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Algebraic analysis

Algebraic analysis is a mathematical discipline that employs algebraic techniques, such as sheaf theory and non-commutative algebra, to investigate systems of linear partial differential equations (PDEs) and the analytic objects they define, including functions, distributions, and their singularities.^[1]^[2] Coined by the Japanese mathematician Mikio Sato in the late 1950s, it represents an "algebraic geometrization of analysis," shifting the focus from classical functional analytic methods to algebraic structures that encode PDEs and their solutions.^[3]^[1] Central to algebraic analysis is the theory of D-modules, which are modules over the Weyl algebra D—a non-commutative ring generated by coordinate variables and partial derivative operators on a manifold, satisfying the commutation relation [∂i, x_j] = δ{ij}.^[4]^[1] These modules represent solution spaces to linear PDEs with polynomial coefficients, where an ideal in D annihilates the functions under consideration, allowing algebraic tools like Gröbner bases to compute properties such as regularity and dimension.^[2]^[4] A key subclass consists of holonomic D-modules, characterized by their characteristic variety (the support in the cotangent bundle) having minimal dimension equal to the manifold's dimension, which ensures finite-dimensional solution spaces and stability under operations like tensor products.^[1]^[4] Historically, Sato's program, initiated around 1959, introduced foundational concepts like hyperfunctions—generalized functions defined as boundary values of holomorphic functions in complex neighborhoods—and microlocal analysis, which localizes singularities along the cotangent bundle using tools such as the wavefront set and Fourier-Sato transform.^[3] These ideas were formalized and extended by collaborators including Masaki Kashiwara, who developed the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence linking D-modules to representations of the fundamental group, and Takahiro Kawai, contributing to microdifferential operators. In 2025, Masaki Kashiwara was awarded the Abel Prize for his fundamental contributions to algebraic analysis and representation theory.^[5]^[1]^[3] By the 1970s, algebraic analysis had influenced microlocal analysis in PDE theory and algebraic geometry, with applications to Bernstein-Sato polynomials that quantify singularities of algebraic hypersurfaces.^[1] Notable applications span mathematical physics and computational mathematics, including the symbolic computation of Feynman integrals in quantum field theory, where holonomic functions describe scattering amplitudes, and the algorithmic resolution of A-hypergeometric systems arising in statistics and combinatorics.^[2]^[4] Software packages like Macaulay2 and Singular implement these methods for practical calculations, such as finding canonical series solutions to PDEs via algorithms like the Sageev-Steenbrink-Takeuchi (SST) method.^[4] Overall, algebraic analysis provides a rigorous framework for bridging algebra and analysis, enabling precise study of differential equations through geometric and computational lenses.^[3]^[1]

Introduction and Overview

Definition and Scope

Algebraic analysis is a mathematical discipline that employs algebraic methods to investigate analytic objects, particularly solutions to systems of linear partial differential equations (PDEs), through tools such as sheaves, modules, and categories. Pioneered by Mikio Sato in the late 1950s and early 1960s, it represents an algebraic geometrization of analysis, shifting focus from pointwise or numerical behaviors to structural properties of these objects.^[6]^[1] The scope of algebraic analysis encompasses the study of global and microlocal properties of differential equations using algebraic frameworks, prioritizing exact sequences, exactness conditions, and functorial aspects over approximation techniques prevalent in classical analysis. This approach enables precise descriptions of solution spaces and their singularities in terms of algebraic invariants, facilitating deeper insights into the qualitative behavior of PDEs without relying on metric or topological approximations.^[6]^[7] At its core, algebraic analysis integrates elements of functional analysis—such as distributions and hyperfunctions—with both commutative algebra and non-commutative algebra, notably rings of differential operators, to model and resolve analytic phenomena algebraically. For instance, in contrast to operator theory's emphasis on spectral decompositions, algebraic analysis distinguishes itself by deriving invariants like Bernstein-Sato polynomials, which capture the functional equations governing multipliers for powers of analytic functions and reveal singularity structures in PDE solutions.^[1]^[8]

Historical Context

Algebraic analysis has its conceptual roots in the 19th-century study of partial differential equations (PDEs), particularly through the foundational contributions of Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Bernhard Riemann, who developed key ideas in complex analysis and the solvability of PDEs on Riemann surfaces. These early efforts emphasized analytic continuation and boundary value problems, setting the stage for later algebraic formalizations, though without the sheaf-theoretic framework that would define the field. The formal emergence of algebraic analysis occurred in the late 1950s and 1960s, spearheaded by Mikio Sato, who introduced hyperfunctions in 1959 as a means to algebraically treat distributions and boundary values of holomorphic functions, marking a shift toward sheaf-based methods inspired by Jean Leray's 1945 invention of sheaf theory during his wartime internment.^[9] Sato, recognized as the founder of algebraic analysis, envisioned an algebraic geometrization of analysis to unify PDE solutions across local and global scales, building on sheaf cohomology clarified by Henri Cartan in the 1950s.^[7] Key advancements in the 1970s included Masaki Kashiwara's pioneering work on microlocal analysis, which localized singularities of PDE solutions using sheaf theory on cotangent bundles, as detailed in his 1970 master's thesis and subsequent papers.^[10] This era also saw the development of D-module theory, formalizing modules over rings of differential operators, with foundational results by Kashiwara, Joseph Bernstein, and others establishing holonomic modules as central objects for PDE classification in the 1970s and 1980s.^[11] The decade culminated in the 1980s with the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence, proved independently by Kashiwara and Zoghman Mebkhout, equating holonomic D-modules with perverse sheaves and enabling sheaf-theoretic solutions to classical monodromy problems.^[11] Post-2000 developments have extended algebraic analysis into non-abelian Hodge theory, integrating irregular singularities and wild ramification, with contributions from figures like Claude Sabbah on twistor D-modules and irregular Hodge structures.^[12] Concurrently, computational algebraic analysis has advanced since the 2010s through algorithms for holonomic functions, such as those for definite integrals over polynomial domains and creative telescoping, facilitating symbolic computation of PDE solutions.^[13] These innovations, driven by researchers like Manuel Kauers and Frédéric Chyzak, underscore the field's ongoing evolution toward practical and geometric applications.^[14] In 2025, Masaki Kashiwara was awarded the Abel Prize for his pioneering contributions to algebraic analysis, including the development of D-module theory, microlocal analysis, and the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence.^[11]

