's inventory. Orthographically, "xh" invariably denotes the voiced postalveolar affricate /dʒ/, without variation in aspiration or positional splitting, and it occurs in both indigenous vocabulary and borrowings, such as the Turkish loanword Hoxha (a common surname pronounced /ˈhɔdʒa/).^[24] It integrates seamlessly across grammatical categories, appearing in nouns like xhaxha /ˈdʒadʒa/ ('uncle') and verbs such as xhiroj /ˈdʒiroj/ ('to turn' or 'to stroll'), maintaining phonetic consistency regardless of morphological context.^[25]^[26] The standard pronunciation of "xh" as /dʒ/ holds uniformly in the Tosk-based literary Albanian, though some Gheg dialects exhibit a softened palatal stop realization approaching /ɟ/ due to regional phonetic shifts.^[27] This digraph was formally adopted into the unified Latin script at the 1908 Congress of Manastir to capture core Albanian phonemes tracing back to ancient Illyrian linguistic heritage. Like paired digraphs such as "dh" (/ð/) and "zh" (/ʒ/), "xh" exemplifies Albanian's reliance on "h"-marked combinations for precise affricate and fricative representation.^[1]

Walloon

In Walloon, a Romance language spoken primarily in southern Belgium, the digraph "xh" represents sounds such as the voiceless palatal fricative /ç/, the voiceless postalveolar fricative /ʃ/, or the glottal fricative /h/, depending on the dialect; it is a diasystemic grapheme in the standardized Rifondou Walon orthography, developed since the 1990s to unify spellings across dialects while preserving traditional elements.^[28]^[29] This digraph functions as a digraph rather than a standalone letter in the alphabet, sorting alphabetically as "x" followed by "h," and is frequently used in the Liégeois dialect, where it is often realized as /h/. It is distinct from "sh," which represents /ʃ/ more consistently. The digraph appears commonly in verbs and nouns, such as "texhe" [tɛç, tɛʃ, or tɛh] meaning "to weave" or "to knit," and "pexhon" [pɛçɔ̃, pɛʃɔ̃, or pɛhɔ̃] for "fish."^[28]^[30] In the Common Walloon system, "xh" is preferred over the Feller orthography's "hy" for this variable phoneme, allowing for clearer distinction of regional pronunciations without altering the language's phonetic diversity. For instance, words like "distrîxhner" (to clear land) illustrate its use in verbal forms. This convention aids in readability and consistency in modern Walloon literature and education.^[28]^[31] Historically, "xh" emerged during the 19th-century Walloon literary revival as a means to differentiate the variable fricative from French-influenced "sh," drawing on older medieval spellings to revive authentic representations. The Rifondou Walon initiative formalized its use in the late 20th century, reviving graphemes abandoned in earlier systems like Feller's (circa 1900). Dialectal variations affect its realization: stronger and more distinctly palatal /ç/ in eastern Walloon regions near Germany, where influences from German "ch" may enhance the fricative quality, while central dialects like Liégeois exhibit a weaker or more aspirated variant approaching /h/.^[29]^[28]

