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Angiotensin II receptor

The angiotensin II receptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that bind the octapeptide hormone angiotensin II, serving as key mediators in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) to regulate blood pressure, fluid and electrolyte balance, vascular tone, and cardiovascular homeostasis.^[1] These receptors, primarily the type 1 (AT₁R) and type 2 (AT₂R) subtypes, exhibit distinct but sometimes opposing physiological effects, with AT₁R driving most vasoconstrictive and pro-inflammatory actions while AT₂R promotes vasodilation and tissue protection.^[2] The existence of specific receptors for angiotensin II was first demonstrated in the 1970s through radioligand binding studies. The AT₁ receptor was cloned in 1991 from rat vascular smooth muscle cells, revealing its role as the primary mediator of angiotensin II's effects in adults. The AT₂ receptor was cloned in 1993, noted for its distinct expression and functions. Nomenclature was standardized in the mid-1990s by an international consensus, designating the subtypes as AT₁ and AT₂ to reflect their pharmacological profiles, replacing earlier designations like type I/III and type II.^[3]

Introduction

Definition and physiological role

Angiotensin II receptors are a class of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that bind angiotensin II (Ang II), the primary bioactive peptide of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), a hormonal cascade essential for cardiovascular and renal homeostasis.^[1] These receptors, predominantly the AT1 and AT2 subtypes, transduce Ang II signals across cell membranes to elicit diverse cellular responses in target organs such as the vasculature, kidneys, and adrenal glands.^[4] As members of the class A (rhodopsin-like) GPCR superfamily, they exhibit evolutionary conservation across vertebrates, reflecting their fundamental role in physiological adaptation to environmental stressors like dehydration and hemorrhage.^[5] Ang II itself is an octapeptide hormone produced through sequential enzymatic cleavage: angiotensinogen is first converted to the decapeptide angiotensin I by renin, which is then hydrolyzed to Ang II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), mainly in the pulmonary endothelium and renal tissues.^[6] Upon binding to its receptors, Ang II initiates signaling cascades that primarily activate Gq/11 proteins, leading to phospholipase C activation, inositol trisphosphate production, and subsequent intracellular calcium mobilization.^[1] This receptor-mediated activation ensures precise control over Ang II's effects, preventing indiscriminate hormonal action and allowing tissue-specific responses.^[7] The core physiological roles of angiotensin II receptors center on maintaining blood pressure, fluid volume, and electrolyte balance. Through AT1 receptor activation, they promote vasoconstriction to elevate vascular tone and systemic pressure, while also stimulating aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex to enhance renal sodium reabsorption and water retention.^[4] In the kidney, receptor signaling modulates glomerular filtration and tubular reabsorption, fine-tuning extracellular fluid volume.^[7] Notably, the two main subtypes exhibit partially counter-regulatory functions: AT1 drives pressor and growth-promoting effects, whereas AT2 often opposes these by promoting vasodilation and natriuresis, contributing to overall system balance.^[1]

Historical discovery and nomenclature

The discovery of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), of which angiotensin II (Ang II) receptors serve as key mediators, traces back to 1898 when Robert Tigerstedt and Per Bergman identified renin as a pressor substance in rabbit kidney extracts that elevated blood pressure upon injection. Subsequent work in the 1930s by Irvine Page and colleagues revealed that renin acted on a plasma substrate—later termed angiotensinogen—to produce a heat-stable vasopressor factor, setting the stage for understanding Ang II as the system's primary effector. By the early 1950s, Leonard Skeggs and his team purified and characterized two forms of angiotensin: the inactive decapeptide angiotensin I and the active octapeptide Ang II, confirming a two-step enzymatic conversion process involving a converting enzyme, which highlighted the receptors' role in transducing Ang II's physiological effects such as vasoconstriction and aldosterone release. Receptor studies advanced in the 1970s with the development of radiolabeled Ang II for binding assays, enabling the identification of specific high-affinity sites in vascular, adrenal, and renal tissues. These assays, pioneered by researchers like Pierre Meyer and colleagues, demonstrated receptor heterogeneity and downregulation by Ang II itself, as reported in studies from 1976 onward. Pharmacological differentiation in the 1980s using peptide analogs revealed two distinct subtypes: AT1, predominant in adult tissues and mediating classic RAAS actions, and AT2, more abundant in fetal tissues with opposing effects. The molecular era began with the cloning of the AT1 receptor in 1991 by Koji Sasaki and colleagues from bovine adrenal cortex cDNA, followed by the AT2 receptor cloning in 1993 by Mitsuo Kambayashi's group from rat pheochromocytoma cells, establishing both as G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) within the rhodopsin-like family. Nomenclature evolved from generic "angiotensin receptors" to the standardized AT1 and AT2 designations proposed in 1991 by the Nomenclature Committee of the Council for High Blood Pressure Research, chaired by F. Merlin Bumpus, based on pharmacological profiles and molecular sequences. Early proposals in the 1990s introduced AT3 and AT4 subtypes for atypical binding sites—AT3 for certain non-mammalian or variant responses, and AT4 for high-affinity Ang IV (Ang II[3-8]) sites—but subsequent reclassification showed AT3 lacked distinct molecular identity, while AT4 was identified as insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP), a non-GPCR enzyme, rather than a true Ang II receptor. Key pharmacological milestones included the synthesis of losartan in 1986 by DuPont scientists Robert Smith and others, the first selective non-peptide AT1 antagonist, which facilitated subtype validation and led to its clinical approval in 1995. More recently, cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures in the 2020s, such as the 2023 resolution of the human AT1R-Gq-Sar1-Ang II complex at 2.9 Å by Dan Zhang and colleagues, have provided atomic-level insights into ligand-receptor interactions, building on earlier X-ray crystallography efforts.^[8]