Key Motivations and Goals

Algebraic analysis was developed to overcome the shortcomings of classical analytic methods in treating partial differential equations (PDEs), especially in managing singularities and constructing global solutions that extend beyond local approximations. Classical approaches, such as those relying on power series expansions or integral transforms, often lack the structural rigidity needed for precise classifications and fail to capture the exact interplay between local behavior and global properties in complex systems. By contrast, algebraic tools introduce a framework of exactness and invariance, allowing for coordinate-free treatments that reveal inherent symmetries and constraints in PDE solutions. This motivation stems from Mikio Sato's vision in the late 1950s to reformulate analysis through algebraic geometry and sheaf theory, providing a more robust way to handle nonlinear and nonholonomic systems by reducing them to holonomic ones on complex manifolds.^[6] The core goals of algebraic analysis include establishing an algebraic classification of PDE solutions via the module structure over Weyl algebras or rings of differential operators, known as D-modules, which encode the solution spaces as categorical objects amenable to homological methods. This approach enables the microlocal study of singularity propagation, where irregularities in solutions are tracked algebraically along bicharacteristic varieties in the cotangent bundle, offering insights into how singularities evolve under differential actions. Furthermore, it facilitates algebraic reinterpretations of key analytic correspondences, such as the Fourier-Laplace transform, thereby bridging operator theory with geometric quantization and representation theory. These objectives were advanced significantly by Masaki Kashiwara's development of D-module theory in the 1970s, generalizing classical results like the Cauchy-Kovalevskaya theorem to broader classes of equations.^[15]^[11] Compared to classical analysis, algebraic analysis excels in preserving algebraic identities throughout analytic operations, ensuring that structural properties like exact sequences remain intact when passing to solution spaces. This leads to landmark results, such as Bernard Malgrange's completeness theorem, which demonstrates that the algebraic data of a coherent D-module fully generates its analytic solutions without loss of information, even in singular settings. Philosophically, the field seeks to unify disparate local and global analytic phenomena through categorical algebra, addressing the limitations of distribution theory—such as its reliance on test functions and inability to fully algebraicize nonlinear interactions—by integrating sheaf cohomology and derived categories for a more cohesive treatment of analytic objects. For example, microlocalization achieves precise control over singularity studies, while the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence realizes key goals in solution classification.^[1]^[16]

Foundational Concepts

Sheaf Theory in Algebraic Analysis

In algebraic analysis, sheaf theory provides a framework for managing local data and their global gluing properties on topological spaces, particularly complex manifolds. A sheaf \mathcal{F} of rings or modules over a topological space X assigns to each open set U \subseteq X an abelian group (or ring) \mathcal{F}(U), together with restriction maps \rho_{U,V}: \mathcal{F}(U) \to \mathcal{F}(V) for V \subseteq U that satisfy the gluing axioms: for compatible local sections \{s_i \in \mathcal{F}(U_i)\}_{i \in I} over a cover \{U_i\} of U, there exists a unique global section s \in \mathcal{F}(U) restricting to each s_i. This structure captures how analytic objects, such as functions or distributions, behave under localization and extension.^[1] Central to algebraic analysis are sheaves like \mathcal{O}_X, the sheaf of holomorphic functions on a complex manifold X, and sheaves of distributions, which encode generalized solutions to partial differential equations (PDEs). These sheaves facilitate the study of PDE solutions through operations such as direct images f_* and inverse images f^{-1} under holomorphic morphisms f: X \to Y, allowing propagation of analytic data across spaces while preserving singularity information. For instance, direct images under inclusion maps help localize solutions supported on submanifolds, essential for analyzing boundary value problems in PDEs.^[1] Key operations on analytic sheaves include sheaf cohomology, which computes global sections via the derived functors of the global sections functor \Gamma(X, -); this algebraic approach yields de Rham cohomology for smooth manifolds by resolving the constant sheaf with de Rham complexes. Support theorems characterize the loci where sheaf sections vanish, such as the analytic support of a coherent sheaf on a complex space, while extension theorems guarantee that coherent analytic sheaves on closed analytic subsets extend uniquely to the ambient space under certain coherence conditions. A representative example contrasts the constant sheaf \underline{\mathbb{C}}_X, whose sections are locally constant functions modeling smooth global behavior, with the skyscraper sheaf i_* \mathbb{C}_p at a point p \in X (where i: \{p\} \hookrightarrow X), which concentrates sections at p to model point-like singularities in PDE solutions, such as delta distributions. In algebraic analysis, D-modules arise as sheafified modules over rings of differential operators, enabling the study of PDE systems through these sheaf operations.^[1] Hyperfunctions, in turn, emerge as sections of specific sheaves on real manifolds, linking sheaf cohomology to boundary values of holomorphic functions.

Differential Operators and Weyl Algebras

In algebraic analysis, the ring of linear differential operators on a smooth manifold X, denoted \operatorname{Diff}(X), is constructed as the algebra generated by the sheaf of smooth functions C^\infty(X) and vector fields on X, with multiplication given by composition of operators. This ring encodes partial differential equations (PDEs) algebraically by acting on sections of sheaves of functions or distributions on X.^[17] More precisely, \operatorname{Diff}(X) is filtered by operator order, where the order n subspace consists of endomorphisms \xi of C^\infty(X) such that [\xi, f] \in \operatorname{Diff}_{n-1}(X) for all f \in C^\infty(X), and it forms a filtered ring under composition.^[17] The Weyl algebra arises naturally as the global sections of the sheaf of differential operators on affine space, specifically \operatorname{Diff}(\mathbb{C}^n) \cong A_n(\mathbb{C}), the n-th Weyl algebra over \mathbb{C}. It is the non-commutative associative algebra generated by variables x_1, \dots, x_n (multiplication operators) and \partial_1 = \frac{\partial}{\partial x_1}, \dots, \partial_n = \frac{\partial}{\partial x_n} (differentiation operators), subject to the canonical commutation relations [\partial_i, x_j] = \delta_{ij}, [x_i, x_j] = 0, and [\partial_i, \partial_j] = 0, where \delta_{ij} is the Kronecker delta.^[4]^[18] Elements of the Weyl algebra are finite sums \sum_{\alpha, \beta} c_{\alpha \beta} x^\alpha \partial^\beta, with c_{\alpha \beta} \in \mathbb{C}, and it acts on polynomials or holomorphic functions on \mathbb{C}^n by the usual rules of multiplication and differentiation.^[4] The Weyl algebra possesses several key ring-theoretic properties that make it central to algebraic analysis. It is a simple ring, meaning it has no nontrivial two-sided ideals, which implies that ideals in modules over it are well-behaved and supports the study of representations via irreducible modules.^[18] It satisfies the Ore condition, allowing the formation of localizations at multiplicative sets, which is essential for inverting operators and studying solutions to PDEs away from singular loci.^[18] By the Poincaré-Birkhoff-Witt (PBW) theorem, the monomials \{x^\alpha \partial^\beta \mid \alpha, \beta \in \mathbb{N}^n\} form a basis for A_n(\mathbb{C}) as a vector space over \mathbb{C}, providing a canonical normal form for elements via the associated graded algebra isomorphic to the symmetric algebra of the tangent space.^[18] In one variable, the first Weyl algebra A_1(\mathbb{C}) is presented as \mathbb{C}\langle x, \partial \rangle / (\partial x - x \partial - 1), where the relation encodes the Leibniz rule for differentiation. This algebra realizes \operatorname{Diff}(\mathbb{C}) and is used, for example, to algebraically encode the Airy equation \partial^2 f - x f = 0, whose solutions are the Airy functions \operatorname{Ai}(x) and \operatorname{Bi}(x), highlighting the bridge between algebraic structures and classical special functions.^[4]

