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Zettascale computing

Zettascale computing refers to high-performance computing systems capable of executing at least 10^{21} double-precision 64-bit floating-point operations per second (FLOPS), representing a thousandfold increase in computational power over exascale systems that achieve 10^{18} FLOPS.^[1] This scale enables unprecedented simulations in fields such as climate modeling, drug discovery, materials science, and artificial intelligence, where massive datasets and complex algorithms demand extreme parallelism and efficiency.^[2] Achieving zettascale performance faces significant challenges, including power consumption projected to reach up to 500 megawatts for a single system—equivalent to the output of several nuclear reactors—necessitating breakthroughs in energy-efficient architectures and cooling technologies.^[3] Interconnects must evolve to optical networks for low-latency data transfer across millions of processing elements, while storage systems require petabyte-scale capacities with sub-millisecond access times to handle the data deluge.^[2] Software paradigms, including new programming models for heterogeneous hardware combining CPUs, GPUs, and specialized accelerators, are essential to exploit this scale without bottlenecks from Amdahl's Law or synchronization overheads.^[2] Reliability at this level demands fault-tolerant designs to mitigate failures in vast node counts, potentially exceeding one million.^[1] Global efforts are accelerating toward zettascale milestones, with Japan's RIKEN launching the FugakuNEXT project in 2025 in partnership with Fujitsu and NVIDIA, targeting over 600 exaFLOPS in FP8 precision (approaching 0.6 zettaFLOPS) for hybrid AI-HPC workloads by around 2030.^[4] Oracle's OCI Zettascale10 cluster, unveiled in October 2025, delivers up to 16 zettaFLOPS peak performance for AI training using up to 800,000 NVIDIA GPUs interconnected via a three-tier RoCE network, marking a commercial cloud-based approach available in the second half of 2025.^[5] In a 2018 study, researchers from China's National University of Defense Technology proposed a full zettascale supercomputer by 2035 under the National Key Technology R&D Program, emphasizing heterogeneous architectures and advanced memory stacking.^[1] AMD anticipates that such systems will require approximately 500 megawatts, underscoring the need for 2140 gigaFLOPS per watt efficiency to make deployment feasible.^[6] These initiatives highlight zettascale's role in addressing grand challenges like sustainable energy and personalized medicine, though distinctions between double-precision HPC and lower-precision AI metrics remain critical for performance claims.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition

Zettascale computing refers to high-performance computing systems capable of achieving at least 10^{21} floating-point operations per second (zettaFLOPS), specifically using IEEE 754 double-precision (64-bit) arithmetic for general-purpose scientific simulations and computations.^[1] This metric emphasizes the system's ability to perform a vast number of precise numerical calculations, enabling breakthroughs in fields like climate modeling, drug discovery, and astrophysics that require high-fidelity data processing. Unlike related terms in modern AI and machine learning hardware, where "zettaFLOPS" often describes peak performance in lower-precision formats such as FP8 or FP16 tensor operations optimized for training large neural networks, zettascale computing in the traditional high-performance computing (HPC) context denotes sustained performance at the double-precision level.^[7] This distinction ensures compatibility with legacy scientific codes that rely on 64-bit accuracy, avoiding the trade-offs in precision that lower-bit formats introduce for specialized workloads.^[8] The term "zetta" derives from the International System of Units (SI) prefix for 10^{21}, formally adopted in 1991 as part of the extension to include prefixes up to yotta (10^{24}).^[9] In computing, this prefix was incorporated to describe performance milestones following peta- (10^{15} FLOPS) and exa- (10^{18} FLOPS) scales, with exascale serving as the immediate precursor achieved in systems like the U.S. Department of Energy's Frontier supercomputer.^[10]