Molecular Structure

Overall architecture

Angiotensin II receptors belong to the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily and exhibit the canonical architecture characteristic of class A (rhodopsin-like) GPCRs, consisting of seven transmembrane alpha-helices (TM1–TM7) that form a bundle embedded in the cell membrane.^[9] These receptors feature an extracellular N-terminal domain, an intracellular C-terminal tail, three extracellular loops (ECL1–ECL3) connecting the transmembrane helices on the outer side, and three intracellular loops (ICL1–ICL3) on the cytoplasmic side that facilitate interactions with intracellular signaling partners.^[10] This topological arrangement positions the ligand-binding site within the transmembrane bundle and enables signal transduction across the membrane upon activation.^[10] Key conserved structural features include the orthosteric binding pocket located deep within the TM bundle, primarily formed by residues from TM2, TM3, TM6, and TM7, which accommodates the peptide ligand angiotensin II.^[10] G-protein coupling occurs primarily through the ICL2 and ICL3 regions, as well as the C-terminal tail, allowing recruitment of heterotrimeric G proteins such as Gq/11 for AT1R and Gi/o for AT2R.^[11] Additionally, angiotensin II receptors possess the potential for dimerization, with interfaces involving TM1, TM4, and TM5, which can influence receptor trafficking and signaling efficacy.^[12] The primary sequence of angiotensin II receptors comprises approximately 350–363 amino acids, resulting in a calculated molecular weight of around 40–41 kDa for the unglycosylated form.^[13]^[14] Post-translational modifications, including N-linked glycosylation sites on the extracellular N-terminus (e.g., at Asn residues in the first 30 amino acids), contribute to receptor maturation, stability, and surface expression, often increasing the apparent molecular weight to 60–100 kDa in glycosylated forms.^[15] Structural determination has advanced significantly in recent years, beginning with the 2015 room-temperature crystal structure of the human AT1 receptor in complex with the antagonist ZD7155 at 2.9 Å resolution (PDB: 4YAY), which confirmed the 7TM helical bundle and revealed the ligand-binding pocket's conformation in the inactive state.^[9] Subsequent cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) studies in the 2020s have resolved active conformations, such as the AT1 receptor bound to angiotensin II and Gq protein (e.g., PDB: 7F6G at 3.2 Å), delineating both orthosteric and allosteric sites involved in peptide recognition and G-protein engagement.^[16] For the AT2 receptor, crystal structures such as the 2019 inactive-state structure in complex with an agonist analog (PDB: 6DO1) and with angiotensin II (PDB: 5XJ1) reveal a similar 7TM architecture but with distinct features, including a different ligand-binding pose and repositioning of helix 8 that may inhibit canonical G protein coupling.^[17] These high-resolution structures have provided a foundational template for understanding the overall architecture shared by angiotensin II receptor subtypes.^[11]

Ligand binding and activation mechanisms

The orthosteric binding pocket of the angiotensin II receptor, a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), is primarily formed by transmembrane helices TM2, TM3, TM6, and TM7, along with the extracellular loop 2 (ECL2), which contributes to ligand recognition and subtype selectivity.^[2] Angiotensin II (Ang II), the endogenous ligand, binds in a manner that positions its C-terminal carboxylate group deep within this pocket, forming critical hydrogen bonds with key residues such as Arg167 in ECL2 and Asn111 in TM3, stabilizing the interaction and facilitating receptor engagement.^[18] These interactions, conserved across subtypes like AT1 and AT2, enable the peptide's N-terminus to extend toward the extracellular surface while the core sequence anchors within the transmembrane domain.^[2] Upon ligand binding, the receptor undergoes a conformational shift from an inactive state, characterized by an open extracellular vestibule, to an active state with a closed extracellular region and an open intracellular crevice for G protein coupling.^[19] This activation is driven by the outward movement of TM6 by approximately 14 Å, a hallmark GPCR activation motif that disrupts ionic locks and repositions residues like the NPxxY motif in TM7, propagating the signal intracellularly.^[2] In AT1 receptors, Ang II induces this transition through direct contacts with the toggle switch residue Trp253^{6.48}, promoting helix rearrangements essential for efficacy.^[20] Allosteric modulation fine-tunes ligand efficacy and selectivity at the angiotensin II receptor; for instance, cholesterol binding in the transmembrane core stabilizes inactive conformations, reducing Ang II potency, while intracellular sodium ions allosterically inhibit activation by preserving ionic interactions in the inactive state.^[2] Biased ligands, such as TRV027, exploit these sites to preferentially activate β-arrestin pathways over Gq signaling, altering the conformational landscape without fully engaging the orthosteric pocket.^[19] The binding affinity of Ang II to the receptor typically exhibits a dissociation constant (K_d) in the range of 0.5-2 nM, reflecting high potency suitable for physiological concentrations.^[21] This affinity can be modeled using the Langmuir binding isotherm, which describes fractional receptor occupancy (θ) as a function of ligand concentration [L]:

\theta = \frac{[L]}{K_d + [L]}

This equation derives from the law of mass action under equilibrium conditions, where θ approaches 1 at saturating [L], providing a basis for dose-response analyses in receptor pharmacology.^[2]

Receptor Subtypes

AT1 Receptor

The AT1 receptor, also known as the angiotensin II type 1 receptor, is encoded by the AGTR1 gene located on the long arm of human chromosome 3 at position 3q21-25.^[22] This gene spans approximately 45 kb and consists of five exons, with multiple transcription initiation sites contributing to its regulation.^[23]^[22] In humans, AGTR1 produces a single isoform of the AT1 receptor, whereas rodents exhibit gene duplication resulting in two highly homologous subtypes: AT1A (Agtr1a) and AT1B (Agtr1b), which share approximately 94-95% amino acid sequence identity but display tissue-specific expression patterns.^[24] These isoforms in rodents arise from distinct chromosomal loci—Agtr1a on chromosome 13 and Agtr1b on chromosome 3—allowing for nuanced physiological responses in experimental models.^[24] Structurally, the human AT1 receptor is a seven-transmembrane G protein-coupled receptor comprising 359 amino acids, with a calculated molecular mass of approximately 41 kDa prior to post-translational modifications such as N-glycosylation at three sites (Asn4, Asn176, and Asn188), which facilitate proper folding and plasma membrane trafficking.^[25] The receptor's extracellular N-terminus and intracellular C-terminus flank the transmembrane helices (TM1-TM7), with key ligand-interaction sites in the helical bundle. A notable residue for subtype selectivity and antagonist binding is Lys199 in transmembrane helix 5 (TM5), which forms salt bridges with the acidic moieties of non-peptide antagonists, contributing to the receptor's high affinity for these compounds over the AT2 subtype.^[9] This structural feature underscores the AT1 receptor's distinct pharmacological profile within the angiotensin receptor family. The AT1 receptor exhibits widespread tissue distribution, with particularly high expression in cardiovascular and renal tissues critical to the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). In the vasculature, it is abundantly present in smooth muscle cells, where it mediates contractile responses; in the kidney, expression is prominent in juxtaglomerular cells, proximal tubules, and glomeruli; and in the adrenal cortex, it drives aldosterone secretion.^[26] Cardiac myocytes and fibroblasts also express high levels, supporting its role in myocardial remodeling, while hepatic expression influences glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.^[27] In the central nervous system, AT1 receptors are enriched in circumventricular organs such as the subfornical organ, organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis, and area postrema, which lack a blood-brain barrier and facilitate neuroendocrine integration of circulating angiotensin II signals.^[28] The AT1 receptor accounts for approximately 80-90% of the physiological effects of angiotensin II, including vasoconstriction, aldosterone release, and sodium retention, making it the primary mediator of RAAS-dependent homeostasis.^[29] It demonstrates particular sensitivity to non-peptide antagonists such as losartan and valsartan, which bind with high selectivity (often >10,000-fold over AT2) due to interactions at sites like Lys199, enabling effective blockade without agonist activity.^[30] This pharmacological distinction has positioned AT1 as the key therapeutic target for modulating angiotensin II actions in clinical settings.