Usage in African languages

Xhosa

In Xhosa, a Bantu language spoken primarily in South Africa's Eastern Cape province by approximately 8-10 million people as of 2022, the digraph "xh" is part of the standard orthography and represents the aspirated lateral click consonant /ǁʰ/, produced by drawing the sides of the tongue against the upper molars while releasing a burst of air.^[32] This sound is distinct from the tenuis lateral click "x" (/ǁ/), which lacks aspiration, allowing for phonemic contrasts that distinguish meanings in words; for instance, "xoxa" (/ǁòxa/) means 'to discuss,' while adding aspiration as in "xhoxha" (/ǁʰòxʰa/) shifts to 'to mash' or pulverize food. The orthography, based on the 26-letter Latin alphabet with additional symbols for clicks (c, q, x for basic forms and digraphs like ch, qh, xh for aspirated variants), was initially developed by 19th-century missionaries such as John Bennie and William Boyce to facilitate Bible translations and literacy.^[32] It was further refined in the early 20th century through South African government and academic committees, including the 1929 Orthography Committee chaired by linguist Clement M. Doke, which aimed to unify conventions across Bantu languages while preserving click representations.^[33] The /ǁʰ/ sound plays a key phonological role in Xhosa, where aspiration not only adds a voiceless release but also influences vowel tone, often causing a lowering or "depressor" effect on following syllables, which can alter word meaning or grammatical function.^[34] For example, the verb stem "xhala" (/ǁʰàla/) means 'to spread out,' contrasting with non-aspirated forms, and aspiration helps maintain distinctions in ideophones—expressive words mimicking sounds or actions, such as "xhaxha" (/ǁʰàxʰa/) for 'chopping meat vigorously'—as well as in nouns like "uxhaso" (/uǁʰàso/) 'support.'^[35] These contrasts underscore the integration of clicks into core vocabulary, with estimates indicating that clicks appear in 10-15% of Xhosa words, particularly in everyday terms related to actions, animals, and emotions.^[35] The ejective-like quality of tenuis clicks (e.g., "x") further differentiates from aspirated ones, though Xhosa lacks dedicated ejective click orthography like "x'." Culturally, the "xh" sound is vital in Xhosa oral traditions, including praise poetry (izibongo) and storytelling, where aspirated lateral clicks add rhythmic emphasis and emotional depth, preserving Khoisan linguistic influences borrowed centuries ago.^[4] This feature enhances expressiveness in songs and proverbs, making accurate pronunciation essential for cultural identity and communication. Similar click systems, including "xh" for /ǁʰ/, appear in related Nguni languages like Zulu, though Xhosa exhibits slightly stronger aspiration in some dialects.

Zulu

In Zulu orthography, the digraph "xh" represents the voiceless aspirated lateral click, transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet as /ǁʰ/, a sound produced by forming a lateral click at the side of the tongue against the molars while releasing a strong puff of air.^[36] This click is slightly breathier in realization compared to its counterpart in related languages, owing to the integration with Zulu's high-low tonal system, which influences the phonatory quality during articulation.^[34] The orthography follows the standardized system promoted by the Pan South African Language Board, where "xh" is employed consistently for this phoneme, particularly after vowels to ensure clarity in reading and distinguish it from adjacent sounds.^[37] Representative examples include "xhosa," pronounced /ǁʰósa/, referring to the Xhosa ethnic group, and "ukuxhasa," /ùkùǁʰása/, meaning "to support."^[38] The digraph appears frequently in expressive genres such as praise poetry (izibongo), where clicks enhance rhythmic and emotive delivery. Phonemically, "xh" contrasts with the plain lateral click "x" (/ǁ/) and the nasalized lateral click "nx" (/ŋǁ/), distinctions that are crucial in word formation; for instance, these contrasts help differentiate lexical items within Bantu noun class systems, where clicks often appear in stems to denote categories like augmentative or diminutive forms.^[18] Clicks, including those spelled with "xh," occur in approximately 15% of the Zulu lexicon, a relatively high frequency attributed to their role in expressive and borrowed vocabulary, reflecting the language's Nguni heritage with influences from Khoisan substrates shared with Xhosa.^[35] This density underscores the clicks' integration into core grammatical and poetic structures, though they remain secondary to the Bantu phonological base.

