Aluminium (Al) is a chemical element with atomic number 13 and symbol Al, classified as a post-transition metal in group 13 of the periodic table.[1][2] It appears as a silvery-white, ductile, and malleable solid at room temperature, with a density of approximately 2.70 g/cm³, significantly lower than that of steel or copper.[2] This low density, combined with its high strength-to-weight ratio and natural corrosion resistance due to a protective oxide layer, makes it indispensable in modern industry.[3][4]Aluminium constitutes about 8.2% of the Earth's upper continental crust by weight, rendering it the most abundant metallic element and the third most abundant element overall after oxygen and silicon.[5][6] Despite its prevalence, it rarely occurs in native form, instead bound in ores like bauxite, from which it is extracted via the energy-intensive Hall-Héroult electrolytic process developed independently in 1886 by Charles Martin Hall and Paul Héroult.[7] This breakthrough enabled mass production, transforming aluminium from a rare luxury—once more valuable than gold—to a cornerstone material in aerospace, automotive, construction, and packaging sectors, where its recyclability (requiring only 5% of the energy for primary production) further enhances its utility.[8]Although early isolation was achieved in 1825 by Hans Christian Ørsted, commercial viability hinged on 19th-century innovations that overcame aluminium's reactivity with oxygen.[9] Notable applications include aircraft fuselages, beverage cans, and power lines, leveraging its electrical conductivity and lightweight properties. Controversies have centered on purported health risks, such as links to Alzheimer's disease or vaccine adjuvants, but empirical evidence from large-scale studies and reviews consistently refutes causal associations, showing no elevated incidence of neurodegeneration, autoimmunity, or other chronic conditions attributable to typical exposures.[10][11][12] Extraction and production pose environmental challenges, including high electricity demands and bauxite mining impacts, yet aluminium's infinite recyclability mitigates long-term resource depletion when managed through closed-loop systems.[13]
Places
In the Americas
Alabama, a state in the southeastern United States, uses the two-letter postal abbreviation AL as standardized by the United States Postal Service since 1963.[14] The state covers 52,420 square miles and was admitted to the Union on December 14, 1819, as the 22nd state.[15] Its name originates from the Alabama River, derived from the Alabama (or Alibamu) people, a Muskogean-speaking tribe of the Creek Confederacy, with the term possibly meaning "tribal town" in their language or from Choctaw words alba (plants or weeds) and amo (to cut or gather), interpreted as "plant-cutters" or "thicket-clearers."[16][17]As a core Deep South state, Alabama's economy historically centered on agriculture, with cotton as the dominant cash crop from the early 19th century, earning it the moniker "The Cotton State" by the mid-1800s; the Black Belt region's fertile soils produced over half of the state's cotton output by 1860, reliant on enslaved labor until the Civil War.[18][19] Post-emancipation, sharecropping sustained cotton dominance into the 20th century, though diversification into peanuts, soybeans, and poultry occurred later. Industrialization accelerated during the New South era after 1880, driven by Birmingham's iron, steel, and coal resources—facilitated by proximity to raw materials and railroads—transforming the state into a manufacturing hub by the early 1900s.[20][21]No other sovereign states, provinces, or major territories in the Americas use AL as a standard geographic abbreviation. Minor locales, such as unincorporated communities or historical sites bearing the name "Al," lack significant documentation or prominence in North, Central, or South America beyond potential indigenous references unsubstantiated in primary records.[22]
In Europe
Albania is a sovereign state in Southeastern Europe, with its ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code designated as AL by the International Organization for Standardization.[23] The code adheres to the standard established in 1974 for two-letter country identifiers used in international data interchange, including domains like .al for Albania's top-level domain.[23] This Balkan nation, bordered by Montenegro, Kosovo, North Macedonia, and Greece, has a population of approximately 2.8 million as of 2023 and covers 28,748 square kilometers.[24]In Norway, Ål serves as both the administrative center and name of a municipality in Viken county, located in the Hallingdal valley.[25] Established as a separate municipality in 1865 from parts of Hol, it spans 2,696 square kilometers, with about 80% of its terrain above 900 meters elevation, featuring peaks such as Raudbergnuten at 1,819 meters.[26] The name Ål derives from Old Norse ål meaning "eel," reflecting the historical presence of eels in local waters, a common toponymic pattern in Scandinavian place names tied to natural features. As of 2023, the municipality has around 4,900 residents and is known for tourism, skiing, and cultural heritage sites like the Torpo Stave Church.[27]Other European locales with "Al" elements often trace to Arabic influences from the medieval Islamic period, particularly in Iberia, where prefixes like "Al-" (the definite article "the" in Arabic) appear in names such as Algeciras (from Arabic al-jazīrah al-khadrā, "the green island") in Spain. However, standalone designations exactly matching "Al" as a primary place name are rare outside contexts like Norway's Ål, with most variations incorporating additional descriptors from linguistic substrates including Latin, Germanic, or Romance roots.[28]
In other regions
Al-'Al is a town in the Na'ur District of Amman Governorate, Jordan, situated at coordinates 31°49′N 35°50′E.[29] The locality covers an area of 9.32 km² and recorded a population of 5,881 in the 2015 Jordanian census. This places it among smaller rural settlements in northern Jordan, with administrative ties to the capital region but distinct from major urban centers.
Organizations
Government, military, and politics
The American Legion (AL) is the United States' largest wartime veterans' service organization, chartered by an act of Congress on September 16, 1919, following its founding by World War I veterans on March 15, 1919, in Paris.[30] With over 1.6 million members across nearly 13,000 local posts as of 2023, it provides direct assistance to veterans through accredited service officers who help file claims with the Department of Veterans Affairs, advocate for expanded benefits including healthcare and education, and operate programs like the American Legion Temporary Financial Assistance for families of deployed service members.[30] The organization also emphasizes traditional values through its Americanism Commission, which promotes patriotism, constitutional education, and opposition to policies perceived as undermining national sovereignty or military readiness, such as certain immigration reforms or reductions in defense spending.In U.S. military doctrine, AirLand Battle (AL) denotes the operational framework adopted by the Army in the 1982 revision of Field Manual 100-5, designed to integrate air and ground forces for offensive maneuver against numerically superior adversaries, particularly Soviet-style echeloned attacks in Europe. This doctrine shifted from attrition-based warfare to deep operations, incorporating follow-on forces attack and extended battlefield concepts to disrupt enemy rear areas using aviation, artillery, and special operations, thereby achieving operational momentum.[31] It influenced NATO planning and equipment acquisitions, such as enhanced armored divisions and Apache helicopters, until its evolution into AirLand Battle-future in the 1990s.[32]Albania's ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code AL designates its government entities in international contexts, including the Ministry of Defence, which oversees the Albanian Armed Forces comprising about 8,500 active personnel as of 2024 focused on NATO interoperability and territorial defense.[33] The political system features a unicameral Assembly (Kuvendi) elected via proportional representation, where major parties like the Socialist Party (PS) and Democratic Party (PD) dominate, but no prominent national entity or party uses AL as a primary abbreviation beyond the state's code.[34]
Sports organizations
The American League (AL) of Professional Baseball Clubs is one of the two constituent leagues of Major League Baseball (MLB), alongside the National League (NL). Established on January 28, 1901, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, it emerged from the reorganization of the minor-league Western League, which had operated since 1893, into a competing major league under the direction of Byron Bancroft "Ban" Johnson.[35][36] This formation intensified the rivalry with the established NL, leading to the inaugural World Series in 1903 between the AL's Boston Americans and the NL's Pittsburgh Pirates.[37]The AL currently comprises 15 franchises, organized into three geographic divisions: the East (Baltimore Orioles, Boston Red Sox, New York Yankees, Tampa Bay Rays, Toronto Blue Jays), Central (Chicago White Sox, Cleveland Guardians, Detroit Tigers, Kansas City Royals, Minnesota Twins), and West (Houston Astros, Los Angeles Angels, Oakland Athletics, Seattle Mariners, Texas Rangers).[37] Each team plays a 162-game regular season schedule, including intraleague and interleague games against NL opponents, with the top performers advancing through wild-card and division series playoffs to the American League Championship Series (ALCS); the victor represents the league in the World Series.[36] The designated hitter rule, introduced league-wide in 1973, distinguishes AL play from the NL until the latter's universal adoption in 2022.[36]Historically, the AL has been marked by expansion waves, including additions in 1961 (bringing the total to 10 teams), 1969 (to 12), 1977 (to 14), and 1998 (to its current 15 via realignment).[38] Key rivalries extend beyond the AL-NL framework, such as the Yankees-Red Sox competition, which has produced numerous playoff clashes and records like the Yankees' 27 World Series titles, many under AL auspices.[37] No other major international sports governing bodies or leagues prominently use "AL" as their primary abbreviation.
Other organizations
Al-Anon Family Groups, founded in May 1951 following a gathering hosted by Lois W. (wife of Alcoholics Anonymous co-founder Bill W.), is a voluntary mutual-aid fellowship offering support to family members, friends, and others affected by someone's alcoholism.[39] Operating as a distinct non-profit entity separate from Alcoholics Anonymous, it emphasizes anonymous, confidential meetings where participants share experiences, strengths, and hopes to foster personal recovery, without attempting to control or cure the alcoholic.[40] The program adapts the Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions of AA, adapted for codependency issues, with no professional staff, dues, or formal membership requirements; groups sustain themselves through voluntary 7th Tradition contributions.[41]By 2024, Al-Anon reported over 21,000 active groups and nearly 1,200 Alateen groups (for younger members aged 12-19) operating in 118 countries, demonstrating sustained global expansion from its U.S. origins.[42] Empirical outcomes include improved coping mechanisms among attendees, as evidenced by member surveys showing reduced isolation and better family dynamics, though the organization prioritizes spiritual and emotional growth over measurable interventions.[42] Alateen, integrated within Al-Anon since 1957, extends this support to adolescents, with adult sponsors ensuring safe, peer-led sessions.[41]
People
As a given name
Al serves primarily as a masculine diminutive or short form of given names beginning with "Al-", including Albert, Alfred, Alphonse, Alan, and Alexander, especially in English-speaking contexts.[43] The "Al-" prefix in these names commonly derives from Germanic roots such as adal ("noble") in Albert (adal-beraht, "noble bright") or Old English ælfræd ("elf counsel") in Alfred.[44]The name appears as a standalone given name or preferred nickname in Western cultures, with roots in Germanic, English, and Celtic traditions denoting honor or nobility.[45] It holds moderate historical prevalence in the United States and other English-speaking nations, where approximately 393,276 people bear it worldwide, concentrated in the US and Canada.[46] Popularity peaked in the US during the late 19th and early 20th centuries but has since declined sharply, with fewer than 10 annual registrations in recent years.[47][48]Prominent individuals using Al as their given or primary name include:
Alphonse Gabriel Capone (January 17, 1899 – January 25, 1947), an Italian-American organized crime boss who controlled bootlegging and gambling in Chicago during the Prohibition era (1920–1933).[49]
Albert Arnold Gore Jr. (born March 31, 1948), the 45th Vice President of the United States (1993–2001) under President Bill Clinton and a 2000 Democratic presidential nominee.[50]
Asa Yoelson (May 26, 1886 – October 23, 1950), professionally Al Jolson, a singer-actor whose performance in The Jazz Singer (1927) marked the first feature-length talkie film with synchronized dialogue.[52]
As a surname or anthroponymy
The surname Al primarily originates from the Arabic definite articleal (ال), meaning "the," which functions as a prefix in many Muslim personal names to denote specificity, tribal affiliation, lineage, or geographic origin, such as in names referring to family clans or ancestral places in the Middle East and North Africa.[53][54] In some contexts, standalone instances of Al as a surname may result from the truncation or simplification of longer Arabic patronymics, a practice observed among Arab diaspora communities where the prefix is occasionally dropped or retained independently for administrative or cultural reasons.[55] Less commonly, Al appears as a shortened form of Germanic personal names like Adelhard (composed of elements meaning "noble" and "hardy"), particularly in Dutch or WesternEuropean naming traditions.[56][57]Global distribution data indicate that the surname Al is most prevalent in Muslim-majority regions, with the highest incidences recorded in Pakistan (approximately 6,100 bearers as of recent genealogical surveys), followed by Indonesia (5,329), Iran (3,498), and Iraq (3,432).[53] In the United States, it ranks as the 40,976th most common surname, appearing 532 times in the 2010 Census, with bearers primarily identifying as White (62.2%), Hispanic (16.5%), Black (13.0%), or Asian/Pacific Islander (5.8%).[58][59] Historical records from Ancestry show early Al family concentrations in the U.S. dating to 1880, with nine households documented, suggesting immigration waves tied to Arabic or European migrations.[60]In anthroponomic studies, Al exemplifies how definite articles in Semitic languages evolve into fixed surname components, reflecting patrilineal or tribal structures in societies from the Arabian Peninsula to South Asia, where it often signals elite or notable family lines, as seen in Gulf ruling clans.[61] This usage underscores causal patterns in name formation linked to pre-modern social organization, where surnames preserved kinship ties amid migrations and conquests, though modern standardization has led to variability in spelling and adoption outside traditional contexts.[62] Prominent standalone bearers remain scarce in public records, likely due to its frequent integration into compound forms like Al-Saud or Al-Fayed rather than isolation as a sole surname.[58]
Science and technology
Computing and engineering
In x86 assembly language, AL designates the 8-bit low-order portion of the 16-bit AX accumulator register, enabling byte-level operations on data within the processor's general-purpose registers.[63][64] This segmentation allows programmers to manipulate individual bytes without affecting the higher bits, as seen in instructions like MOV AL, 0xFF which loads the value 255 into AL while preserving AH.[65]Assembly language, a low-level paradigm symbolic of machine code, emerged in the late 1940s with early stored-program computers; for instance, the EDSAC in 1949 used short-code assembly for subroutines, evolving to mnemonic opcodes and assembler tools by the 1950s in systems like the IBM 701.[66] Key concepts include opcodes representing instructions (e.g., ADD, MOV), direct register addressing, and immediate values, facilitating fine-grained control over CPU resources like registers, memory, and flags.[67]In microprocessor engineering, AL refers to the Address Latch, a circuit that temporarily stores the lower address bits (A0-A7) during bus multiplexing to separate address and data signals, ensuring stable external memory access.[68] In the Intel 8085, the Address Latch Enable (ALE) signal pulses high to capture these bits into an external latch like the 74LS373, preventing corruption during the data phase of the bus cycle.[69] Similarly, the Intel 8086 employs address latches via components such as the 8282 octal latch to demultiplex the 20-bit address from AD0-AD15 lines, supporting its 1 MB memory space.[70] These latches, implemented as edge-triggered D flip-flops or transparent variants, minimize pin count and timing hazards in 8/16-bit architectures.[71]Assembly language persists in modern embedded systems engineering for its efficiency in resource-constrained environments, such as microcontrollers in IoT devices or real-time systems, where high-level languages introduce overhead.[67] For example, in ARM or x86-based embedded processors, assembly optimizes interrupt handlers and bootloaders by directly accessing hardware registers and avoiding abstraction layers, as verified in standards like the ARM Architecture Reference Manual.[72] This approach enables deterministic performance critical for applications like automotive ECUs, where cycle-accurate code reduces latency compared to compiled C.[73] Additionally, in enterprise software like Microsoft Dynamics 365 Business Central, AL serves as a domain-specific language for database extensions, compiling to .NET intermediates for record manipulation and event-driven logic.[74]
Chemistry and materials
Aluminium (Al) is a chemical element with atomic number 13 and symbol Al in the periodic table, classified as a post-transition metal.[75] It appears as a silvery-white, ductile solid at room temperature, with a density of 2.70 g/cm³, making it lightweight compared to other metals like steel at 7.83 g/cm³.[76] The element was first isolated in impure form by Hans Christian Ørsted in Denmark on October 26, 1825, through reaction of aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, though pure metallic aluminium was produced later by Friedrich Wöhler in 1827.[77]Aluminium constitutes approximately 8.1% of Earth's crust by mass, rendering it the most abundant metallic element and third most abundant element overall after oxygen and silicon.[1][77] It occurs primarily in combined forms such as bauxiteore (aluminium oxide hydrate), from which it is extracted via the energy-intensive Hall-Héroult electrolytic process developed independently by Charles M. Hall and Paul Héroult in 1886.[77] Key physical properties include a melting point of 660.32 °C, high thermal conductivity (237 W/m·K), and excellent electrical conductivity (about 60% of copper's on a mass basis), which stem from its free electron structure enabling efficient heat and charge transfer.[78] Chemically, it forms a passive oxide layer (Al₂O₃) upon exposure to air, providing natural corrosion resistance by blocking further oxidation, unlike iron which rusts progressively.[79]In materials science, aluminium's low density and corrosion resistance make it ideal for alloys, which enhance its limited strength (pure aluminium has a tensile strength of about 90 MPa).[80] Common alloys include those with copper (e.g., 2024 alloy, used in aircraft structures for its high strength via precipitation hardening), magnesium (e.g., 5052 for marine applications), and lithium (e.g., Al-Li alloys reducing density by up to 10% while increasing stiffness, applied in aerospace fuselages).[81][82] These alloys achieve yield strengths exceeding 500 MPa through heat treatment and alloying elements that form strengthening precipitates, enabling applications in aviation where weight reduction improves fuel efficiency—aluminium alloys comprise over 70% of modern aircraft airframes by weight.[83]Industrial uses extend to automotive parts, power lines (due to conductivity-to-weight ratio), and packaging, with global production exceeding 65 million metric tons annually as of 2023, driven by recycling efficiency (aluminium recycles at 95% energy savings over primary production).[81] Distinctions from non-chemical uses of "AL" are maintained by context, as the symbol Al adheres strictly to IUPAC nomenclature for the element.[75]
Other scientific uses
In biology and medicine, AL designates immunoglobulin light-chain amyloidosis, a rare plasma cell dyscrasia in which monoclonal light chains misfold into amyloid fibrils that deposit in organs such as the heart, kidneys, liver, and peripheral nerves, causing progressive dysfunction and multiorgan failure.[84] This condition affects approximately 1,000 to 1,200 new patients annually in the United States, with a median age at diagnosis of 63 years and a male predominance.[85] The amyloidogenic light chains, typically lambda type in 75% of cases, are produced by a bone marrow plasma cell clone comprising less than 10% of cells in 90% of patients, distinguishing it from overt multiple myeloma.[84]Diagnosis relies on empirical confirmation of amyloid deposits via Congo red-stained biopsy exhibiting apple-green birefringence under polarized light microscopy, combined with proteomic typing (e.g., mass spectrometry) to verify light-chain composition, as opposed to other amyloid types like AA or ATTR.[86]Serum and urine immunofixation with free light chain ratio assessment detects the clone in over 99% of cases, with cardiac involvement—present in 50-70% of patients—prognosticated by biomarkers like NT-proBNP and troponin T, yielding a staging system where stage 3 patients have median survival of 4-8 months without treatment.[85] Experimental validations include in vitro studies demonstrating light-chain aggregation into beta-sheet fibrils under physiological conditions, and transgenic mouse models expressing human light chains recapitulating systemic amyloid deposition and organ toxicity, confirming causality beyond mere association.[84] Treatment targets the underlying clone with chemotherapy (e.g., bortezomib-based regimens) or autologous stem cell transplantation, achieving hematologic response rates of 60-80% and improving organ function in responders, though early mortality from advanced cardiac amyloid remains 20-30% within one year.[86]
Arts and entertainment
Fictional characters
Al Bundy is the protagonist of the American sitcom Married... with Children, which aired on Fox from April 5, 1987, to June 20, 1997; portrayed by Ed O'Neill, he is depicted as a surly shoe salesman and patriarch of the dysfunctional Bundy family in the Chicago suburb of Arlen, Illinois.[87]
Al Borland appears as the deuteragonist in the ABC sitcom Home Improvement, broadcast from September 17, 1991, to May 25, 1999; played by Richard Karn, he serves as the bearded, safety-conscious neighbor and tool expert who co-hosts Tim Taylor's home improvement show Tool Time.[87]
Al Robbins is a recurring character in the CBS procedural drama CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, which ran from October 6, 2000, to September 27, 2015; portrayed by Robert David Hall, he functions as the veteran chief medical examiner for the Las Vegas Police Department, assisting in forensic autopsies despite his own physical disabilities from a car accident.[87]
Music
"You Can Call Me Al" is a song written and performed by American singer-songwriter Paul Simon, released as the lead single from his seventh studio album Graceland on July 2, 1986.[88] The track blends pop rock with South African mbaqanga and township jive influences, featuring guest vocals from the group Ladysmith Black Mambazo and a horn arrangement by Ralph MacDonald; its lyrics humorously depict an aging man's existential crisis during a dinner party.[88]The song achieved significant commercial success, initially peaking at number 44 on the USBillboard Hot 100 in late 1986 before re-entering the chart in 1987 to reach number 23; it also topped charts in Canada and peaked at number 4 in the United Kingdom, number 2 in Belgium, and number 5 in the Netherlands.[88][89]Graceland itself, bolstered by the single, sold over 16 million copies worldwide and won the 1987 Grammy Award for Album of the Year.[88]
Other media
United States of Al is an American sitcom television series that premiered on CBS on April 1, 2021, and concluded after two seasons on September 29, 2022, comprising 34 episodes.[90] Created by David Goetsch and Maria Ferrari, the show centers on the evolving friendship and living arrangement between Riley Bixby, a U.S. Marine Corps veteran played by Parker Young, and Awalmir "Al" Akbari, an Afghan interpreter portrayed by Adhir Kalyan, as Al navigates resettlement in Pittsburgh, Ohio.[90] The series received mixed reception, holding a 6.6/10 rating on IMDb from nearly 3,800 user reviews, with praise for its portrayal of veteran-interpreter dynamics but criticism for uneven humor and cultural depictions.[90]Al Emmo and the Lost Dutchman's Mine is a 2006 point-and-click adventure video game developed by Chaney Arts, Inc., and published as shareware, serving as a homage to 1980s and 1990s Sierra On-Line titles like Leisure Suit Larry. Players control Al Emmo, a mild-mannered pharmacist turned adventurer in 1886 Arizona Territory, solving puzzles to win the affections of local women and uncover a legendary gold mine, featuring hand-drawn graphics, voice acting, and inventory-based gameplay mechanics. The game was released on October 13, 2006, for Windows, with a retail version including extras like soundtracks, and earned niche acclaim for its nostalgic style but limited sales due to the adventure genre's decline.The Big Al Game is a 2001 browser-based promotional video game tied to the BBC's Walking with Dinosaurs documentary series, allowing players to control "Big Al," an Allosaurus fragilis specimen, through survival challenges in Late JurassicNorth America across four levels tracking his lifespan from juvenile to scarred adult.[91] Developed as an educational tie-in, it emphasizes foraging, hunting, and evading predators like Ceratosaurus, with simple 2D gameplay and factual annotations drawn from paleontological data used in the series.[91] The game was hosted on sites like BBC's educational portals and later archived online, reflecting early 2000s efforts to blend science outreach with interactive media.[92]AL is a 2023 short film directed by an independent filmmaker, featuring actors Callum Appleby and Aaron Shaw, with a runtime showcased via trailer emphasizing dramatic interpersonal tension.[93] Limited distribution details are available, positioning it as an emerging entry in short-form narrative cinema without wide theatrical or streaming metrics reported as of 2025.[93]
Transport
Airlines and aviation
Allegheny Airlines, operating under the IATA code AL and ICAO code ALO, was a prominent U.S. regional carrier that provided scheduled passenger and cargo services primarily in the eastern United States and Midwest.[94] Originally established as All American Aviation Company in 1939 to deliver airmail via innovative cable-and-basket systems, it transitioned to fixed-wing aircraft for mail and passenger operations by the 1940s, adopting the name All American Airways in 1949 before rebranding to Allegheny Airlines in 1953.[94] Headquartered initially in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and later at Washington National Airport, the airline expanded through acquisitions, including Lake Central Airlines in 1968 and Mohawk Airlines in 1972, which bolstered its route network connecting over 70 cities by the late 1970s.[94][95]The carrier's fleet evolved from piston-engine aircraft like the Douglas DC-3 and Convair 340/440 to turboprops such as the Fairchild F-27 and Convair 580, and eventually an all-jet operation by mid-1978 featuring McDonnell Douglas DC-9 series, Boeing 727-200, and Boeing 737-200 jets, peaking at around 100 aircraft to support short-haul routes with high frequency.[94] Major hubs included Pittsburgh International Airport and Washington National, with key routes linking industrial centers like Cleveland, Buffalo, and Indianapolis to leisure destinations in Florida post-deregulation.[94] On October 28, 1979, Allegheny rebranded to USAir to reflect its national expansion beyond regional confines, effectively ending operations under the AL code.[94][95]Air Leisure, another airline assigned the IATA code AL (ICAO: ALD), operated as a small Egyptian charter carrier from 2014 to 2018, basing Boeing 737-300 and 737-800 aircraft at Cairo International Airport for leisure flights primarily to Asian destinations like China and Southeast Asia.[96] The airline ceased operations in October 2018 amid financial difficulties, with a modest fleet of fewer than 10 aircraft serving ad-hoc charters rather than scheduled services.[97] No other major active or historical airlines have prominently used the AL IATA code in aviation records.[96]
Other transport
The American Locomotive Company (ALCO), abbreviated as such, was a prominent U.S. manufacturer of steam and diesel-electric locomotives from 1901 until its operations ceased in 1969.[98] Formed by the consolidation of eight existing locomotive builders, including the Schenectady Locomotive Works and Cooke Locomotive Works, ALCO produced over 75,000 locomotives during its existence, supplying major railroads across North America and exporting to international markets.[99] Its diesel transition began in the 1920s with early models, accelerating post-World War II; notable designs included the RS-1 road switcher introduced in 1941, with 1,418 units built by 1953, and the PA passenger locomotive debuted in 1946, featuring a 2,000-horsepower engine.[98] ALCO's market share declined in the 1950s due to competition from General Motors' Electro-Motive Division and General Electric, leading to its 1969 shutdown after a failed merger attempt with Baldwin Locomotive Works.[98]In maritime contexts, "AL" serves as the abbreviation for lightship in U.S. naval and shipping nomenclature, referring to moored vessels functioning as floating aids to navigation in areas unsuitable for fixed lighthouses.[100] Lightships, marked by their distinctive AL designation in historical records, were critical for safe passage in coastal and riverine shipping routes, equipped with lanterns, fog signals, and radio beacons; the U.S. Light-House Service operated them from 1820 until the last active station, Ambrose Channel off New York, was replaced by buoys in 1967.[100] These non-self-propelled ships, typically 100-150 feet in length with reinforced hulls to withstand storms, supported commercial and naval transport by marking hazards like sandbars and wrecks, reducing collision risks in high-traffic zones.[100]
Mythology and religion
Deities and figures
In the folklore traditions of the Caucasus, Iran, Central Asia, and Armenia, Al (also rendered as Āl, Alk, or Alq) designates a class of malevolent demons primarily targeting women during childbirth and the postpartum period. These entities are believed to induce puerperal fever (termed āl-zadagī in Persian contexts) by afflicting new mothers within the first six days after delivery or until ritual purification, such as bathing in a public bathhouse, occurs.[101] Attacks involve the demon entering the body through the vulva to devour or steal internal organs, including the liver, placenta, or bronchial tubes, leading to severe illness or death.[101]Descriptions of Al vary across regions but emphasize grotesque, hybrid features: in Iranian lore, a red-haired, stunted black-skinned humanoid, a frail elderly woman, or a tall, hairy figure with protruding teeth and a beard; in Armenian traditions, an androgynous half-human, half-beast form with a single fiery eye, long thick hair, brass or copper fingernails, and backward-projecting limbs.[101] The name derives from the Iranian term āl meaning "red," reflecting associations with blood and feverish inflammation. Etymological and functional parallels link Al to ancient Mesopotamian demons like Lamaštu, who similarly preyed on mothers and infants, and to the Jewish figure Lilith, with shared motifs of child-stealing and postpartum predation.[101]Mythological origins in Armenian variants portray Al as Adam's primordial companion, a fiery being incompatible with human life, from whom the demons descended after separation. Protective rituals, documented in ethnographic accounts, include encircling the bed with iron tools or chalk lines, placing onions, rue, coal, or needles near the placenta burial site, wielding swords, or parading a yellow horse around the home to ward off intrusion.[101] Iconographic evidence appears in Armenianhmayils (protective amulets), which depict Al alongside bronchial tubes symbolizing respiratory affliction, often invoking saints like Cyprian and Sisianus for exorcism.[101] These figures lack worship as deities but embody causal fears of obstetric mortality in pre-modern societies, with no archaeological inscriptions attributing divine status.[101]
Religious concepts
In Islamic theology, the prefix "Al-" serves as the Arabic definite article, equivalent to "the" in English, and is inseparably attached to nouns to denote specificity and uniqueness, particularly in references to divine attributes and the name of God. This linguistic element is integral to the 99 names of Allah (Asma ul-Husna), such as Al-Rahman (The Most Merciful) and Al-Qadir (The All-Powerful), which emphasize God's singular, incomparable qualities as articulated in the Quran.[102] The name "Allah" itself derives from the contraction of al-ilāh, where ilāh stems from the Semitic root denoting a deity or object of worship, thus rendering "the God" to affirm monotheism (tawhid) over pre-Islamic polytheistic usages of similar terms.[103]Quranic exegesis (tafsir) interprets "Al-" as reinforcing the absoluteness of divine essence, preventing assimilation to created beings; for example, in Surah Al-Ikhlas (112:1), "Say: He is Allah, the One (Al-Ahad)," the article precludes plurality or partnership. Classical scholars like Al-Tabari (d. 923 CE) in his Jami' al-Bayan elucidate this through linguistic analysis, drawing on Arabic grammar to argue that the prefix elevates attributes to eternal, unshared realities, distinct from contingent human descriptors. Such interpretations trace to the Prophet Muhammad's explanations during the Quran's revelation (610–632 CE), preserved in early hadith compilations like Sahih al-Bukhari, which link "Al-" to God's transcendence amid Meccan idolatrous contexts.The doctrinal employment of "Al-" facilitated Islam's theological framework, evident in its empirical propagation: post-632 CE Rashidun conquests integrated Arabic scriptural terminology into regions from Persia to North Africa, as recorded in 7th-century papyri and inscriptions like the Dome of the Rock (691 CE), which invoke Al-Malik (The King) to assert sovereignty. Trade routes along the Silk Road and Indian Ocean further disseminated these concepts by the 8th century, embedding them in Sufi and jurisprudential texts without alteration, as corroborated by comparative Semiticlinguistics showing cognates like Aramaic Elah. This usage remains unaltered in orthodox Sunni and Shia traditions, underscoring causal continuity from revelation to institutional codification.
Other uses
Linguistics and language
The suffix -al forms relational adjectives in English from nouns, denoting pertinence or connection, as in national (relating to a nation) or personal (relating to a person); it also derives nouns indicating actions or results, such as refusal (the act of refusing) or arrival (the act of arriving).[104] This productive morpheme entered English via Old French -el and -al, ultimately from Latin -ālis, a denominal adjectival suffix appended to first-declension noun stems to express appurtenance, as in nautic-al-is ("pertaining to sailing," from nauta "sailor"). In Latin, -ālis combined a thematic vowel -ā- with the relational ending -lis, the latter tracing to Proto-Indo-European *-li-, a suffix for forming adjectives of material or relation, though its precise phonological evolution involved assimilation and vowel gradation across Italic languages. Corpus analyses of Modern English confirm -al's high frequency in academic and technical registers, with over 1,500 attested forms in the Corpus of Contemporary American English, often attaching to Latinate roots for specialized terminology (e.g., experiment-al, function-al).In linguistic glossing conventions for interlinear morpheme-by-morpheme translations, AL abbreviates allocutive, marking verbal inflection that encodes features of the addressee (e.g., honorific status or familiarity) rather than syntactic arguments like subject or object. This phenomenon, termed allocutive agreement, appears in languages such as Basque (where second-person familiar forms trigger distinct verb suffixes irrespective of transitivity) and Korean (with honorific-si glossed as AL in non-subject contexts, as in declarative sentences addressing superiors).[105] Syntactic analyses posit allocutivity as complementizer or speech-act projectionagreement, often in Fin(ite) or Speech-Act phrases, contrasting with canonicalargumentagreement; cross-linguistic data from 20+ languages show it correlates with pro-drop and honorific systems, but lacks phi-feature valuation from canonical probes.[106] Empirical studies using acceptability judgments reveal allocutive forms override subjectagreement in matrix clauses, supporting a dedicated addressee phi-bundle in the clausal spine.[107]
Miscellaneous abbreviations
In Freemasonry, AL abbreviates Anno Lucis, a dating convention meaning "in the Year of Light," derived by adding 4,000 years to the Gregorian calendar to symbolize the biblical creation of light, as referenced in Genesis 1:3; this system dates from at least the 18th century and remains in ceremonial use.[108][109]The American Legion (AL), chartered by the U.S. Congress on September 16, 1919, as the nation's largest wartime veterans' service organization with over 1.6 million members as of 2023, employs AL in internal references and emblem guides alongside its full name.[110]In computational biology and related fields, AL refers to artificial life, an approach simulating biological processes and evolution through software and hardware to explore emergent behaviors beyond natural systems; the term gained traction following a 1987 workshop organized by Christopher Langton, with ongoing research documented in peer-reviewed journals as of 2024.[111][112]Certain municipal police dispatch protocols, such as those in select U.S. departments, use AL to code armed or weapon-involved robbery incidents for rapid logging and response prioritization.[113]