AT2 Receptor

The angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2R), encoded by the AGTR2 gene located on the X chromosome at Xq23, is a single-isoform protein consisting of 363 amino acids.^[31] The gene spans approximately 5 kb with three exons, where the third exon encodes the full receptor sequence.^[31] As a member of the seven-transmembrane G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily, AT2R shares about 34% overall amino acid sequence homology with the AT1 receptor, though the transmembrane domains exhibit greater conservation to support similar ligand binding topology, while the extracellular and intracellular domains diverge significantly.^[1] Structurally, AT2R features unique residues such as Phe308 in the seventh transmembrane domain, which contributes to its specific interactions with angiotensin II (Ang II). AT2R expression is developmentally regulated, with high levels predominant in fetal tissues including the mesenchyme, lung, and kidney, where it plays a key role during organogenesis.^[1] In adults, expression declines markedly and is restricted to specific sites such as the brain (particularly the medulla and locus coeruleus), adrenal medulla, uterine myometrium, kidney tubules, and atretic ovaries, with notably low abundance in the vasculature compared to AT1R.^[31]^[1] This pattern underscores its counterbalancing role to AT1R, often opposing growth-promoting effects in a tissue-specific manner.^[32] Distinctive features of AT2R include its higher binding affinity for Ang II, with a dissociation constant (Kd) of approximately 0.45 nM, enabling sensitive detection of the ligand.^[33] In adult tissues, AT2R typically constitutes 10-20% of total Ang II receptors, reflecting its minor but functionally significant presence.^[34] Unlike AT1R, AT2R is resistant to blockade by common AT1 receptor antagonists such as losartan, allowing selective preservation of its effects.^[35] Additionally, AT2R exhibits potential for homo- and heterodimerization with AT1R, which may modulate receptor trafficking and signaling efficiency in co-expressing cells.^[36] The angiotensin II receptor family extends beyond the canonical AT1 and AT2 subtypes to include non-canonical receptors historically associated with angiotensin II fragments or alternative RAAS components, though many remain hypothetical or reclassified.^[1] The AT3 receptor, proposed in early 1990s reports based on unique binding pharmacology in certain tissues, has not been cloned or molecularly identified, and current evidence attributes such observations to artifacts, experimental variability, or functional heterodimers of AT1 and AT2 receptors.^[1] These early findings suggested a third subtype with distinct signaling, but subsequent studies failed to confirm its existence as a separate entity.^[37] In contrast, the AT4 receptor has been definitively identified as insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP), a type II transmembrane zinc metallopeptidase encoded by the LNPEP gene on chromosome 5q15.2.^[38] IRAP selectively binds angiotensin IV (Ang IV, the Ang II 3-8 fragment) with high affinity, acting as an enzyme inhibitor rather than a classical GPCR.^[39] It is widely distributed in tissues including the brain (particularly hippocampus), kidney, and heart, where it localizes to intracellular vesicles and plasma membranes.^[40] Ang IV binding to IRAP mediates renal effects such as increased cortical blood flow and reduced sodium transport in proximal tubules, contributing to local hemodynamic regulation within the kidney.^[41] In the brain, IRAP facilitates cognitive processes, including learning and memory enhancement, by modulating neuronal activity in regions like the hippocampus.^[39] The Mas receptor, a G protein-coupled receptor encoded by the MAS1 gene on chromosome 7p21.3, serves as the primary receptor for angiotensin (1-7), a counter-regulatory peptide in the RAAS that opposes many Ang II actions.^[42] Expressed prominently in the kidney, heart, and brain, Mas shares limited sequence homology (approximately 19% with AT2 and less with AT1) but couples to similar G protein pathways.^[43]^[44] Activation of Mas by Ang (1-7) promotes vasodilation through endothelial nitric oxide synthase stimulation and nitric oxide release, supporting vasoprotective effects.^[45] Recent 2020s research has explored the (pro)renin receptor, encoded by ATP6AP2, as a potential functional analog to the hypothetical AT3 in non-canonical RAAS signaling, particularly in prorenin-mediated pathways independent of Ang II generation.^[37] This receptor, a single-pass transmembrane protein, influences renal and cardiovascular responses but lacks direct Ang II binding, highlighting extensions of RAAS beyond traditional subtypes.^[46]

Functions and Signaling

AT1 Receptor functions and pathways

The AT1 receptor primarily couples to the Gq/11 protein family upon activation by angiotensin II, leading to the stimulation of phospholipase C (PLC), which hydrolyzes phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) into inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG).^[47] IP3 subsequently binds to IP3 receptors on the endoplasmic reticulum, triggering intracellular calcium (Ca²⁺) release, while DAG activates protein kinase C (PKC), which phosphorylates downstream targets to amplify signaling.^[48] This Gq/11-PLC-IP3/DAG pathway forms the core of acute AT1-mediated responses, such as rapid cellular excitation.^[47] In addition to Gq/11 coupling, the AT1 receptor engages G12/13 proteins to activate RhoA guanine nucleotide exchange factors, promoting RhoA-mediated cytoskeletal reorganization and stress fiber formation.^[49] G protein-independent signaling occurs via β-arrestin recruitment, which scaffolds and activates mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways, contributing to sustained proliferative signals. The receptor also activates Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathways through direct JAK2 association, driving gene transcription for growth and inflammation. Furthermore, AT1 stimulation upregulates NADPH oxidase subunits (e.g., Nox1 and p22phox), generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) that propagate oxidative signaling. These signaling cascades underpin key physiological effects of AT1 activation. In vascular smooth muscle cells, the Gq/11-mediated Ca²⁺ surge induces myosin light chain phosphorylation, resulting in potent vasoconstriction that elevates blood pressure.^[50] In the adrenal zona glomerulosa, AT1 signaling, particularly via β-arrestin and ERK, stimulates aldosterone biosynthesis and secretion, enhancing sodium retention and potassium excretion. Renal AT1 receptors in the proximal tubule and collecting ducts promote sodium reabsorption through modulation of ion transporters, contributing to fluid volume homeostasis. In cardiomyocytes, chronic AT1 activation via MAPK/ERK and ROS pathways induces hypertrophic gene expression, leading to cardiac remodeling. Centrally, AT1 receptors in the subfornical organ and hypothalamus drive thirst and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) release, integrating behavioral and endocrine responses to hypovolemia. The dose-dependent nature of Ca²⁺ signaling exemplifies the pathway's sensitivity to angiotensin II levels, with intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]ᵢ) rising in response to IP3 production.^[47] AT1 receptors dominate angiotensin II effects in the adult renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), mediating most of its cardiovascular and renal actions, with AT2 providing counter-regulatory modulation. Biased agonism at AT1 offers therapeutic nuance; for instance, the β-arrestin-biased ligand TRV027, developed in the 2010s, preferentially activates ERK without strong Gq/11 coupling, potentially mitigating hypertrophy while preserving contractility.