Hadza

In Hadza, a language isolate spoken by approximately 1,000 people in northern Tanzania, the digraph "xh" represents the aspirated alveolar lateral click, phonetically transcribed as /ᵏǁʰ/, where the superscript "k" denotes velar co-articulation accompanying the click release.^[19] This sound is produced by forming a lateral closure at the alveolar ridge with the side of the tongue while creating a velar closure at the back, followed by a velaric airstream mechanism for the click and subsequent aspiration through a delayed velar release, resulting in a breathy quality.^[19] The orthography employing "xh" was developed in 2013 by linguist Kirk Miller in collaboration with native speaker Mariamu Anyawire, building on earlier practical alphabets from the 1990s to facilitate literacy and documentation efforts.^[39] This system uses "xh" specifically for the aspirated variant, contrasting with "x" for the plain tenuis lateral click /ǁ/, and it is employed sparingly due to the rarity of the sound within the language's inventory of five click types.^[19] Clicks in Hadza occur in a significant portion of the basic vocabulary, though exact percentages are limited by documentation; estimates suggest comparability to other click languages where they form up to 70% in some cases, but the aspirated lateral click like /ᵏǁʰ/ is less frequent, appearing primarily in onomatopoeic expressions and terms related to hunting and environmental sounds.^[40] For instance, words involving hunting activities often feature lateral clicks, such as the verb for "to hunt" pronounced with a plain lateral click but illustrative of the series, while the aspirated form contributes to imitative sounds evoking rustling or sharp movements.^[41] Hadza's click consonants, including the aspirated lateral type, represent a Khoisan-like phonological feature in this isolate, though with distinct realizations such as more frontal articulation compared to southern African languages. Documentation of Hadza remains limited owing to its primarily oral tradition and the small speaker community, but the introduction of a standardized orthography has supported recent revitalization initiatives, including dictionary compilation and educational materials.^[19]

Khoekhoe

In Khoekhoe, also known as Nama, the digraph "xh" denotes the aspirated lateral click phoneme /ǁʰ/, a voiceless lingual ingressive consonant produced by creating a lateral closure with the side of the tongue against the upper molars while the front contacts the alveolar ridge, followed by a velar release with strong aspiration. This sound is integral to the language's extensive click inventory, which comprises over 20 distinct click consonants across four places of articulation (dental, alveolar, palatal, and lateral), each modified by accompaniments such as aspiration, nasalization, glottalization, or voicing. The lateral series, including /ǁʰ/, contributes significantly to lexical contrast, appearing in approximately 20% of the vocabulary, particularly in nouns denoting animals (e.g., !gâ-xhûb "eland") and kinship terms (e.g., xhôa "father-in-law").^[4] The orthography employing "xh" for /ǁʰ/ contrasts with "x" for the unaspirated lateral click /ǁ/ and "x'" for the glottalized variant /ǁʼ/, a system rooted in early 20th-century phonetic descriptions and refined in modern standardization efforts during the 2000s for Namibian Khoekhoe.^[42]^[43] This convention, initially detailed in phonetic analyses of the language, facilitates representation in written texts and educational materials across Namibia and South Africa. An illustrative example is the personal name "Xhoxho" /ǁʰoǁho/, which features the sound in initial and medial positions, highlighting its role in proper nouns derived from ancestral naming practices.^[42]^[43] Within Khoekhoe phonology, clicks like /ǁʰ/ function prominently in verbal inflection, where they serve as stem-initial consonants that combine with tonal melodies and suffixes to mark tense, aspect, and mood; for instance, aspirated clicks often correlate with breathy voice quality in adjacent vowels, enhancing prosodic distinctions in verb paradigms. Historically, representations of such clicks trace back to 17th-century Dutch colonial records from the Cape, where early ethnographers and missionaries approximated them using ad hoc notations in vocabularies and phrasebooks, though without consistent symbols due to the unfamiliar airstream mechanism. These early efforts were later systematized by 20th-century linguists, including through detailed phonetic studies that informed contemporary orthographic reforms in Namibia and South Africa. Khoekhoe clicks, including the lateral aspirated series, have influenced neighboring Bantu languages like Xhosa via historical contact and borrowing.^[44]^[43]