Performance Scales

The hierarchy of supercomputing performance scales follows the International System of Units (SI) prefixes, denoting orders of magnitude in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS). Terascale computing operates at 10^{12} FLOPS, petascale at 10^{15} FLOPS, exascale at 10^{18} FLOPS, zettascale at 10^{21} FLOPS, and yottascale at 10^{24} FLOPS. These scales represent exponential leaps, each multiplying the previous by a factor of 1,000, and serve as benchmarks for advancing computational capability in high-performance computing (HPC).^[11] Milestones in achieving these scales highlight the progression of HPC hardware. The terascale threshold was crossed in the 1990s, with Intel's ASCI Red supercomputer becoming the first to sustain 1 teraFLOPS in December 1996. Petascale performance was realized in 2008 by IBM's Roadrunner system, which achieved 1.026 petaFLOPS on the LINPACK benchmark. Exascale computing emerged in 2022, when Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Frontier supercomputer delivered 1.102 exaFLOPS, marking the first system to surpass this level on the TOP500 list.^[12]^[13]^[14] These scale jumps, each representing a 1,000-fold increase in computational power, demand fundamental paradigm shifts in architecture and efficiency to overcome escalating challenges in power, concurrency, and reliability. For instance, the transition from terascale to petascale involved widespread adoption of multi-core processors and cluster-based designs to handle growing parallelism, while the move to exascale required hybrid CPU-GPU architectures, enhanced interconnects, and a data-locality-centric approach to minimize energy costs and data movement—shifting from computation-focused paradigms to resilient, power-aware systems. Such innovations ensure that performance gains do not outpace practical constraints like energy budgets, which could otherwise balloon to unsustainable levels.^[15]^[16] Zettascale computing, as a 1,000-fold extension beyond exascale, positions itself within this progression to unlock simulations of scales previously unattainable.^[17]

Historical Development

Origins and Early Concepts

The concept of zettascale computing, defined as systems capable of performing 10^21 floating-point operations per second, emerged in the mid-2000s amid discussions on the limitations of then-current petascale supercomputers and the need for vastly greater computational power to address grand scientific challenges. A pivotal early forum was the Frontiers of Extreme Computing 2007 Zettaflops Workshop, held October 21-25, 2007, in Santa Cruz, California, which built on the 1994 Petaflops Workshop and explored pathways to zettaflop-scale performance. Sponsored by organizations including DARPA, the workshop convened experts in computer architecture, algorithms, and applications to assess the feasibility of such systems, emphasizing that traditional CMOS scaling under Moore's Law would likely provide only a factor of 100 improvement in efficiency, necessitating breakthroughs in parallelism, interconnects, and beyond-CMOS technologies like reversible logic.^[18] Key conceptual drivers identified at the workshop centered on the inability of exascale (10^18 FLOPS) systems to fully model complex phenomena in fields such as climate dynamics and genomics. For instance, climate modelers argued that 1 zettaflop would be essential for high-fidelity simulations of global warming scenarios, enabling resolutions that capture regional impacts and long-term feedbacks beyond the scope of petascale machines. Similarly, in personalized medicine—a proxy for genomics—computational demands for simulating individual genomes and drug interactions were projected to require zettaflop-scale resources to achieve practical timelines for tailored treatments. These discussions highlighted zettascale as a theoretical necessity for integrating massive datasets and multi-scale simulations, though participants noted that realizing such systems could be "many decades in the future" without architectural innovations.^[18]^[19] In the 2010s, international forecasts began projecting timelines for zettascale deployment, driven by national strategic priorities in high-performance computing. A 2018 analysis by researchers at the National University of Defense Technology, published in a special issue on high-performance computing, envisioned the feasibility of building a zettascale machine by 2035, outlining hardware and software challenges including processor architectures, memory hierarchies, and fault-tolerant programming models.^[1] This prediction aligned with broader U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) visions articulated in 2014 reports on post-exascale computing, which emphasized sustained investments in co-design to extend beyond 10^18 FLOPS for mission-critical simulations in energy and environmental sciences, implicitly targeting zettascale horizons to overcome exascale limitations in data-intensive workflows. The slowing pace of Moore's Law further motivated these early concepts, as transistor scaling alone could no longer deliver the exponential gains needed for zettascale ambitions.^[1]^[20]