AT2 Receptor functions and pathways

The angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT₂R) primarily signals through coupling to inhibitory G proteins (G_i/o), which inhibits adenylyl cyclase activity and thereby reduces intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels, counteracting proliferative signals.^[51] Additionally, AT₂R activation stimulates protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), promoting dephosphorylation of target proteins and inhibiting mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, such as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), to suppress cell growth and inflammation.^[52] A key vasodilatory mechanism involves stimulation of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), leading to nitric oxide (NO) production and subsequent elevation of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) via guanylyl cyclase, ultimately contributing to vascular smooth muscle relaxation.^[53] These pathways often occur independently of β-arrestin recruitment, allowing sustained signaling without rapid desensitization.^[52] Physiologically, AT₂R activation induces vasodilation in endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cells through the NO-cGMP cascade, opposing the vasoconstrictive effects of the AT₁R.^[54] In the endothelium, it promotes anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects, reducing vascular remodeling and hypertrophy.^[52] Renal AT₂R stimulation enhances natriuresis by increasing sodium excretion and renal blood flow, partly via NO-mediated inhibition of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase.^[54] During fetal development, AT₂R plays a crucial role in tissue morphogenesis, particularly in the lung and brain, where it supports neuronal differentiation and organ maturation through phosphatase-dependent pathways.^[53] In the heart, it exerts anti-fibrotic effects by decreasing collagen deposition and extracellular matrix accumulation.^[52] Beyond core signaling, AT₂R engages in pathway crosstalk, including antagonism of the PTEN/PI3K axis to limit pro-survival signals and enhancement of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling to promote tissue repair.^[54] Unique aspects of AT₂R function include its upregulation following injury, such as in stroke or myocardial infarction, where it facilitates regeneration and neuroprotection via NO-cGMP modulation.^[52] As an X-linked gene, AT₂R exhibits sex differences, with females often displaying amplified protective effects due to estrogen interactions.^[54] Recent 2025 research highlights how selective agonists like compound 21 (C21) amplify these neuroprotective functions, enhancing neurogenesis in the ventricular-subventricular zone post-injury.^[55]

Clinical Significance

Role in diseases

Dysregulation of angiotensin II receptors, particularly the AT1 subtype, plays a central role in the pathogenesis of various diseases through imbalances in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which contributes to the majority of essential hypertension cases. Overactivation of AT1 receptors promotes vasoconstriction, inflammation, and tissue remodeling, while reduced AT2 receptor activity may exacerbate these effects by diminishing counter-regulatory protection.^[56] In hypertension, AT1 receptor overexpression in vascular tissues leads to sustained vasoconstriction and elevated blood pressure. High salt intake, for instance, induces vascular AT1 receptor mRNA and protein density increases of up to 160%, enhancing angiotensin II-mediated pressor responses.^[57] Genetic variants such as the AGTR1 A1166C polymorphism (rs5186) are associated with increased risk of essential hypertension and greater arterial stiffness, with the C allele linked to enhanced receptor function and disease susceptibility in multiple populations.^[58]^[59] In cardiovascular diseases, AT1 receptor signaling drives pathological cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis in heart failure, where sustained stimulation upregulates growth factors like transforming growth factor-β, promoting myocardial remodeling and systolic dysfunction.^[60]^[61] This contributes to adverse outcomes in conditions like atherosclerosis, where AT1 activation exacerbates plaque formation through inflammatory pathways. In contrast, AT2 receptors exert protective effects against ischemia-reperfusion injury by suppressing immune responses and reducing infarct size in myocardial tissue.^[62]^[63] Renal diseases involving angiotensin II receptors include diabetic nephropathy, where AT1 activation causes podocyte damage and glomerular injury via upregulation of receptors for advanced glycation end-products and increased oxidative stress.^[64]^[65] This leads to proteinuria and progressive kidney dysfunction. AT2 receptors, however, provide renoprotection by promoting anti-inflammatory cytokine production, such as interleukin-10, and limiting fibrosis in models of acute kidney injury.^[66]^[67] Beyond these, AT1 receptors contribute to brain inflammation in Alzheimer's disease, where their activation amplifies microglial responses and amyloid-β neurotoxicity, accelerating cognitive decline.^[68] In cancer, AT1 signaling promotes tumor angiogenesis by stimulating vascular endothelial growth factor expression and endothelial cell proliferation, supporting tumor growth in models like breast and hepatocellular carcinoma.^[69]^[70] Polymorphisms in angiotensin II receptor genes, including AGTR1 A1166C, are linked to increased preeclampsia risk, with certain alleles associated with heightened maternal vascular sensitivity and placental dysfunction.^[71] AT2 receptor agonists, such as Compound 21 (C21), have demonstrated potential in improving respiratory function in COVID-19 patients with lung involvement, as shown in a 2021 phase 2 trial.^[72]