Modules over Rings of Differential Operators

In algebraic analysis, modules over rings of differential operators, commonly referred to as D-modules, provide an algebraic framework for modeling systems of linear partial differential equations (PDEs) on a smooth manifold or complex variety X. A left D-module is a sheaf \mathcal{M} of left modules over the sheaf of rings \mathcal{D}_X of differential operators on X, where \mathcal{D}_X is generated by the structure sheaf \mathcal{O}_X and vector fields \Theta_X with the commutation relations [\partial_i, f] = \partial_i(f) for f \in \mathcal{O}_X. Solutions to a PDE system given by operators P_1, \dots, P_k \in \mathcal{D}_X correspond to sections of \mathcal{M} annihilated by the left ideal \mathcal{D}_X \cdot (P_1, \dots, P_k), allowing algebraic manipulation of solution spaces without direct analytic computation.^[19]^[20] Basic constructions in the category of D-modules include cyclic modules, such as \mathcal{D}_X / \mathcal{D}_X \cdot P for a single differential operator P \in \mathcal{D}_X, which encodes the solutions to the principal PDE P(u) = 0. Tensor products \mathcal{M} \otimes_{\mathcal{O}_X} \mathcal{N}, where \mathcal{M} is a left \mathcal{D}_X-module and \mathcal{N} a right one, produce another left \mathcal{D}_X-module, preserving coherence and enabling the study of products of PDE systems. The Hom functor \mathrm{Hom}_{\mathcal{D}_X}(\mathcal{M}, \mathcal{N}) yields the space of \mathcal{D}_X-linear morphisms, which is itself a \mathcal{O}_X-module, and supports derived functors like Ext for analyzing extensions between D-modules.^[19]^[21] Key properties of coherent D-modules include the existence of good filtrations, which are exhaustive and ascending filtrations F_\bullet \mathcal{M} such that the associated graded module \mathrm{gr}_F \mathcal{M} = \bigoplus_p F_p \mathcal{M} / F_{p-1} \mathcal{M} is finitely generated over the associated graded ring \mathrm{gr} \mathcal{D}_X \cong \mathrm{Sym}(\Theta_X), the symmetric algebra on the cotangent sheaf. The characteristic variety \mathrm{Ch}(\mathcal{M}) is defined as the support of \mathrm{gr}_F \mathcal{M} in the cotangent bundle T^* X, forming a conic Lagrangian subvariety independent of the choice of good filtration, with dimension \dim \mathrm{Ch}(\mathcal{M}) providing a measure of the "complexity" of the associated PDE system.^[19]^[20] Regular holonomic modules, a distinguished class of D-modules with \dim \mathrm{Ch}(\mathcal{M}) = \dim X, model Fuchsian systems of PDEs featuring regular singularities, such as the cyclic module \mathcal{D}_{\mathbb{A}^1} / \mathcal{D}_{\mathbb{A}^1} (z \partial_z - \alpha) on the affine line for non-integer \alpha \notin \mathbb{Z}, whose solutions are of the form u(z) = c z^\alpha away from the origin. The dimension-rank theorem asserts that for a regular holonomic D-module \mathcal{M}, the dimension of the solution space in the generic fiber equals the rank \mathrm{rk}(\mathcal{M}), defined as the dimension of \mathcal{M}_x / \mathfrak{m}_x \mathcal{M}_x at a generic point x \in X, ensuring finite-dimensionality and constancy of solution dimensions across strata.^[19]^[21]

Core Structures

Hyperfunctions and Their Algebraic Properties

Hyperfunctions, introduced by Mikio Sato, are generalized functions defined on an open set \Omega \subset \mathbb{R}^n as elements of the relative cohomology group B(\Omega) = H^n(V, V \setminus \Omega; \mathcal{O}), where V is a suitable open neighborhood in the complexification \mathbb{C}^n containing \Omega as a relatively closed subset, and \mathcal{O} is the sheaf of germs of holomorphic functions.^[22] This construction captures hyperfunctions as boundary values of holomorphic functions defined on Riemann domains over \Omega, extending the notion beyond distributions by incorporating analytic continuations across the real domain.^[22] Algebraically, the space of hyperfunctions B(\Omega) forms a sheaf over \mathbb{R}^n and acts as a module over the ring of real analytic functions A(\Omega), allowing multiplication by such functions while preserving the structure.^[22] Moreover, B(\Omega) is a module over the ring of linear partial differential operators with constant coefficients, denoted \mathrm{Diff}(\mathbb{R}^n), where operators act naturally via differentiation: for a hyperfunction u = [F] \in B(\Omega) represented by a holomorphic function F, the action of \partial/\partial x_j yields [\partial F / \partial z_j].^[22] The support of a hyperfunction is confined to real analytic submanifolds of \mathbb{R}^n, enabling a precise description; for instance, for a compact set K \subset \mathbb{R}^n, hyperfunctions with support in K are isomorphic to the dual of analytic functions on a neighborhood of K, via Serre duality.^[22] A fundamental result is Sato's theorem, which asserts that for any linear partial differential operator P(D) with constant coefficients and any open \Omega \subset \mathbb{R}^n, the image P(D)B(\Omega) = B(\Omega), guaranteeing the existence of hyperfunction solutions to the homogeneous equation P(D)u = 0 on \Omega.^[22] This extends classical solvability results from distributions to a broader class, as hyperfunctions encompass all distributions via the natural embedding \mathcal{D}'(\Omega) \hookrightarrow B(\Omega), with duality realized through the pairing with analytic functionals.^[22] Exact sequences further facilitate the study of solutions, such as those restricting supports to prescribed submanifolds while maintaining the module structure under operator action. A representative example is the Dirac delta hyperfunction \delta at the origin in one dimension, realized as the residue class [1/z] in B(\mathbb{R}), where z is the complex variable and the class is taken modulo holomorphic functions regular on the upper and lower half-planes.^[22] Algebraically, multiplication by a real analytic function a(x) yields a(x)\delta = a(0)\delta, preserving the module structure over A(\mathbb{R}), and differentiation gives \delta' = -[1/z^2], illustrating the compatibility with \mathrm{Diff}(\mathbb{R})-actions.^[22]