Usage in indigenous American languages

Mam

In the Mam language, a Mayan language spoken primarily in western Guatemala, the digraph "xh" represents the voiceless postalveolar fricative sound /ʃ/. This phoneme, borrowed into the orthographic system through Spanish linguistic influence, is distinct from the alveolar sibilant /s/ and the retroflex fricative /ʂ/.^[45] The practical orthography for Mam, developed by linguist Terrence Kaufman in the mid-1970s and widely adopted by the 1980s through the efforts of the Proyecto Lingüístico Francisco Marroquín (PLFM), employs "xh" to clearly denote /ʃ/ while reserving "x" for /ʂ/. This orthographic choice facilitates differentiation within Mam's rich consonant inventory, which includes ejective consonants such as /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ʃʼ/, and /ʈ͡ʂʼ/, alongside plain fricatives like /s/, /ʃ/, /ʂ/, and /χ/. The /ʃ/ sound occurs infrequently in native Mam vocabulary, primarily appearing in loanwords from Spanish and occasionally in indigenous terms, reflecting the language's historical contact with colonial influences.^[46] For instance, the word nu'xh (meaning 'baby') illustrates /ʃ/ in a core lexical item. Another example is xhlaaqʼ ('child'), where "xh" marks the fricative in a familial term. These usages align functionally with the English "sh" in words like "shell."^[14] The standardization of "xh" forms part of broader Mayan language revitalization initiatives in Guatemala, which emphasize indigenous orthographic conventions to preserve linguistic distinctiveness and resist Spanish colonial impositions, such as using "j" for the velar fricative /x/ or /χ/ in Spanish-influenced spellings.^[47] By the 1980s, this system supported educational materials and literacy programs, enabling Mam speakers to document and transmit their language without conflating it with Spanish phonology.

Tlingit

In the Tlingit language, spoken by Indigenous communities in Southeast Alaska and adjacent parts of Canada, the digraph "xh" denotes the voiceless uvular fricative /χ/ in the standardized practical orthography developed in the 1970s by linguists including Jeff Leer and Nora Marks Dauenhauer.^[48] This revision aimed to create an accessible writing system for educational and preservation purposes, distinguishing "xh" (/χ/) from "x" (/x/, a voiceless velar fricative) to reflect the language's posterior articulations accurately.^[16] Phonologically, /χ/ belongs to Tlingit's extensive series of fricatives, which encompass plain, labialized, and glottalized forms, including the ejective counterpart /χʼ/ spelled "xh'". The "h" component signals uvular backing rather than aspiration, a distinction secondary to the language's primary contrasts in glottalization and ejection. For instance, the noun xh'e /χʔe/ translates to "mouth" and frequently appears in verbal derivations and compounds, such as yoo xh'e du tuwáa sigóo ("to speak from one's mouth," meaning "to converse"). This sound is prevalent in place names and verbs describing actions involving breath or posterior articulation.^[49]^[50] The precise rendering of /χ/ via "xh" is vital for documenting Tlingit oral histories, clan narratives, and songs, which rely on exact phonetic fidelity to convey cultural knowledge and identity. This orthography has bolstered language revitalization initiatives, including curricula and digital archives, helping sustain Tlingit as of 2024 amid fewer than 100 fluent speakers.^[51] Such uvular fricatives represent a shared phonological trait with Athabaskan languages within the Na-Dene family, underscoring Tlingit's deeper linguistic connections.^[16]

References

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abertekes-Engl
Description of “Rifondou Walon ; diasystem. Liège. Namur ; xh (pexhon = fish). pèhon. pèchon ; ea (tchestea = castle). tchèstê. tchèstia ; å (åbe = tree). åbe, âbe, ...Missing: sound | Show results with:sound
[32]
Indecse del waibe do rfondou walon
### Summary of "xh" in Rifondou Walon
[33]
[PDF] Speech synthesis for Walloon, an under-resourced minority language
... <xh>. The TTS system we designed, the first one for the. Walloon language to our knowledge, is available online1. The main corpus, along with additional test ...
[34]
Xhosa Language - Dialects & Structure - MustGo.com
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, clicks are represented by placing the assigned symbol for the place of click articulation to the left of a symbol ...
[35]
Black Writers, White Publishers: A case study of the Bantu Treasury...
Dec 15, 2013 · In 1929, a South African Orthography Committee was set up with Doke as Chairman. Peires assesses the impact of the guidelines produced by this ...
[36]
Voice quality differences associated with stops and clicks in Xhosa
Voiced stops/clicks in Xhosa cause f0 depression in the following vowel. Some authors also claim that these sounds are followed by breathy phonation.
[37]
[PDF] THE ACQUISITION OF CLICKS BY XHOSA-SPEAKING CHILDREN
Aspirated ch xh qh. Voiced gc gx gq. Pre-nasalized Voiceless nc/nkc nx/nkx nq/nkq. Voiced ngc ngx ngq. Table 1: Xhosa clicks (Downing 2001). Page 3. S Gxilishe.
[38]
[PDF] Issues in Zulu Verbal Morphosyntax - UCLA Linguistics
unaspirated clicks of Zulu are written as c (dental), q (retroflex), and x (lateral). Each of these clicks can occur as aspirated (ch, qh, xh), prenasalized ...
[39]
A practical approach to the standardisation and elaboration of Zulu ...
... Pan South African Language Board - established in 1995 PLC(s) Provincial ... 3.3.1 Old versus new Zulu orthography Old orthography used in earlier Zulu ...
[40]
[PDF] Language Specific Peculiarities Document for Zulu as Spoken in ...
o ɔ. O ogogo a a a. -dida. CLICKS c. ǀ. |\ icici q. ǃ !\ iqaqa x. ǁ. |\|\ ixoxo ch. ǀʰ. |\_h ukuchaza qh. ǃʰ !\_h iqhude xh. ǁʰ. |\|\_h ukuxhasa gc. ᶢ|ɦ g_|\_t.<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
Hadza language and alphabet - Omniglot
Jul 25, 2022 · Hadza can be written with the Latin alphabet using an orthography devised in 2013 by Kirk Miller and Mariamu Anyawire. However, few Hadza ...
[42]
(PDF) Clicks in East African languages - ResearchGate
May 9, 2023 · 3.2 Hadza click accompaniments. In Hadza, each ... The speaker exhales partly thro ...
[43]
Word List for Hadza - UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive
(Pop-ups must be enabled.) Enter a standard character and Right-Click (Macintosh Ctrl + Click) for similar IPA characters. Double-click for an interactive IPA ...
[44]
[PDF] Language Documentation and Description
Standardised Namibian Khoekhoe click orthography. The SNK phonemic inventory ... consonants using the orthography xh, without discussing the motivation for.
[45]
[PDF] SourCeS of the Cape KhoeKhoe and Kora reCordS vocabularies ...
This chapter outlines the early and later sources of vocabularies, language data, and texts for the Cape Khoekhoe and Kora dialects, with particular ...
[46]
[PDF] segments, tones and distribution in khoekhoe prosody
norm in Bantu orthographies. Contrasts in phonation and nasality are typically represented with digraphs (e.g., Xhosa gc for [ɡǀ] and ch for [ǀʰ]). Roman ...
[47]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227642084_Mayan_Language_Revitalization_and_Revitalization_Politics_Linguists_and_Linguistic_Ideologies
[48]
Terrence Kaufman - Wikipedia
This Proposal for alphabets and orthographies for writing the Mayan languages was published in Spanish in January 1976 under Kaufman's name by the Guatemalan ...Missing: Mam | Show results with:Mam
[49]
[PDF] A Tale of Two Mam Children: Contact- Induced Language Change ...
/ʂ/, <xh> = /ʃ/, <j> = /χ/, <ky> = /c/ . Repeated vowels (e .g ., <aa> ... For example, the word wakxh (< Sp . vaca 'cow'). This content downloaded from ...
[50]
Mayan Language Revival and Revitalization Politics: Linguists and ...
Aug 6, 2025 · This article shows the extent of the contribution of linguistics to Mayan language vitality through an analysis of language ideologies and how they have been ...Missing: avoiding | Show results with:avoiding
[51]
[PDF] 575 Tlingit Verbs
Dauenhauer, and Jeff Leer collaborated on a revision of the orthography in which an ... instead of kh, gh, xh), and the letters representing vowels were ...
[52]
[PDF] Tlingit Grammar Handbook
This handbook is a summary of various aspects of Tlingit grammar and grammatical analysis in tabular form. It is abstracted from work by Naish and Story ( ,.
[53]
[PDF] Tlingit Dictionary
This is a living dictionary project that is the result of generations of collabo- ration between speakers, teachers, researchers, and students.
[54]
[PDF] Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ʼatángi - The Tlingit Language
... Jeff Leer, X̱ʼaagi Sháawu. Keri Eggleston, Dzéiwsh James Crippen, and L ... xh xhʼ g̱ ḵ ḵʼ x̱ x̱ʼ. Tlingit Oral Literature Collection. Every student of ...