Therapeutics and pharmacology

Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), such as losartan and valsartan, are non-peptide competitive antagonists that selectively bind to the AT1 receptor subtype, producing surmountable blockade by preventing angiotensin II-induced vasoconstriction and aldosterone release.^[73] Losartan, the first ARB approved by the FDA in 1995, is indicated for hypertension, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, and diabetic nephropathy, where it reduces proteinuria and slows renal progression.^[74] Valsartan, approved subsequently, shares similar indications, including post-myocardial infarction left ventricular dysfunction and chronic kidney disease, demonstrating comparable efficacy to ACE inhibitors in lowering blood pressure and cardiovascular events with better tolerability.^[75] Common side effects of ARBs include hyperkalemia, hypotension, and acute kidney injury, particularly in patients with renal impairment or volume depletion, necessitating monitoring of serum potassium and renal function.^[73] Agonists targeting the AT2 receptor represent an emerging therapeutic class, countering the pathological effects of AT1 activation through anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic mechanisms. Compound 21 (C21), a selective non-peptide AT2 receptor agonist, has advanced to phase II clinical trials in the 2020s for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, where it improved lung function and reduced fibrosis markers in early studies, and for acute ischemic stroke, showing neuroprotective effects in preclinical models.^[76] As of August 2025, the phase 2b ASPIRE trial (NCT06588686) for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is ongoing, with full enrollment expected by the first half of 2026; phase 2a results demonstrated a mean increase in forced vital capacity of 216 mL over 36 weeks with no treatment-related serious adverse events.^[77] Unlike peptide-based AT2 ligands, C21 offers oral bioavailability and high selectivity, avoiding cross-reactivity with AT1 or Mas receptors, though its development focuses on conditions like pulmonary fibrosis and stroke recovery without broad approval as of 2025.^[77] Beyond subtype-specific agents, direct angiotensin II infusion (Giapreza) was FDA-approved in 2017 for adults with septic or other distributive shock refractory to catecholamines, acting as a potent vasoconstrictor via both AT1 and AT2 receptors to rapidly increase mean arterial pressure.^[78] Mas receptor agonists, such as the non-peptide AVE 0991, mimic angiotensin-(1-7) to activate the counter-regulatory arm of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, exhibiting cardioprotective and renoprotective effects in preclinical models of hypertension and ischemia without AT1 antagonism.^[79] Dual AT1/AT2 modulators are under investigation for enhanced efficacy in pain and cardiovascular disorders by targeting both receptor subtypes.^[80] Pharmacodynamically, ARBs exert competitive inhibition at the orthosteric binding site of the AT1 receptor, shifting the angiotensin II dose-response curve rightward without altering the maximum response, as quantified by the dissociation constant K_b. The potency is expressed as \mathrm{pA_2} = -\log_{10}(K_b), where K_b is derived from Schild plot analysis, plotting \log(\mathrm{DR} - 1) against the negative logarithm of antagonist concentration, yielding a slope near unity for competitive antagonism.^[81] Recent advancements include studies on biased signaling at the AT1 receptor, with 2025 research elucidating gating mechanisms for biased agonism that promote distinct signaling pathways.^[82] Combinations such as sacubitril/valsartan, an angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor approved for heart failure, pair valsartan's AT1 blockade with neprilysin inhibition to enhance natriuretic peptides, outperforming ACE inhibitor monotherapy in reducing hospitalizations.^[83]