Recent Milestones

In 2022, the United States achieved a major milestone in high-performance computing with the deployment of the Frontier supercomputer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, which reached a peak performance of 1.1 exaFLOPS, marking the world's first exascale system and laying the groundwork for subsequent pursuits toward zettascale capabilities. Building on this foundation, 2024 saw significant announcements advancing zettascale ambitions. In September, Oracle revealed plans for the world's first zettascale cloud computing cluster, featuring up to 131,072 NVIDIA Blackwell GPUs and targeted for launch in the first half of 2025 to support large-scale AI workloads.^[21] In August, Japan announced the initiation of development for its zeta-class supercomputer, a successor to the Fugaku system, designed to achieve 1 zettaFLOPS—1,000 times the performance of current top machines—with construction planned to start in 2025 and backed by over $761 million in government funding.^[22] By 2025, these efforts progressed further. In August, RIKEN launched the FugakuNEXT project in partnership with Fujitsu and NVIDIA, targeting over 600 exaFLOPS in FP8 precision (approaching 0.6 zettaFLOPS) for hybrid AI-HPC workloads by around 2030.^[4] In October, Oracle unveiled the OCI Zettascale10 cluster, an expansion of its initial zettascale system, delivering a peak performance of 16 zettaFLOPS powered by up to 800,000 NVIDIA GPUs and optimized for massive AI training and inference tasks.^[5] Japan continued development of its zeta-class supercomputer, focusing on AI applications with a targeted peak of 1 zettaFLOPS to enhance national research in climate modeling and drug discovery, with construction set to begin in 2025.^[22] In Europe, the Barcelona Zettascale Lab achieved a key hardware milestone in July with the receipt of physical prototypes for its CincoRanch TC1 RISC-V chip, advancing indigenous processor development for future zettascale systems and promoting strategic autonomy in HPC.^[23]

Enabling Technologies

Hardware Innovations

Advancements in processor architectures are pivotal for achieving zettascale performance, pushing beyond traditional silicon limits through aggressive scaling to 2nm and 1nm process nodes. TSMC's 2nm node, entering mass production in the second half of 2025, offers improved transistor density and energy efficiency over prior nodes, with projections of 10-15% performance gains and 25-30% power reduction compared to its 3nm process, contributing to cumulative advancements from 7nm baselines.^[24] Intel's roadmap targets 1nm silicon by 2027 via its 10A process, incorporating gate-all-around transistors to sustain scaling amid diminishing returns from planar designs.^[25] These sub-2nm nodes address Moore's Law constraints by enhancing computational density, though further progress relies on beyond-silicon materials like two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), projected for integration in post-2028 integrated circuits to enable atomic-scale transistors.^[26] Memory technologies are also advancing to support the data demands of zettascale systems. High Bandwidth Memory 4 (HBM4), entering production in 2026, provides up to 2x the bandwidth of HBM3E (over 2 TB/s per stack) with improved capacity, integrated via standards like Compute Express Link (CXL) for coherent data sharing across heterogeneous nodes.^[27] Photonic integration emerges as a transformative innovation, merging optical and electronic components to overcome electronic interconnect bottlenecks in HPC systems. Photonic-electronic integrated circuits (PICs) provide ultrahigh bandwidth and low-latency data transfer, essential for zettascale architectures where electronic signaling alone cannot scale efficiently.^[28] For instance, silicon photonic accelerators achieve latencies as low as 5 ns—two orders of magnitude better than GPU counterparts like NVIDIA's A10—while delivering 8.19 TOPS throughput and up to 4.21 TOPS/W energy efficiency, excluding lasers.^[29] Cryogenic cooling further supports hybrid quantum-classical systems by maintaining superconducting qubits at near-absolute zero temperatures, enabling seamless integration with classical processors in future zettascale setups through optimized thermal management that minimizes heat from co-located components.^[30] Networking fabrics have evolved to support massive parallelism, with ultra-low-latency protocols like RoCEv2 enabling high-bandwidth interconnects in distributed systems. Oracle's Acceleron platform leverages RoCEv2 for RDMA over Converged Ethernet, achieving latencies of 2.5 to 9.1 microseconds and up to 3.2 Tb/s aggregate bandwidth per node, facilitating efficient GPU-to-GPU communication in AI-driven HPC.^[31] This supports scale-out architectures, such as Oracle's OCI Zettascale10 clusters deploying up to 800,000 NVIDIA B200 GPUs across multiple data centers for 16 zettaFLOPS peak performance, demonstrating viable paths to million-node configurations via cloud federation.^[5] Efficiency targets for zettascale systems emphasize 10 teraFLOPS per watt within modular designs accommodating 100 MW+ power envelopes, balancing performance gains with sustainable scaling. These metrics, derived from HPC roadmaps, project per-node peaks of 10 petaFLOPS and 1.6 Tb/s inter-node bandwidth to realize 10^21 FLOPS without prohibitive energy demands.^[32] Modular architectures, such as those in projected 2035 systems, incorporate disaggregated components for incremental upgrades, though AMD forecasts 500 MW total draw at 2140 GFLOPS/W efficiency under aggressive AI accelerator trends.^[6]

Software and Programming

Zettascale computing demands advanced software ecosystems capable of harnessing unprecedented parallelism across heterogeneous architectures, where systems may comprise billions of cores and face frequent hardware failures. Traditional programming models, such as the Message Passing Interface (MPI), which rely on bulk synchronous communication, struggle with the communication overhead and latency issues at this scale.^[33] Instead, emerging paradigms emphasize asynchronous execution and data-centric approaches to improve resilience and efficiency. For instance, task-based models like those in OpenMP extensions allow for dynamic scheduling of independent tasks, reducing synchronization barriers and enabling better overlap of computation and communication in distributed environments.^[33] A key paradigm shift involves transitioning from MPI-dominated synchronous models to asynchronous, data-centric programming frameworks that prioritize data locality and dependency management over explicit message passing. Data-centric models, such as the Legion programming system, enable developers to express high-level data relationships and privileges, allowing the runtime to automatically manage distribution, partitioning, and coherence across heterogeneous nodes without manual intervention.^[34] This approach is particularly suited for zettascale applications, where data movement costs can dominate performance, as demonstrated in exascale prototypes that achieve scalable execution for irregular workloads like graph analytics.^[35] Complementing these shifts are fault-tolerant algorithms designed to handle node failures at rates approaching one every few minutes in million-node systems. Techniques like algorithm-based fault tolerance (ABFT) embed redundancy—such as checksums in matrix operations—to detect and correct errors without full restarts, incurring minimal overhead (e.g., 2-3% in large-scale linear algebra solvers).^[36] Hierarchical checkpointing further mitigates rollback costs by coordinating checkpoints in processor groups, optimizing recovery time for systems with mean time between failures (MTBF) dropping to seconds per node.^[36] Optimizing legacy scientific codes for zettascale requires substantial refactoring to exploit heterogeneous architectures, often involving the acceleration of compute-intensive kernels on GPUs while preserving CPU compatibility. Millions of lines in established simulations, such as those for fluid dynamics or climate modeling, must be ported using directives-based approaches like OpenACC, which enable incremental GPU offloading with minimal code changes—achieving up to 10x speedups in magnetohydrodynamics codes without full rewrites.^[37] Performance-portable libraries like Kokkos facilitate this by abstracting hardware specifics through policies for execution spaces (e.g., CUDA for NVIDIA GPUs), allowing a single codebase to target diverse accelerators while delivering near-peak bandwidth (e.g., 692 GB/s on V100 GPUs for multi-dimensional kernels).^[38] These optimizations address the need to retrofit decades-old Fortran or C++ applications, ensuring they scale efficiently on zettascale clusters dominated by GPU nodes. Specialized frameworks extend accelerator APIs for zettascale deployment, bridging vendor-specific tools like CUDA and ROCm. For example, HIPFort automates the conversion of CUDA Fortran code to HIP (Heterogeneous-compute Interface for Portability), enabling legacy simulations to run on AMD GPUs with performance comparable to native implementations, as seen in compressible CFD codes achieving multi-petaflop throughput.^[39] In AI-native environments, tools like TensorFlow scale to exascale via distributed strategies such as Horovod for multi-GPU synchronization and NCCL for collective operations, attaining over 40 teraflops per GPU in mixed-precision training on systems like Summit—paving the way for zettascale AI workloads through optimized data pipelines and large-batch convergence algorithms.^[40] Load balancing in zettascale systems focuses on decentralized mechanisms to equitably distribute tasks across volatile, heterogeneous components, preventing bottlenecks in irregular applications. Dynamic algorithms, such as those using reinforcement learning for event-driven workloads, adaptively migrate tasks based on real-time node utilization, reducing imbalance by up to 50% in distributed exascale prototypes without central coordination.^[41] Fully distributed strategies, like diffusive load balancing, further enhance scalability by locally adjusting workloads via neighbor exchanges, proving effective for time-varying computations in large-scale simulations where global synchronization is infeasible.^[42] These techniques ensure sustained performance amid decentralized failures and varying hardware capabilities.

Key Challenges

Energy and Power Constraints

Zettascale computing systems, aiming for performance levels of 10^21 floating-point operations per second, face immense power demands that far exceed those of current exascale machines. While exascale supercomputers like Frontier consume approximately 20-30 megawatts—equivalent to the output of a small power plant—zettascale architectures could require up to 500 megawatts or more, potentially rivaling the energy needs of multiple nuclear facilities.^[43]^[3]^[44] For context, a hypothetical zettascale system built with today's technology might demand the equivalent of 21 nuclear power plants to operate continuously, highlighting the physical limits imposed by heat dissipation and electrical infrastructure.^[44] To mitigate these challenges, researchers are pursuing efficiency breakthroughs in cooling and interconnect technologies. Liquid immersion cooling, where servers are submerged in non-conductive dielectric fluids, enables direct heat extraction from components, reducing energy overhead by up to 40% compared to traditional air cooling in high-density setups.^[45]^[46] Photonics-based interconnects further alleviate power constraints by replacing electrical signaling with optical links, which consume significantly less energy for data transfer at zettascale scales—potentially cutting interconnect power by orders of magnitude while minimizing thermal loads.^[47]^[48] Additionally, integrating renewable energy sources, such as on-site solar or wind arrays, into HPC facilities helps offset grid dependency, with studies showing that hybrid power systems can help reduce operational energy costs in large-scale deployments.^[49]^[50] The environmental ramifications of these power scales are profound, with zettascale systems contributing to the IT sector's carbon footprint alongside broader data center growth, where data centers are projected to account for 3-7% of global electricity by 2030 if unchecked.^[51] Innovations like Oracle's 2025 Zettascale10 cloud cluster exemplify progress, leveraging power-efficient optics and liquid-cooled NVIDIA GB200 instances to deliver up to 16 zettaFLOPS while prioritizing lower power per performance unit, thereby curbing emissions growth.^[5]^[52] Such advancements aim to keep carbon emissions manageable, though full zettascale realization could still equate to millions of tons of CO2 annually without sustained efficiency gains.^[53] Policy frameworks in the U.S. and EU are increasingly supporting these efforts through green HPC incentives. The U.S. Inflation Reduction Act allocates billions for clean energy technologies, including subsidies for renewable-integrated data centers that host advanced computing.^[54] In the EU, the Net-Zero Industry Act and Green Deal Industrial Plan provide streamlined permitting and funding for low-carbon manufacturing of HPC components, fostering collaboration on sustainable supercomputing infrastructures.^[55]^[56] These measures not only incentivize efficiency but also align zettascale development with broader climate goals.

Scalability and Data Management

Zettascale computing systems are projected to encompass millions of compute nodes, necessitating robust node coordination mechanisms to maintain operational integrity amid frequent component failures. In such large-scale clusters, hardware faults, including processor errors and interconnect disruptions, occur with increasing frequency as system size grows, demanding redundancy models like coordinated checkpointing and coordinated message logging to ensure continuity without full system restarts. These techniques involve periodically saving application states to stable storage and logging inter-node communications, allowing recovery from partial failures while minimizing downtime in environments with up to a million nodes.^[57]^[58] Data management in zettascale environments presents formidable challenges due to the enormous volumes and velocities of information processed, with input/output (I/O) requirements scaling to 10-100 petabytes per second to support sustained computation at 10^21 floating-point operations per second. Storage capacities must reach up to 1 zettabyte to accommodate intermediate results and datasets, far exceeding current exascale limits of hundreds of petabytes. Inter-node bandwidth constraints, projected at around 10 petabits per second for aggregate communication, further exacerbate these issues by creating bottlenecks in data transfer across the distributed architecture, requiring optimized data placement strategies such as hierarchical caching and in-situ processing to reduce latency.^[59]^[58] Reliability becomes critically precarious at zettascale, where the mean time between failures (MTBF) for the entire system could diminish to mere seconds, extrapolated from exascale projections of 30 minutes MTBF in million-node clusters assuming constant component reliability. This rapid failure cadence, driven by the Poisson-like distribution of independent hardware events, necessitates adaptive algorithms that dynamically adjust computation granularity, such as task migration and selective replication, to tolerate errors without compromising overall progress. Software tools for fault tolerance, including multilevel checkpointing frameworks, provide essential support by enabling localized recovery and reducing global synchronization overhead.^[57]^[58] To mitigate centralization risks and enhance scalability, decentralized approaches such as edge-cloud hybrids are emerging as viable strategies for zettascale systems, distributing computational loads across geographically dispersed nodes while leveraging cloud resources for orchestration. These models employ protocols for dynamic workload partitioning and peer-to-peer data sharing, reducing dependency on single points of failure and improving resilience in heterogeneous environments. By integrating edge processing for low-latency tasks with cloud-scale aggregation, such architectures address coordination bottlenecks inherent in fully centralized million-node setups.^[58]

Future Prospects

Timelines and Projections

In the short term, Oracle Cloud Infrastructure (OCI) anticipates the availability of its Zettascale10 cluster in the second half of 2026, marking a significant step toward zettascale deployment in cloud environments with up to 16 zettaFLOPS of peak performance.^[5] Japan's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) plans to begin construction of the nation's first zeta-class supercomputer in 2025, with operations expected by 2030 to achieve zettascale performance for advanced scientific simulations.^[22]^[60] Medium-term projections indicate widespread zettascale adoption between 2030 and 2035, as forecasted by industry leaders and international roadmaps. AMD's CEO has projected zettascale supercomputers achievable in this timeframe, contingent on advancements in energy efficiency reaching 2140 GFLOPS per watt.^[61] Chinese research outlines the feasibility of zettascale systems by 2035, addressing hardware and software challenges to support national computing goals.^[1] Intel originally targeted zettascale computing by 2027 as part of a phased roadmap building on exascale systems like Aurora, though no recent updates confirm this timeline.^[62] These timelines depend on sustained progress from current exascale deployments. Long-term visions position zettascale as an interim milestone before transitioning to yottascale computing around 2040, enabling even greater scales for global challenges in simulation and data analysis. Global approaches to zettascale vary, with the United States emphasizing cloud-based deployments for AI and commercial applications, as seen in Oracle's OCI initiatives, while Japan prioritizes scientific and research-focused systems through collaborations like RIKEN's FugakuNEXT project with NVIDIA and Fujitsu.^[5]^[4]

System Configurations

Prototypical designs for zettascale computing systems emphasize high-performance nodes, massive interconnectivity, and vast storage capacities to achieve unprecedented computational scales. A notable proposal from the National University of Defense Technology (NUDT) in China outlines a zettascale architecture with 10 petaFLOPS of peak performance per node, enabling efficient scaling across millions of such units to reach overall zettascale throughput.^[63] This design incorporates inter-node communication bandwidth of 1.6 terabits per second to minimize latency in data transfers, alongside a total storage capacity of 1 zettabyte for handling exascale datasets in scientific simulations.^[63] The system is projected to occupy a footprint of approximately 1000 square meters, balancing density with cooling and power distribution needs.^[63] In the commercial sector, Oracle's OCI Zettascale10 represents a cloud-based zettascale configuration tailored for AI workloads, delivering up to 16 zettaFLOPS of peak performance through the integration of 800,000 NVIDIA GPUs distributed across multiple data centers.^[5] This setup leverages RoCE (RDMA over Converged Ethernet) networking to ensure low-latency communication between GPUs, supporting multi-gigawatt clusters for large-scale model training.^[64] The modular nature of the Zettascale10 allows for incremental expansion, with initial deployments focusing on high-bandwidth GPU-to-GPU interconnects to optimize AI inference and training efficiency.^[5] Japan's planned zeta-class supercomputer, led by RIKEN and Fujitsu in partnership with NVIDIA, targets more than 600 exaFLOPS in FP8 precision for AI-specific performance within a broader zettascale framework, utilizing a hybrid architecture that combines CPUs, GPUs, and specialized accelerators for versatile scientific computing.^[4] This configuration prioritizes AI-driven discovery, with development starting in 2025 and aiming for operational status by 2030, emphasizing energy-efficient components to sustain peak zettascale operations within approximately 40 MW power limits.^[4] Across these proposals, general trends in zettascale system configurations highlight modular, data-centric architectures comprising over 10^6 components, where compute resources dynamically adapt to data locality for reduced movement overhead.^[17] Such designs reference efficiency targets around 2 teraFLOPS per watt to manage power demands at scale, as projected in recent industry analyses.^[61]

Applications

Scientific Simulations

Zettascale computing is expected to dramatically accelerate simulations in physics, climate science, and biology by providing the computational power to model complex phenomena at finer resolutions and longer timescales than currently possible with exascale systems. This capability stems from the 1,000-fold increase in performance over exascale, enabling simulations that capture intricate multi-physics interactions and large-scale data processing. High-precision floating-point operations remain essential for maintaining accuracy in these models.^[65] In climate modeling, zettascale systems could enable higher-resolution global forecasts and simulations of atmospheric dynamics with greater detail, improving predictions of extreme events like hurricanes or heatwaves. Current exascale efforts, such as those using the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM), achieve kilometer-scale resolutions for climate simulations. For astrophysics, zettascale computing would significantly reduce the time required for simulations of core-collapse supernovae and other complex phenomena, facilitating more detailed studies of dynamics, neutrino transport, and element formation. Exascale simulations capture multi-physics processes such as hydrodynamics and nuclear reactions in 3D supernova explosions. In biological modeling, zettascale capabilities would support atomic-level protein folding simulations or whole-genome dynamics in near real-time, bridging the gap between current microsecond-scale molecular dynamics and physiological timescales of seconds to days. Molecular simulations of biological systems, which are more compute-intensive than those in astrophysics due to long-range electrostatics and large conformational sampling, currently reach milliseconds on exascale hardware; zettascale would enable more extensive explorations for virus dynamics or cellular processes.^[65] Examples include drug discovery through molecular dynamics, where zettascale speeds could simulate protein-ligand interactions for billions of compounds, accelerating the identification of novel therapeutics for diseases like cancer or Alzheimer's.^[65]

Artificial Intelligence

Zettascale computing enables the training of trillion-parameter artificial intelligence models in real time by providing unprecedented computational scale and efficiency. Oracle Cloud Infrastructure's (OCI) Zettascale10 supercluster, for instance, connects up to 800,000 NVIDIA GPUs to support such workloads, achieving 16 zettaFLOPS while handling massive datasets for large language models.^[64] This capability addresses the exponential growth in model complexity, where training a single trillion-parameter model can require millions of exaFLOPS-days on prior systems, but zettascale architectures reduce this to feasible timelines through optimized parallelism and memory management.^[66] Oracle's platform specifically supports multi-gigawatt power envelopes for these AI tasks, ensuring sustained performance without thermal throttling.^[67] For inference, zettascale systems deliver low-latency responses essential for generative AI applications at global scale, enabling real-time interactions for millions of users. OCI's infrastructure, leveraging high-throughput RDMA networks, facilitates ultra-low latency inference on trillion-parameter models, as demonstrated in deployments handling diverse batch and interactive workloads.^[68] This is particularly vital for generative tasks like natural language processing, where sub-second response times prevent user friction in enterprise settings, such as collaborative tools powered by AI summarization.^[21] GPU-heavy architectures, including NVIDIA Blackwell platforms, underpin these inference optimizations by distributing computations across vast clusters.^[69] In scientific applications, zettascale computing accelerates AI-driven discoveries in fusion energy and materials science by integrating machine learning with high-fidelity simulations. For fusion, AI optimizes plasma control and material resilience under extreme conditions, as outlined in reports on AI for fusion commercialization.^[70] Similarly, in materials science, advanced HPC enables the exploration of vast chemical spaces for energy-efficient compounds, with AI surrogates accelerating simulations.^[71] Such advancements rely on zettascale's ability to handle large-scale predictive modeling. A prominent 2025 example is OpenAI's Stargate project, which deploys on OCI Zettascale10 clusters to power next-generation AI models. The Abilene, Texas supercluster, developed in collaboration with Oracle, underpins Stargate's initial 4.5-gigawatt capacity for training and inference, with expansions to additional U.S. sites advancing the project's $500 billion commitment.^[5]^[72] This deployment marks the first operational zettascale AI infrastructure, enabling OpenAI to scale generative models beyond prior limits.^[73]

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[PDF] Summary of FEC 2007/Zettaflops Workshop
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[PDF] DOE ASCAC Subcommi.ee Report February 10, 2014 - The Netlib
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Oracle unveils Zettascale10 AI supercomputer, claims it will be ...
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Japan to start building 1st 'zeta-class' supercomputer ... - Live Science
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Japan Building 'Zeta-Class' Supercomputer, 1,000 Times ... - NDTV
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Strategic Meeting for CincoRanch TC2 RTL Freeze
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[2403.14806] Photonic-Electronic Integrated Circuits for High ... - arXiv
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[PDF] Thermal Optimization of Hybrid Cryogenic Computing Systems
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The New North Star for High Performance Computing | Ayar Labs
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Parallel Paradigms in Modern HPC: A Comparative Analysis of MPI ...
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[PDF] Fault tolerance techniques for high-performance computing
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NASA@SC19: Teaching Your Legacy Code New (GPU) Tricks
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[PDF] Kokkos 3: Programming Model Extensions for the Exascale Era
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High-speed turbulent flows towards the exascale: STREAmS-2 ...
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A reinforcement learning-based mechanism for managing dynamic ...
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Computing Testbeds | PNNL
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[PDF] Characterizing the Opportunity for Low-Carbon and Low-Cost High ...
growing power consumption poses significant challenges in terms of operational costs, infras- ... A zettascale computer today would need 21 nuclear power plants.
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Challenges of exascale to zettascale computing and technology ...
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Chapter 2: High Performance Computing and Data Centers
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A review on the decarbonization of high-performance computing ...
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[PDF] Addressing failures in exascale computing - Marc Snir
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[PDF] Challenges in High-Performance Computing - The Distant Reader
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Next-Generation 3D Core-Collapse Supernova
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A closer look at "training" a trillion-parameter model on Frontier
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Oracle Unveils Next-Generation Oracle Cloud Infrastructure ...
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Oracle Offers First Zettascale Cloud Computing Cluster
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