Microfunctions and Microlocalization

Microfunctions represent a microlocal refinement of hyperfunctions, capturing the singularities of distributions in phase space rather than solely on the base manifold. Introduced by Mikio Sato in 1970, they are defined as the sheaf \mu_M on the cotangent bundle T^*M of a real analytic manifold M, where sections over an open set U \subset T^*M correspond to generalized functions whose singularities are controlled microlocally.^[23] More precisely, for a complexification X of M, the sheaf of microfunctions is given by C_M = \mu_M(\mathcal{O}_X) \otimes \pi_M^{-1} \omega_M, where \pi_M: T^*M_X \to M is the projection and \omega_M is the orientation sheaf; these sections are supported on conormal bundles T^*_N M to closed submanifolds N \subset M, allowing precise localization of singularities along directions in the cotangent space.^[24] This structure extends the global theory of hyperfunctions by associating to each point in the base space a fiber of directional information in the cotangent bundle. The microlocalization functor formalizes this refinement within the derived category of sheaves. For sheaves \mathcal{F}, \mathcal{G} on M, the functor \mu\text{Hom}(\mathcal{F}, \mathcal{G}) is defined as \delta^{-1} \mu_\Delta R\text{Hom}(q_2^{-1} \mathcal{F}, q_1^! \mathcal{G}), where q_1, q_2: T^*M \times_M T^*M \to T^*M are projections, \Delta is the diagonal, and \delta is an isomorphism identifying the conormal bundle to the diagonal with the zero section; this yields a sheaf on T^*M encoding homological interactions microlocally.^[24] Dually, \mu\text{Tor}(\mathcal{F}, \mathcal{G}) arises in tensor products, facilitating computations of derived functors in the microlocal category and enabling the study of extensions and resolutions of singularities. These functors operate in the category of microsupports, where singularities propagate along bicharacteristics—integral curves of the Hamiltonian vector fields associated to principal symbols of differential operators—thus refining the analysis of how irregularities spread in phase space. Key properties of microfunctions revolve around the microsupport, denoted SS(\mathcal{F}), which for a sheaf \mathcal{F} on M is a closed conic subset of T^*M \setminus T^*_M M (the cotangent bundle minus the zero section), capturing the directions of non-propagation of sections.^[23] This set is co-isotropic with respect to the symplectic structure on T^*M, ensuring compatibility with Poisson brackets and Hamiltonian flows, and its projection to M recovers the classical support \operatorname{Supp}(\mathcal{F}).^[24] A fundamental result is the propagation theorem: for a hyperbolic differential operator P on M, if a section u of a microfunction sheaf is microlocally regular at a bicharacteristic point (x, \xi) \in SS(Pu), then it remains regular along the integral curve of the bicharacteristic through that point, except possibly at glancing regions. This theorem governs the flow of singularities under evolution equations, linking analytic behavior to geometric invariants in the cotangent bundle. A representative example arises in the study of the wave equation \partial_t^2 u - \Delta u = f on Minkowski space, where microlocal regularity of solutions propagates along light cones in phase space. Specifically, if the source f has microsupport contained in the forward light cone at a point (t_0, x_0; \tau, \xi), then singularities of u follow the null bicharacteristics, maintaining regularity transverse to these cones while concentrating along them, as dictated by the principal symbol's characteristics. This illustrates how microlocalization refines singularity analysis beyond global hyperfunctions, providing tools for precise control in hyperbolic PDEs.

D-Modules and Their Categories

In algebraic analysis, D-modules are defined as quasi-coherent sheaves of modules over the sheaf of differential operators \mathcal{D}_X on a smooth complex manifold or algebraic variety X. The sheaf \mathcal{D}_X is a filtered sheaf of algebras extending the structure sheaf \mathcal{O}_X by adjoining differential operators, and D-modules capture systems of linear partial differential equations in an algebraic framework. Coherent D-modules, which are of finite type over \mathcal{D}_X, correspond to differential systems with finite-dimensional spaces of solutions locally on X.^[25] The category of quasi-coherent left \mathcal{D}_X-modules, denoted \mathrm{Mod}(\mathcal{D}_X), forms an abelian category with enough injectives and projectives, enabling the study of exact sequences and homological algebra. For a morphism f: Y \to X of smooth varieties, key functors include the direct image f_*, which is exact when f is a closed embedding, and the inverse image f^*, preserving coherence. These functors facilitate the transfer of D-module structures between spaces, with the direct image under embeddings providing an exact way to restrict support to subvarieties. Locally, on affine space, \mathcal{D}_X is modeled by Weyl algebras, which serve as the ring-theoretic foundation for these categories.^[18] The bounded derived category D^b(\mathcal{D}_X) of coherent \mathcal{D}_X-modules is a triangulated category equipped with a standard t-structure, whose heart is the category of coherent D-modules. This derived category supports operations like tensor products and Hom complexes, essential for computing Ext groups that classify extensions of differential systems. A central result is the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence, which establishes an equivalence between the derived category of regular holonomic D-modules on X and the category of perverse sheaves on the cotangent bundle T^*X, translating algebraic data into geometric objects with controlled cohomology. Holonomic D-modules form a subcategory closed under these operations, linking to applications in solving partial differential equations.^[26] An illustrative example arises with regular singular D-modules, which model connections with moderate growth at singularities. For a closed embedding i: Y \hookrightarrow X of smooth varieties, Kashiwara's equivalence theorem asserts that the restriction functor i^+ from \mathcal{D}_X-modules supported on Y to \mathcal{D}_Y-modules is an equivalence of categories, with quasi-inverse given by the extension by zero i_!. This equivalence preserves coherence and holonomicity, allowing seamless passage of regular singular structures across embeddings without loss of information.^[27]

Applications to Differential Equations

Algebraic Solutions to PDEs

In algebraic analysis, systems of linear partial differential equations (PDEs) are modeled by coherent D-modules, which encode the algebraic structure of differential operators and their relations. The solution spaces to these PDEs are captured by the cohomology groups of the de Rham functor applied to the D-module M on a complex manifold X, specifically H^i(X, DR(M)), where DR(M) = Ω_X^\bullet \otimes_{O_X}^L M denotes the de Rham complex, with Ω_X^\bullet the sheaf of holomorphic differential forms and the differential induced by the connection on M.^[28] For i=0, H^0(X, DR(M)) consists of the holomorphic solutions to the PDEs defining M, while higher cohomology groups H^i(X, DR(M)) for i > 0 measure obstructions or higher extensions in the solution complex.^[29] This cohomological framework provides an algebraic tool to classify and compute solution spaces, particularly for holonomic D-modules where the cohomology sheaves are constructible by Kashiwara's theorem.^[28] Key methods for constructing algebraic solutions involve propagation along characteristics and asymptotic analysis near singularities. Integration along characteristics exploits the bicharacteristic flow in the cotangent bundle, determined by the Hamiltonian vector field of the principal symbol of the differential operators in M; this allows explicit construction of solutions by transporting initial data along these integral curves, ensuring consistency with the PDE in regions away from singularities.^[18] For asymptotic expansions of solutions near singular points, Varchenko's theorem describes the leading terms using the Newton polyhedron associated to the principal part of the operators and integrals over vanishing cycles in the homology of the singularity; this yields precise estimates on the growth or decay of solutions, linking the algebraic data of the D-module to analytic behavior via the Newton diagram filtration.^[30] A representative example arises in the Laplace equation Δu = 0 on ℂ^n, where the associated D-module—modeling the kernel of the Laplacian operator—admits spherical harmonics as an algebraic basis for its polynomial solutions; these harmonics, indexed by degree l and angular momentum quantum numbers, form an orthogonal basis under the L^2 inner product on the sphere, reflecting the module's global structure and irreducibility under the action of SO(n). Uniqueness and well-posedness of solutions are governed by algebraic criteria such as global generation of the D-module M, meaning M is generated by its global sections Γ(X, M); this condition implies that Ext^i_X(M, O_X) = 0 for i > 0, ensuring the existence and uniqueness of global holomorphic solutions for any global right-hand side in O_X, thus establishing well-posedness in the sense of Hadamard for the associated PDE system.^[31] For coherent D-modules, global generation further aligns with the non-characteristic decomposition theorem, allowing restriction to submanifolds while preserving solvability.^[31]

Holonomic Modules and Characteristic Varieties

In algebraic analysis, a coherent left \mathcal{D}_X-module M on a smooth complex manifold X of dimension n is called holonomic if its characteristic variety \mathrm{Ch}(M) has dimension n, which is the minimal possible dimension for a nonzero coherent \mathcal{D}_X-module.^[18] This condition is equivalent to M having finite length as a \mathcal{D}_X-module and, locally, admitting a finite-dimensional space of solutions in the sense of the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence, where the solution complex \mathrm{Sol}(M) has finite-dimensional stalks. The notion originates from the study of systems of linear partial differential equations, where holonomic modules capture those with "regular" singularity types that allow algebraic control over solution spaces.^[18] The characteristic variety \mathrm{Ch}(M) of a coherent \mathcal{D}_X-module M is defined as the support of the associated graded module \mathrm{gr}_F M with respect to the filtration by order of differential operators, viewed as a closed conical subvariety of the cotangent bundle T^*X.^[18] Equivalently, it is the zero set in T^*X of the principal symbols of operators annihilating M. For a holonomic module M, \mathrm{Ch}(M) is Lagrangian, meaning each of its irreducible components is an isotropic subvariety of dimension n in the symplectic manifold T^*X.^[18] In the special case of the Weyl algebra A_n = \mathcal{D}_{\mathbb{A}^n}, the Gabriel-Rentschler theorem classifies the primitive ideals, showing that simple holonomic modules correspond precisely to those whose characteristic varieties are Lagrangian subvarieties of dimension n.^[32] Holonomic \mathcal{D}_X-modules exhibit several key properties that make them central to algebraic analysis. The category of holonomic \mathcal{D}_X-modules is Artinian and Noetherian, hence every object has finite length, allowing for a well-behaved theory of extensions and subquotients.^[18] Kashiwara's constructibility theorem further ensures that, for a proper morphism f: X \to Y, the direct image f_* M remains holonomic if M is, and the solution sheaf \mathrm{Sol}(M) is constructible with respect to any Whitney stratification of X.^[18] These properties facilitate the algebraic study of partial differential equations by reducing analytic questions to geometric ones on T^*X. A representative example is the \mathcal{D}_{\mathbb{C}}-module associated to the Bessel equation, given by \mathcal{D}_{\mathbb{C}} / \mathcal{D}_{\mathbb{C}} \cdot P, where P = z^2 \partial_z^2 + z \partial_z + (z^2 - \nu^2) for fixed \nu \in \mathbb{C}. This module is holonomic, as its characteristic variety consists of the zero section \{\xi = 0\} \subset T^*\mathbb{C} union the conormal bundle to the origin \{z=0\}, both components being Lagrangian subvarieties of dimension $1.[33] The finite-dimensionality of local solutions reflects the regular singular behavior at z=0$, aligning with the general theory of holonomic systems.^[33]

Riemann-Hilbert Correspondence

The Riemann-Hilbert correspondence establishes a canonical equivalence between the derived category of regular holonomic D-modules on a complex manifold X and the derived category of perverse sheaves on X with quasi-unipotent monodromy.^[34] This equivalence, independently proved by Kashiwara and Mebkhout, generalizes the classical Riemann-Hilbert problem from one-dimensional Fuchsian equations to higher-dimensional systems of linear partial differential equations with regular singularities.^[34] It bridges the algebraic framework of D-modules, which encode solutions to differential equations, with the topological and analytic structure captured by perverse sheaves, which generalize local systems while allowing controlled singularities.^[26] The construction relies on the de Rham functor \mathrm{DR}, which maps a coherent D-module M on X to the complex of sheaves \mathrm{DR}(M) = \Omega^\bullet_X \otimes_{\mathcal{O}_X} M on the analytification X^\mathrm{an}, placed in degrees [- \dim X, 0] to ensure it lands in the heart of the perverse sheaf category for regular holonomic modules.^[26] This functor is t-exact with respect to the standard t-structures and fully faithful on the subcategory of regular holonomic D-modules.^[34] The inverse functor is constructed using the solution complex \mathrm{Sol}, which assigns to a perverse sheaf its sheaf of holomorphic solutions, combined with nearby and vanishing cycle functors to handle the quasi-unipotent monodromy condition and ensure the equivalence.^[26] A key implication is the algebraic computation of monodromy representations for Fuchsian systems, where the characteristic variety of the D-module determines the support of the corresponding perverse sheaf, allowing topological invariants like monodromy to be derived from algebraic data without direct analytic continuation.^[26] For instance, the monodromy around singular loci can be computed via the Jordan blocks arising from the quasi-unipotent condition, facilitating explicit descriptions in cases like confluent hypergeometric systems.^[34] As a representative example, the Gauss hypergeometric equation on \mathbb{P}^1 \setminus \{0,1,\infty\} corresponds, under the Riemann-Hilbert equivalence, to a rank-2 local system on the complement of the singularities, whose monodromy representation is determined by the parameters a,b,c and features quasi-unipotent eigenvalues at the punctures.^[26] This links the algebraic structure of the associated holonomic D-module to the topological data of the fundamental group, enabling the study of solution spaces via sheaf cohomology.^[34]

Connections to Other Fields

Links to Algebraic Geometry

Algebraic analysis establishes profound connections to algebraic geometry through the framework of D-modules on schemes, particularly in positive characteristic. A significant link arises in the study of crystalline cohomology, which can be interpreted as the cohomology computed using D-modules on the crystalline site. For a scheme X over a base of characteristic p > 0, the crystalline site \text{Cris}(X/W) consists of thickenings of X in p-adic formal schemes, and crystals on this site are sheaves equipped with descent data compatible with divided powers. The cohomology groups H^i_{\text{crys}}(X/W) are then the hypercohomology of the structure sheaf regarded as a crystal, and more generally, crystalline cohomology with coefficients in a crystal E corresponds to the D-module cohomology H^i(X, \mathcal{D}_X \otimes_{\mathcal{O}_X} E), where \mathcal{D}_X is the sheaf of crystalline differential operators on the site. This perspective unifies de Rham cohomology in characteristic zero with its positive characteristic analogue, allowing D-module techniques to probe arithmetic invariants like Frobenius eigenvalues on cohomology.^[35] Another cornerstone correspondence is the Beilinson-Bernstein localization theorem, which realizes representations of a complex semisimple Lie algebra \mathfrak{g} as D-modules on the flag variety G/B, where G is the corresponding Lie group and B a Borel subgroup. The theorem asserts that for a regular integral weight \lambda, the global sections functor \Gamma(G/B, -): \text{Mod}^{\lambda}(\mathcal{D}_{G/B}) \to U(\mathfrak{g})_{\lambda}\text{-mod} induces an equivalence between the category of twisted D-modules on G/B and the category of U(\mathfrak{g})-modules of infinitesimal character \lambda, where \mathcal{D}_{G/B} denotes the sheaf of differential operators. This localization provides a geometric quantization of flag varieties, as the category of twisted D-modules admits a natural action from the universal enveloping algebra, enabling the study of Verma modules and their cohomology via sheaf-theoretic tools like Bernstein's filtration. The theorem extends to equivariant settings and has implications for the geometric Langlands program by bridging representation theory with sheaf categories on algebraic varieties.^[36] A pivotal development is Morihiko Saito's theory of mixed Hodge modules, which constructs an abelian category of regular holonomic D-modules on a smooth algebraic variety X over \mathbb{C}, endowed with a mixed Hodge structure compatible with the filtration by order of operators. These modules are the algebraic counterparts to holonomic D-modules in the analytic category, but enhanced with weight and Hodge filtrations that realize Deligne's mixed Hodge structures on the cohomology of algebraic varieties and their families. Specifically, a mixed Hodge module is a pair (M, (F^\bullet M, K^\bullet M)), where M is a regular holonomic \mathcal{D}_X-module, F^\bullet M is an algebraic filtration inducing the Hodge filtration on H^*(M), and K^\bullet M is a weight filtration such that the associated graded pieces carry pure Hodge structures. This theory algebraizes the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence by providing a Tannakian category for variations of mixed Hodge structures, with direct images and extraordinary inverse images preserving the structure, thus facilitating computations of intersection cohomology and vanishing theorems in algebraic geometry.^[37] An illustrative example of these links is the Gauss-Manin connection viewed as a flat D-module on the moduli space of curves. Consider the universal family \pi: \mathcal{C} \to \mathcal{M}_g of smooth projective curves of genus g \geq 2, where \mathcal{M}_g is the moduli space. The higher direct image R^1 \pi_* \Omega^1_{\mathcal{C}/\mathcal{M}_g} forms the Hodge bundle, and the full de Rham cohomology bundle \mathcal{H} = R\pi_* \mathbb{C} carries a natural flat connection \nabla_{\text{GM}}, the Gauss-Manin connection, induced by the variation of cohomology across the family. In D-module terms, this corresponds to the flat \mathcal{D}_{\mathcal{M}_g}-module structure on \pi_+ \mathcal{O}_\mathcal{C}, where the flatness ensures monodromy representations factor through the fundamental group of \mathcal{M}_g, linking period integrals to algebraic cycles and providing a concrete instance of how D-module pushforwards encode geometric invariants over moduli stacks.^[38]

Interactions with Symplectic Geometry

Algebraic analysis interacts deeply with symplectic geometry through the microlocal perspective, where the cotangent bundle T^*X of a manifold X serves as the phase space endowed with a canonical symplectic structure. This structure is given by the closed non-degenerate 2-form \omega = \sum dq_i \wedge dp_i, which governs the dynamics of differential equations via the Poisson bracket on the algebra of symbols of pseudodifferential operators. For symbols a and b on T^*X, the Poisson bracket is defined as \{a, b\} = H_a b, where H_a denotes the Hamiltonian vector field associated to a, capturing the symplectic flow along the bicharacteristics—the integral curves of H_a restricted to the characteristic variety of the operator. These bicharacteristics describe the propagation of singularities in solutions to partial differential equations, linking algebraic properties of D-modules to geometric flows in symplectic geometry.^[39]^[40]^[41] Quantization bridges the classical symplectic framework to the non-commutative setting of algebraic analysis, realizing the deformation of the Poisson algebra of symbols into the Weyl algebra of differential operators. This deformation quantizes the symplectic structure, where the Poisson bracket \{a, b\} is promoted to the commutator via the relation [A, B] = i\hbar \{a, b\} + O(\hbar^2), with Weyl ordering providing the explicit association of symmetric polynomials in position and momentum to operators. In this context, holonomic D-modules arise as quantized objects whose characteristic varieties are Lagrangian submanifolds of T^*X, maximal isotropic submanifolds with respect to \omega, thus encoding supports that are geometrically minimal in the symplectic sense. The Duistermaat-Heckman theorem, asserting that the pushforward of the Liouville measure under a Hamiltonian group action is piecewise polynomial, receives an algebraic interpretation through hyperfunction theory, where the theorem's exactness is derived from microlocal propagation properties without relying on analytic continuation.^[42]^[43]^[44] A notable application occurs in integrable Hamiltonian systems, where D-modules on the base space, constructed via moment maps, provide an algebraic criterion for integrability by ensuring the existence of flat connections along the symplectic leaves. For instance, in systems with a torus action, the moment map \mu: T^*X \to \mathfrak{t}^* induces holonomic modules whose Riemann-Hilbert realizations yield solutions integrable in the algebraic sense, aligning the commutative diagrams of D-module categories with the symplectic reduction process. This interplay highlights how algebraic analysis refines symplectic invariants, such as the Duistermaat-Heckman measure, into computable sheaf-theoretic data.^[45]

Representation Theory and Quantization

Algebraic analysis provides a framework for geometric quantization on Kähler manifolds through the theory of D-modules, where the prequantum line bundle is realized algebraically, and the Hilbert space of quantum states consists of global sections of twisted holomorphic line bundles on the manifold. For a Kähler manifold X equipped with a symplectic form \omega, the quantization associates to the structure sheaf \mathcal{O}_X(k) (for large k) the space H^0(X, \mathcal{O}_X(k)), which serves as the Hilbert space, while the sheaf of differential operators \mathcal{D}_X governs the algebraic structure of observables. This approach integrates seamlessly with representation theory, as the category of twisted coherent D-modules on X captures the quantized algebra of functions.^[46] In the context of semisimple Lie groups, Category O and Harish-Chandra modules are realized geometrically via D-modules, with parabolic induction corresponding to induction functors between categories of equivariant D-modules on flag varieties. A Harish-Chandra module is a (\mathfrak{g}, K)-module with finite-dimensional K-isotypic components, and its maximal globalization is given by the cohomology of equivariant sheaves on the flag manifold X = G/B. Parabolic induction from a Levi subgroup L to G is expressed explicitly using the Harish-Chandra D-module on G \times T, where T is a maximal torus; this module is flat over \mathcal{D}(T), ensuring exactness of the induction and restriction functors between admissible derived categories. This D-module perspective unifies algebraic and geometric constructions in representation theory.^[47]^[46] A seminal result bridging these areas is the Beilinson-Bernstein theorem, which establishes an equivalence between the category of U(\mathfrak{g})-modules with fixed infinitesimal character \lambda (in the regular case) and the category of twisted coherent D-modules on the flag variety X. Specifically, for \lambda dominant integral, the global sections functor \Gamma(X, \cdot): \mathrm{Mod}^c(\mathcal{D}_{X,\lambda}) \to \mathrm{Mod}(U(\mathfrak{g}), \lambda) is an equivalence, realizing Verma modules as twisted D-modules supported on closed B-orbits. This theorem, requiring conditions such as (\alpha, \lambda - \rho) \notin \mathbb{Z}_{\geq 0} for positive roots \alpha, provides a geometric realization of highest weight representations and resolves key conjectures in representation theory.^[46] An illustrative example arises in the quantization of coadjoint orbits for semisimple Lie groups, where irreducible unitary representations correspond to holonomic D-modules on the orbit. For a coadjoint orbit \mathcal{O} \subset \mathfrak{g}^*, the quantization is the irreducible holonomic \mathcal{D}_\mathcal{O}-module associated to the structure sheaf, with its characteristic variety being the orbit closure; this aligns with the orbit method, linking classical symplectic geometry to quantum representations via algebraic analysis tools like microlocalization. The Weyl algebra serves here as the basic quantization ring for the flat case, extending to twisted versions on curved orbits.^[46]

Advanced Topics and Extensions

Perverse Sheaves in Algebraic Analysis

Perverse sheaves arise in algebraic analysis as a refinement of sheaf theory on singular spaces, providing a framework to study solutions to differential equations topologically. They are defined as the full subcategory of the heart of the middle perversity t-structure on the bounded derived category of constructible sheaves on a complex algebraic variety X. This t-structure, denoted ^p D^b_c(X), shifts the standard t-structure by the dimension of X to accommodate singularities, ensuring that perverse sheaves satisfy support and cosupport conditions that generalize those of local systems on smooth varieties. In the context of algebraic analysis, perverse sheaves play a central role through the Riemann-Hilbert correspondence, which establishes an equivalence between the category of regular holonomic \mathcal{D}_X-modules and the category of perverse sheaves on X. Under this equivalence, the de Rham functor maps holonomic \mathcal{D}-modules to perverse sheaves, translating algebraic data from differential operators into topological invariants. The category of perverse sheaves is preserved under Verdier duality, which interchanges a perverse sheaf F with its dual D F \cong F^\vee [\dim X], facilitating the study of Poincaré duality in singular settings. Additionally, for perverse coherent sheaves— the coherent analog in the derived category of quasi-coherent sheaves—an Artin-type vanishing theorem holds: on a projective variety, the higher cohomology of a perverse coherent sheaf twisted by an ample line bundle vanishes.^[34]^[48] Key properties of perverse sheaves include their behavior under morphisms with supports along simple normal crossings divisors, where the category remains well-behaved and allows explicit computations via stratifications. The decomposition theorem further highlights their utility: for a proper morphism f: X \to Y between smooth projective varieties and a simple perverse sheaf K on X, the direct image R f_* K decomposes as a direct sum \bigoplus_i p H^i (R f_* K) [ -i ] of its perverse cohomology sheaves, each supported on closed strata of Y. This semisimple decomposition underpins many applications in topology and geometry, enabling the control of cohomology via irreducible components.^[49] A canonical example is the intersection cohomology complex \mathrm{IC}_X, which forms a simple perverse sheaf on X whose hypercohomology computes the intersection cohomology groups \mathrm{IH}^*(X). Algebraically, this is realized through mixed Hodge modules, where \mathrm{IC}_X underlies a polarizable mixed Hodge module, endowing it with a compatible mixed Hodge structure that extends Deligne's mixed Hodge theory to singular varieties.^[50]

Non-Commutative Geometry Perspectives

Non-commutative geometry extends algebraic analysis by incorporating deformed structures that generalize classical commutative rings, particularly in the context of D-modules over non-commutative algebras. Quantized Weyl algebras, which deform the classical Weyl algebra associated to a symplectic vector space by introducing a parameter q (or \hbar), provide a framework for studying differential operators in a quantum setting. These algebras arise as q-deformations of the universal enveloping algebra of the Heisenberg Lie algebra and play a central role in the theory of D-modules on quantum spaces, enabling algebraic treatments of quantum differential equations.^[51] Crystal bases, introduced by Kashiwara for representations of quantum groups, further enrich this context by offering combinatorial models for the structure of modules over these quantized algebras, facilitating the study of irreducible representations and their limits as q \to 0. In the D-module framework, crystal bases allow for a crystal-theoretic description of equivariant D-modules on flag varieties, bridging representation theory and microlocal analysis. Kashiwara's foundational work in this area, including crystal bases and D-modules, was recognized with the 2025 Abel Prize for his contributions to algebraic analysis and representation theory.^[52]^[11]^[53] A key perspective comes from Kontsevich's formality theorem, which establishes that the Hochschild cochains of a Poisson manifold form a differential graded Lie algebra quasi-isomorphic to its polyvector fields, allowing a universal quantization via a star product on the algebra of functions. This theorem, proved using graph-based methods and homological perturbation theory, applies directly to analytic spaces by providing a formal deformation quantization that deforms the commutative product while preserving the Poisson bracket up to higher orders. In algebraic analysis, this enables the construction of non-commutative D-modules on deformed analytic spaces, where solutions to PDEs are lifted to modules over the quantized ring of differential operators. The approach has been extended to complex analytic manifolds, ensuring the existence of star products compatible with holomorphic structures.^[54]^[55]^[56] Significant developments include Etingof's work on quantizing Poisson manifolds in the 2000s, particularly through non-commutative resolutions that replace singular commutative varieties with smooth non-commutative algebras, such as in the case of del Pezzo surfaces. Collaborating with Kazhdan, Etingof constructed explicit quantizations of Poisson algebraic groups and homogeneous spaces using dynamical Weyl groups, providing a framework for non-commutative Poisson geometry that integrates with D-module theory. These resolutions facilitate the study of quantized symplectic reductions and have applications to non-commutative algebraic geometry, where they resolve singularities algebraically. For instance, in the quantization of Poisson-Lie groups, Etingof's methods yield twisted Hopf algebra structures that deform classical Lie bialgebras.^[57]^[58]^[59] An illustrative example is the theory of q-deformed D-modules associated to quantum groups, which algebraically solve q-difference equations by viewing them as holonomic modules over a quantized ring of difference operators. These modules generalize classical D-modules by replacing partial derivatives with q-shifted operators, allowing solutions to equations like the q-deformed d'Alembert equation, which arises from subsingular vectors in Verma modules of quantum enveloping algebras. This approach, rooted in Bernstein-Gelfand-Gelfand representations, provides algebraic tools for analyzing conditional invariance under quantum group actions, with applications to integrable systems and quantum integrable hierarchies.^[60]^[61]

Computational Aspects and Algorithms

Computational methods in algebraic analysis rely heavily on algorithms adapted to non-commutative structures like the Weyl algebra, which underpins D-module theory. Gröbner bases, originally developed by Bruno Buchberger for polynomial rings in the 1960s and extended to non-commutative settings in the 1980s, provide a cornerstone for these computations by enabling ideal membership tests, elimination, and syzygy calculations in the Weyl algebra. These bases facilitate the resolution of systems of linear partial differential equations with polynomial coefficients, allowing for effective computation of solution spaces and characteristic varieties in D-modules.^[62] Cylindrical algebraic decomposition (CAD), an algorithm for quantifier elimination over the reals introduced by George Collins in 1975, plays a role in analyzing holonomic functions by decomposing the real space into cells where sign conditions on polynomials are constant. In the context of holonomic functions—solutions to holonomic D-modules—CAD aids in determining real positivity, monotonicity, or integration domains, particularly when verifying inequalities or computing definite integrals symbolically. This is especially useful for practical applications like proving log-concavity or bounding behaviors of special functions arising from algebraic analysis.^[63] Dedicated software packages implement these and related algorithms for D-module computations. The Singular system includes the dmod.lib library, which supports Gröbner bases, b-function calculations, and holonomic rank computations over Weyl algebras. Similarly, Macaulay2's Dmodules package offers tools for Weyl algebra operations, including dimension, holonomicity checks, and Fourier transforms, making it suitable for algebraic geometry intersections. FriCAS incorporates Ore algebras for handling partial differential operators with non-commutative Gröbner bases, enabling multivariate computations in differential operator rings.^[64]^[65]^[66] Recent advances have enhanced efficiency for key invariants in algebraic analysis. In the 2010s, algorithms for computing Bernstein-Sato polynomials—polynomials encoding singularity information—were refined using Gröbner bases and syzygy methods, with implementations allowing computation for ideals in multiple variables. Parallel computing techniques have been explored to accelerate these, particularly for high-dimensional cases, though full parallelism remains challenging due to non-commutativity. Post-2020 developments integrate machine learning for singularity detection, such as neural networks classifying terminal singularities on toric varieties from geometric data, achieving high accuracy on eight-dimensional examples and aiding in the automated exploration of singular loci.^[67]^[68] A representative example is the computation of global b-functions for A-hypergeometric systems, which arise from toric varieties and describe multivariate hypergeometric functions. These b-functions, minimal polynomials annihilating powers of the defining polynomial, can be computed using the associated toric ideal's structure: the ideal's generators inform the syzygies in the Weyl algebra, yielding the b-function via elimination ideals. For instance, in systems defined by integer matrices A, the global b-function bounds the roots related to the volume of the Newton polytope, computed explicitly for low-rank cases to reveal integrality properties.^[69]

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In this paper we demonstrate that machine learning can be used to understand this classification. We focus on eight-dimensional positively-curved algebraic ...
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[1511.03327] On the $b$-functions of hypergeometric systems - arXiv
Nov 10, 2015 · We describe bounds for the (roots of the) b-functions of both M_A(\beta) and its Fourier transform along the hyperplanes (x_j=0).Missing: computing global toric ideals