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AT1A receptors are expressed predominantly in the vascular smooth muscle, liver, lung, and kidney, whereas the AT1B receptors occur mainly in the adrenal and ...
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Brain-Selective Overexpression of Angiotensin (AT1) Receptors ...
Several AT1-rich sites lack a blood-brain-barrier, eg, subfornical organ, organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis, area postrema, and median preoptic ...
[25]
The Biology of Angiotensin II Receptors - ScienceDirect.com
In the human a single AT1 receptor protein mediates virtually all the effects of angiotensin II, suggesting that tissue specificity of angiotensin II must be ...<|separator|>
[26]
The angiotensin II type 1 receptor and receptor-associated proteins
Sep 1, 2001 · Cloning of the AT1 receptor. Numerous previous attempts to purify the AT1 receptor failed because of its instability and minute quantities ...
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300034 - ANGIOTENSIN II RECEPTOR, TYPE 2; AGTR2 - OMIM
They identified 2 missense mutations: G21V and I53F (300034.0006). Patients with the AGTR2 sequence variants had severe/profound mental retardation, epileptic ...300034 - ANGIOTENSIN II ...
[28]
Angiotensin II Type 2 Receptor: A Target for Protection Against ...
Jun 15, 2021 · This review focuses on the most recent findings on the beneficial effects of AT 2 R by summarizing both gene knockout studies as well as pharmacological ...
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Functional Reconstitution of the Angiotensin II Type 2 Receptor and ...
The apparent Kd values for Ang II were ⬇0.45 and ⬇0.78 nmol/L, and the calculated Bmax was 627 and 280 fmol/mg protein for AT2 wild-type and R142A-AT2 receptors ...
[30]
Ligand-independent signals from angiotensin II type 2 receptor ... - NIH
... (AT2) receptor by angiotensin II (Ang II) is . ... The expression level of AT2 receptor in normal adult tissues is ∼10–20 fmol/mg protein.
[31]
AT 2 receptor - IUPHAR/BPS Guide to PHARMACOLOGY
The IUPHAR/BPS Guide to Pharmacology. AT 2 receptor - Angiotensin receptors. Detailed annotation on the structure, function, physiology, pharmacology and ...
[32]
Angiotensin Receptors Heterodimerization and Trafficking
Aug 3, 2020 · This review is focused on angiotensin receptors and how their biological function is influenced by trafficking and interaction with others receptors.
[33]
Hypertension Compendium - American Heart Association Journals
Mar 13, 2015 · the AT4 receptor (please note that AT3 receptors do not exist, the 4 refers to Ang IV). ... The (pro)renin receptor/ATP6AP2 is essential for ...
[34]
LNPEP leucyl and cystinyl aminopeptidase [ (human)] - NCBI
Sep 9, 2025 · Insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP)/AT4 receptors are involved in neither the regulation of RBF or CBF nor in the handling of renal sodium.
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AT4 receptor is insulin-regulated membrane aminopeptidase
Here, we explore the potential mechanisms by which Ang IV binding to IRAP leads to the facilitation of learning and memory.Missing: gene SLC3A2
[36]
Local expression of AP/AngIV/IRAP and effect of AngIV on glucose ...
Aug 26, 2015 · 11.3). IRAP is expressed in various organs such as brain, adrenal gland, kidney, lung and heart. There are data ...
[37]
The angiotensin IV/AT4 receptor - PubMed
In the kidney Ang IV increases renal cortical blood flow and decreases Na(+) transport in isolated renal proximal tubules. The AT(4) receptor has recently been ...
[38]
Angiotensin-(1–7) is an endogenous ligand for the G protein ... - PNAS
AT1 and AT2 specific 125I-[Sar-1, Ile-8]Ang II binding was similar in both WT and Mas-deficient kidneys (t = 0.98 and 0.46, respectively, df = 10). Fig. 1.Missing: homology | Show results with:homology
[39]
Angiotensin II and Angiotensin Receptors 1 and 2—Multifunctional ...
The classic angiotensin receptors also include the 7-transmembrane receptors but have only 8% and 19% sequential homology with Mas protein, respectively. The ...
[40]
Significance of angiotensin 1–7 coupling with MAS1 receptor and ...
Evidence for a functional interaction of the angiotensin‐(1‐7) receptor Mas with AT1 and AT2 receptors in the mouse heart. Hypertension 46: 937–942. [DOI] ...Missing: homology | Show results with:homology
[41]
Angiotensin-(1-7) through receptor Mas mediates endothelial nitric ...
Our findings demonstrate that Ang-(1-7), through Mas, stimulates eNOS activation and NO production via Akt-dependent pathways.
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ANG II-independent prorenin/(pro)renin receptor signaling pathways ...
The (pro)renin receptor (PRR, also called ATP6AP2) ... Pivotal role of the renin/prorenin receptor in angiotensin II production and cellular responses to renin.
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AT1 receptor signaling pathways in the cardiovascular system - PMC
The AT1 receptor is predominantly expressed in various tissues throughout the cardiovascular system including vascular smooth muscle, endothelium, heart and ...Missing: distribution liver
[44]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5387002/
[45]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17116756/
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https://journals.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/ajpheart.00526.2015
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5607088/
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Angiotensin II Type 2 Receptor: A Target for Protection Against ...
Apr 12, 2021 · This review focuses on the most recent findings on the beneficial effects of AT 2 R by summarizing both gene knockout studies as well as pharmacological ...
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Frontiers | How does angiotensin AT2 receptor activation help neuronal differentiation and improve neuronal pathological situations?
Summary of each segment:
[50]
AT2 RECEPTOR ACTIVITIES AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL ...
These receptors have similar affinity to Ang II, but share a nucleic acid sequence homology of only 34% (1–3). Although the AT1R activities are known for many ...At2 Receptor Activities And... · At2r Structure, Regulation... · At2r Agonists And Vascular...
[51]
Renin-angiotensin system as an emerging target to modulate adult ...
Jul 1, 2025 · Activation of AT2R with the non-peptide agonist C21 increased the proliferation and generation of neuroblasts in the V-SVZ both in rats and mice ...
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Blood pressure regulation by the angiotensin type 1 receptor in the ...
Reduction of proximal tubule AT1a receptors led to lower BPs, whereas overexpression generally caused increased BPs. Summary: AT1a receptors in the proximal ...
[53]
Salt induces vascular AT1 receptor overexpression in vitro and in vivo
High salt intake caused an increase of AT1 receptor mRNA and AT1 receptor density to approximately 160% compared with control levels. Northern analysis revealed ...
[54]
Association of angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene polymorphism ...
These results suggest that the AGTR1 A1166C polymorphism is associated with essential hypertension and carotid atherosclerosis in a Chinese population.
[55]
Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor rs5186 Gene Variant Predicts ...
The gain-of-function rs5186 A1166C variant in angtiotensin receptor type 1 (AGTR1) gene has been linked to hypertension, cardiovascular disease and metabolic ...
[56]
Sustained AT 1 R stimulation induces upregulation of growth factors ...
Dec 15, 2022 · Our data support the concept whereby sustained AT 1 R stimulation contributes to the development of myocardial fibrosis and hypertrophy.
[57]
Pathophysiology of Angiotensin II-Mediated Hypertension, Cardiac ...
Dec 4, 2024 · Heart failure is a complex syndrome characterized by cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, and diastolic/systolic dysfunction.
[58]
Neuroprotective effect of angiotensin II type 2 receptor during ...
These results indicate that AT2R activation suppresses immune and inflammatory responses, and protects against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Keywords: ...
[59]
Protection of the myocardium against ischemia/reperfusion injury by ...
Protection of the myocardium against ischemia/reperfusion injury by angiotensin-(1-9) through an AT2R and Akt-dependent mechanism · Authors · Affiliations.
[60]
Angiotensin II upregulates RAGE expression on podocytes - PubMed
Since intraglomerular ANG II levels are increased in diabetic nephropathy, this interaction may have pathophysiological consequences for podocyte injury and ...Missing: damage | Show results with:damage
[61]
The effects of angiotensin-II receptor blockers on podocyte damage ...
Jan 26, 2011 · The aim of the study was to determine in a rat model of streptozotocin-induced diabetic nephropathy the expression of: WT-1 (for podocyte loss ...
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Angiotensin AT2 Receptor is Anti-inflammatory and Reno-Protective ...
Apr 15, 2021 · Our data suggest that the involvement of IL-10 in AT2R-mediated anti-inflammation and reno-protection against LPS is complex.
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Proximal tubule angiotensin AT2 receptors mediate an ... - PubMed
We hypothesized that AT2R activation is renoprotective by directly increasing the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in the kidney via nitric oxide (NO) ...
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Angiotensin II AT1 receptor blockade ameliorates brain inflammation
Dec 8, 2010 · Our results demonstrate that systemic administration of the centrally acting angiotensin II AT(1) receptor blocker (ARB) candesartan to normotensive rats ...
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Inhibition of angiotensin II receptor 1 limits tumor-associated ...
Sep 22, 2009 · Together, these results show that blockage of AT1 receptor signaling may be a promising anti-tumor strategy, interfering with angiogenesis ...
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Candesartan attenuates angiogenesis in hepatocellular carcinoma ...
Angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) was reported to express in many types of tumors, promoting tumor growth and angiogenesis. We herein examined AT1R ...
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The Gene Variants of Maternal/Fetal Renin-Angiotensin System in ...
Jul 11, 2017 · Our findings demonstrate that fetal ACE I/D, ACE G2350A, AGT M235T, and AT1R A1166C polymorphisms may play significant roles in PE development among pregnant ...<|separator|>
[68]
COVID-19 lung disease shares driver AT2 cytopathic features with ...
In the aftermath of Covid-19, some patients develop a fibrotic lung disease, i.e., post-COVID-19 lung disease (PCLD), for which we currently lack insights ...
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Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers (ARB) - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 5, 2025 · ARBs are a class of medications that selectively inhibit the binding of angiotensin II to the angiotensin type 1 receptor.
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[PDF] COZAAR® (losartan potassium) tablets - accessdata.fda.gov
See full prescribing information for COZAAR. COZAAR® (losartan potassium) tablets, for oral use. Initial U.S. Approval: 1995. WARNING: FETAL TOXICITY. See full ...
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Valsartan: Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action | DrugBank Online
Valsartan is indicated for the treatment of hypertension to reduce the risk of fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular events, primarily strokes and myocardial ...Identification · Pharmacology · Interactions · Products
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Safety, Efficacy and Pharmacokinetics of C21 in Subjects With IPF
A phase of research to describe clinical trials that gather more information about a drug's safety and effectiveness by studying different populations and ...Missing: AT2 | Show results with:AT2
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[PDF] Vicore Pharma
Aug 20, 2025 · The company's lead program, buloxibutid (C21), is a first-in-class oral small molecule angiotensin II type 2 (AT2) receptor agonist, which.
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[PDF] 4199496 This label may not be the latest approved by FDA. For ...
GIAPREZA increases blood pressure in adults with septic or other distributive shock. 2. DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION. 2.1. Preparation. Parenteral drug products ...
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Nonpeptide AVE 0991 is an angiotensin-(1-7) receptor Mas agonist ...
It has been described recently that the nonpeptide AVE 0991 (AVE) mimics the effects of angiotensin-(1-7) [Ang-(1-7)] in bovine endothelial cells.
[76]
Balanced affinity AT1/AT2 receptor nonpeptide binding ... - PubMed
These data suggest that AT1-selective and dual receptor nonpeptides share overlapping but distinct binding pockets on the AT1 receptor. These findings may lead ...
[77]
Angiotensin II dose–effect curves and Schild regression plots ... - NIH
The 'Schild regression' method is based on the principle of assessing the rightward shift of agonist dose–effect curves in the presence of different doses/ ...
[78]
Biased Agonists of the Type 1 Angiotensin II Receptor Promote ...
Sep 20, 2025 · Here, we examine how various biased agonists influence the recruitment of β-arrestins 1 and 2 induced by the angiotensin II type 1 receptor at ...
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Sacubitril-Valsartan - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Sacubitril-valsartan is the first agent approved in a new class of drugs called angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI).