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Extracellular fluid

Extracellular fluid (ECF) is the portion of the body's total fluid that exists outside of cells, serving as the internal environment in which cells function and exchange materials. It comprises approximately one-third of total body water, or about 20% of an adult's body weight, and is divided into three main subcompartments: plasma, which accounts for roughly 5% of body weight and circulates within blood vessels; interstitial fluid, which makes up about 15% and bathes the tissues directly surrounding cells; and transcellular fluid, a smaller portion (~1%) including cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, and ocular fluids.^[1]^[2] The composition of ECF is distinct from intracellular fluid, featuring high concentrations of sodium (approximately 140 mEq/L), chloride (103 mEq/L), and bicarbonate (24 mEq/L), along with moderate levels of proteins, while containing lower amounts of potassium (4 mEq/L), magnesium, and phosphate compared to the intracellular environment.^[3]^[4] This electrolyte profile enables ECF to maintain osmotic balance and support cellular homeostasis through mechanisms like the Starling forces, which govern fluid movement across capillary walls via hydrostatic and oncotic pressures.^[5] Physiologically, ECF plays a critical role in nutrient delivery, waste removal, and signal transduction, acting as a buffer against pH changes and facilitating the transport of hormones, gases, and metabolites throughout the body.^[5] Disruptions in ECF volume or composition, such as dehydration or electrolyte imbalances, can lead to significant health issues, underscoring its importance in overall fluid and electrolyte regulation.^[5]

Overview

Definition and Classification

Extracellular fluid (ECF) refers to the portion of the body's water that exists outside of cells, comprising the internal environment that bathes and supports cellular function. It is distinct from intracellular fluid (ICF), which occupies the space within cells, with ECF typically accounting for about one-third of total body water (TBW) in adults, or approximately 20% of body weight.^[5] In a typical 70-kg adult male, TBW is around 42 liters, of which ECF constitutes about 14 liters.^[6] The proportion of TBW varies by factors such as age, sex, and body composition; for instance, it is higher in newborns (around 70-75%) and decreases with age, reaching about 57% in adult males and 50% in adult females, with ECF following a similar proportional decline.^[7] The concept of ECF traces its origins to the work of French physiologist Claude Bernard, who in 1859 introduced the idea of the milieu intérieur—the internal environment—as a stable fluid medium essential for life, independent of external fluctuations.^[8] Bernard's seminal lectures emphasized that organisms maintain this internal milieu to ensure cellular stability, laying the groundwork for modern physiology.^[9] Over time, the terminology evolved from Bernard's broader milieu intérieur to the more precise "extracellular fluid," a term derived from the Latin prefix extra- (meaning "outside") combined with cellular (relating to cells), reflecting advances in microscopy and cellular biology that distinguished fluid compartments in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. ECF is classified into three main compartments based on location and function: the intravascular compartment, consisting of plasma within blood vessels; the interstitial compartment, which is the fluid surrounding cells in tissues; and the transcellular compartment, encompassing specialized fluids like cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, and aqueous humor in epithelial-lined cavities.^[3] This classification highlights ECF's role as a dynamic continuum that facilitates exchange between blood and tissues, though detailed properties of each are explored elsewhere.^[10]

Volume and Distribution

In a typical 70 kg adult male, the total extracellular fluid (ECF) volume is approximately 14 liters, constituting about one-third of total body water, which itself comprises roughly 60% of body weight.^[5] This volume provides the essential medium for nutrient delivery and waste removal across tissues.^[11] The ECF is distributed such that approximately 25% resides in the plasma compartment (about 3-3.5 liters), while the remaining 75% is found in the interstitial and transcellular compartments combined (roughly 10-11 liters).^[5] The plasma fraction circulates within blood vessels, whereas interstitial fluid occupies the spaces between cells, and transcellular fluid includes smaller volumes in cerebrospinal, synovial, and peritoneal spaces.^[11] Several factors influence ECF volume and its distribution. Age affects proportions, with total body water decreasing in older adults due to reduced muscle mass and increased fat, leading to a relatively higher ECF percentage.^[12] Sex plays a role, as females generally have a lower total body water percentage (around 50% of body weight) compared to males, resulting in a higher proportion of ECF relative to total body water, partly due to greater fat distribution.^[12] Body composition further modulates this, with leaner individuals exhibiting higher absolute ECF volumes than those with higher adiposity.^[11] Conditions like dehydration reduce overall ECF volume, with osmotic shifts drawing fluid from intracellular spaces into the ECF via osmosis, while fluid overload can expand ECF disproportionately in the interstitial compartment.^[5] ECF volume is typically measured indirectly due to the challenges of direct assessment. Dilution techniques, such as intravenous administration of inulin—a non-metabolized polysaccharide that distributes evenly in ECF without crossing cell membranes—allow estimation by comparing injected and plasma concentrations after equilibration.^[13] Bioimpedance analysis offers a non-invasive alternative, using electrical conductivity differences between intra- and extracellular fluids to compute volumes via spectroscopy models.^[14] These methods provide reliable approximations but require calibration for individual variability.^[15]

Components

Blood Plasma

Blood plasma is the liquid portion of blood, comprising approximately 55% of total blood volume and circulating within the blood vessels as the intravascular component of extracellular fluid.^[16] It acts as the suspending medium for blood cells, facilitating their transport throughout the circulatory system.^[17] Blood plasma has a distinctive composition, consisting of 90-92% water along with 7-8 g/dL of proteins, including albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen, which provide structural and functional roles.^[18] This high protein content sets it apart from other extracellular fluids, complemented by clotting factors such as fibrinogen that enable coagulation.^[19] Electrolytes in plasma mirror those of the overall extracellular fluid but are precisely balanced to support vascular function.^[19] Plasma is maintained through dynamic processes involving capillary filtration and reabsorption, which regulate fluid exchange with surrounding tissues, and is renewed via protein synthesis primarily in the liver.^[19] The kidneys contribute to renewal by filtering plasma to remove waste while reabsorbing water, electrolytes, and other components to preserve volume and composition.^[19] Key features of blood plasma include its buffering capacity, derived from bicarbonate ions and proteins, which stabilizes pH against metabolic acids.^[20] Its protein components also influence blood viscosity, contributing to flow resistance, and generate oncotic pressure—around 25 mmHg, mainly from albumin—to counter hydrostatic forces and retain fluid within vessels.^[21]^[22]

Interstitial Fluid

Interstitial fluid is the extracellular fluid that fills the spaces between cells within tissues, forming the immediate environment that bathes and nourishes individual cells throughout the body. It constitutes approximately 15-16% of total body weight in adults, representing the largest portion of the extracellular fluid compartment outside of blood plasma. This fluid resides in the interstitial matrix, including the ground substance and fibers of connective tissues, and facilitates the diffusion of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products to and from cells.^[23]^[5] The composition of interstitial fluid is primarily water, with electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate that closely mirror those in blood plasma to maintain osmotic equilibrium. However, it contains significantly lower concentrations of proteins and colloids, typically around 2-3 g/dL compared to 7 g/dL in plasma, due to the selective permeability of capillary walls that restrict large molecules like albumin. This low protein content results in reduced oncotic pressure, contributing to the fluid's relatively low viscosity in most tissues and enabling efficient molecular exchange. Small amounts of metabolites, gases, and hormones are also present, reflecting ongoing metabolic activity in surrounding cells.^[24]^[25] Interstitial fluid is primarily derived from blood plasma through the process of capillary filtration, governed by Starling forces that balance hydrostatic and oncotic pressures across the capillary endothelium. At the arterial end of capillaries, higher hydrostatic pressure exceeds oncotic pressure, driving fluid outward into the interstitial space; at the venous end, the reverse occurs, favoring partial reabsorption, with any net excess collected by lymphatic vessels for return to the circulation. This dynamic exchange ensures a steady supply of fresh fluid while preventing tissue swelling under normal conditions.^[26]^[27] The properties of interstitial fluid exhibit tissue-specific variations to support organ function. In loose connective tissues, it tends to be more viscous due to higher concentrations of glycosaminoglycans like hyaluronic acid, which bind water and provide structural support. In synovial joints, the interstitial fluid—known as synovial fluid—has elevated hyaluronic acid levels (up to 4 mg/mL), enhancing its lubricating and shock-absorbing qualities during movement. These adaptations reflect local extracellular matrix compositions, with denser tissues like muscle having lower fluid volumes relative to cell mass compared to more hydrated organs like skin.^[28]^[29]

Transcellular Fluid

Transcellular fluid represents the smallest compartment of the extracellular fluid, accounting for approximately 1% to 3% of total body weight, or about 1 to 2 liters in a typical adult.^[30] This compartment consists of specialized fluids that are actively secreted or isolated within epithelial- or endothelium-lined cavities, distinguishing them from the more diffusive interstitial fluid.^[30] Key examples include cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the central nervous system, synovial fluid in joint spaces, aqueous humor in the anterior chamber of the eye, and smaller volumes of pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal fluids.^[30] These fluids exhibit unique compositional properties tailored to their enclosed environments, generally featuring low protein concentrations relative to blood plasma.^[30] For instance, CSF, which is produced at a rate of about 500 mL per day by the choroid plexus through active ion transport mechanisms involving sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate, maintains distinct electrolyte gradients such as elevated chloride (approximately 119 mmol/L) and reduced potassium (about 2.8 mmol/L) compared to plasma.^[31]^[32] Synovial fluid is characterized by high concentrations of hyaluronan, contributing to its viscous nature, while aqueous humor has a composition that supports optical clarity and metabolic needs.^[28]^[33] The functions of transcellular fluids are highly specialized to their anatomical locations. Synovial fluid primarily serves as a lubricant, reducing friction and wear on articular cartilage during joint movement through its viscoelastic properties.^[28] CSF provides mechanical cushioning and buoyancy to the brain and spinal cord, while also facilitating the removal of metabolic waste.^[31] In the eye, aqueous humor delivers essential nutrients and oxygen to avascular tissues such as the cornea and lens, while maintaining intraocular pressure.^[33] Pericardial and pleural fluids similarly aid in reducing friction for cardiac and respiratory motions, respectively.^[30] Pathologically, disruptions in fluid homeostasis can lead to abnormal accumulation, known as effusions, which impair organ function. For example, in congestive heart failure, elevated hydrostatic pressures result in pleural effusions that are typically transudative and often bilateral; however, 20% to 25% exhibit higher protein levels than typical transudates, potentially resembling exudates per Light's criteria (though cardiac origin can be confirmed by serum-pleural albumin gradient >1.2 g/dL).^[34]^[35] Such effusions arise from increased pulmonary capillary pressure and interstitial fluid leakage, contributing to dyspnea and requiring targeted management of the underlying cardiac condition.^[36]

Functions

Solute and Nutrient Transport

The extracellular fluid (ECF) acts as the essential medium for solute and nutrient transport, enabling the movement of essential substances and waste products between the blood plasma and surrounding tissues through mechanisms including diffusion, convection (bulk flow), and carrier-mediated transport across the semipermeable capillary walls.^[37] These processes ensure efficient exchange in the interstitial space, where the ECF composition closely mirrors plasma but lacks larger proteins.^[1] A key process is bulk flow, driven by the Starling equation, which describes the net movement of fluid and entrained solutes (convection) across capillary endothelium as a balance between hydrostatic and oncotic pressures:

J_v = K_f \left[ (P_c - P_i) - \sigma (\pi_c - \pi_i) \right]

Here, J_v represents the volume flux of fluid, K_f is the hydraulic conductivity coefficient of the capillary wall, P_c and P_i are the hydrostatic pressures in the capillary and interstitium, \sigma is the reflection coefficient for plasma proteins, and \pi_c and \pi_i are the oncotic pressures in the capillary and interstitium, respectively.^[37] At the arterial end of capillaries, hydrostatic pressure typically exceeds oncotic pressure, promoting filtration of fluid and small solutes into the interstitial space; at the venous end, the reverse occurs, favoring reabsorption.^[37] Simple diffusion complements this for small, uncharged solutes like glucose, which cross the endothelial barrier down their concentration gradients without energy input, facilitated by the porous nature of most capillary walls.^[38] Nutrient delivery relies on these mechanisms to transfer vital molecules from plasma to interstitial fluid for cellular uptake; for instance, glucose diffuses rapidly across capillaries due to its small size, while amino acids follow similar passive diffusion pathways, and lipids—often bound to lipoproteins—move via both diffusion and convective flow to reach tissue cells.^[19] Carrier-mediated transport, involving specific endothelial transporters, plays a role in select tissues (e.g., facilitative glucose transporters in certain microvascular beds), enhancing selectivity for particular solutes.^[39] Waste removal occurs primarily through diffusion and convection in the reverse direction: urea, a metabolic byproduct, diffuses from tissue cells into the interstitial fluid and then into capillaries for renal excretion, while CO₂ diffuses into the ECF for pulmonary elimination.^[1] This bidirectional transport maintains tissue homeostasis by clearing accumulated wastes efficiently.^[37]

Oxygenation and Gas Exchange

The extracellular fluid (ECF), particularly blood plasma, plays a crucial role in facilitating the diffusion of oxygen from the lungs to peripheral tissues through the dissolution of oxygen gas directly in the plasma. While approximately 98% of total oxygen in arterial blood is bound to hemoglobin within red blood cells, only about 1.5% to 2% exists as dissolved oxygen in the plasma, which is the form available for immediate diffusion across capillary walls into the interstitial fluid.^[40] This dissolved fraction is governed by the partial pressure of oxygen (PO₂), with arterial plasma maintaining a PO₂ of approximately 100 mmHg upon leaving the pulmonary capillaries, dropping to around 40 mmHg in systemic venous plasma as oxygen diffuses into tissues.^[41] Gas exchange occurs primarily at two sites: in the lungs, where oxygen diffuses from alveolar air into pulmonary capillary plasma across a thin ECF barrier, and in peripheral tissues, where oxygen moves from systemic capillary plasma through interstitial fluid to cells, following Fick's law of diffusion, which states that the rate of gas transfer is proportional to the surface area and partial pressure gradient while inversely proportional to membrane thickness.^[42] Carbon dioxide removal from tissues to the lungs similarly relies on ECF compartments, with plasma serving as the primary medium for its transport. In tissues, CO₂ produced by cellular metabolism diffuses into interstitial fluid and then into capillary plasma, where about 70% is converted to bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) via the reaction CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻, catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase in red blood cells but resulting in bicarbonate distribution across the ECF.^[43] This bicarbonate formation facilitates CO₂ loading in deoxygenated venous plasma, enhanced by the Haldane effect, whereby deoxygenated hemoglobin binds more H⁺ ions, promoting the forward reaction and increasing CO₂ carrying capacity in the ECF by shifting the equilibrium to favor bicarbonate accumulation.^[44] The remaining CO₂ is either dissolved in plasma (about 10%) or bound to proteins (about 20%), but the bicarbonate-dominated transport ensures efficient removal back to the lungs, where the process reverses in oxygenated arterial plasma.^[45] Physiological adaptations optimize gas exchange in varying ECF conditions, particularly through interactions between pH and gas binding. In active tissues, where CO₂ accumulation lowers interstitial fluid pH, the Bohr effect reduces hemoglobin's oxygen affinity, facilitating greater unloading of oxygen from plasma into the acidic ECF environment and enhancing delivery to cells under high metabolic demand.^[46] This pH-dependent shift ensures that oxygen diffusion across interstitial fluid is amplified precisely when tissue needs are elevated, maintaining efficient respiration without requiring changes in blood flow alone.^[47]

Regulation

Volume Control

The volume of extracellular fluid is maintained through integrated hormonal, renal, and hemodynamic mechanisms that respond to changes in blood volume and pressure, ensuring adequate tissue perfusion while preventing fluid overload or depletion.^[48] The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) serves as a primary regulator by promoting sodium retention, which expands extracellular fluid volume. Activated by low renal perfusion, RAAS leads to angiotensin II production, which stimulates aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex, enhancing sodium reabsorption in the renal distal tubules and collecting ducts.^[49] Complementing RAAS, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), or vasopressin, regulates water reabsorption to adjust extracellular fluid volume. Secreted by the posterior pituitary in response to hypovolemia or hyperosmolality, ADH binds to V2 receptors in the renal collecting ducts, inserting aquaporin-2 channels to increase water permeability and promote solute-free water retention.^[50] To counteract extracellular fluid volume expansion, natriuretic peptides such as atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), primarily released from atrial myocytes, and B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), released from ventricular myocytes, are secreted in response to increased cardiac wall stretch due to hypervolemia. These peptides promote natriuresis and diuresis by enhancing glomerular filtration rate, inhibiting sodium reabsorption in the renal tubules, suppressing RAAS and ADH release, and inducing vasodilation, thereby reducing blood volume and pressure.^[51] Renal mechanisms fine-tune extracellular fluid volume via glomerular filtration and tubular reabsorption processes. In healthy adults, the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) averages approximately 125 mL/min, producing about 180 L of filtrate daily from plasma, with over 99% reabsorbed in the tubules to match body fluid needs. Adjustments in filtration fraction and reabsorption efficiency, influenced by RAAS and ADH, directly modulate net fluid excretion and extracellular volume.^[52] Capillary Starling forces maintain local extracellular fluid distribution by balancing fluid movement across vessel walls. Hydrostatic pressure within capillaries drives fluid filtration into the interstitial space, while opposing oncotic pressure from plasma proteins favors reabsorption, preventing edema formation in tissues.^[5] Disruptions in this equilibrium, such as elevated hydrostatic pressure, can lead to fluid accumulation in interstitial spaces.^[53] In hypovolemia, such as that caused by hemorrhage, compensatory responses include activation of thirst mechanisms to stimulate fluid intake and systemic vasoconstriction to reduce vascular capacitance and preserve central blood volume.^[54] These baroreceptor-mediated reflexes, along with RAAS and ADH release, rapidly mobilize defenses to restore extracellular fluid volume.^[55]

Electrolyte and Osmotic Balance

The extracellular fluid (ECF) maintains a specific ionic composition essential for cellular function and homeostasis. The major electrolytes in ECF include sodium (Na⁺) at approximately 140 mEq/L, chloride (Cl⁻) at 103 mEq/L, bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) at 24 mEq/L, and potassium (K⁺) at 4 mEq/L.^[56] These concentrations contribute to an overall osmolarity of about 290 mOsm/L, which ensures osmotic stability across body compartments.^[57] Osmotic regulation of ECF involves specialized osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus that detect changes in plasma osmolarity. When osmolarity rises, these osmoreceptors trigger the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or vasopressin) from the posterior pituitary. ADH acts on the kidneys by promoting the insertion of aquaporin-2 water channels into the apical membrane of collecting duct principal cells, enhancing water reabsorption and thereby reducing urine output to restore ECF osmolarity.^[50]^[58] Acid-base balance in ECF is primarily governed by the bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer system, which maintains arterial pH between 7.35 and 7.45. This equilibrium is described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:

\text{pH} = 6.1 + \log_{10} \left( \frac{[\text{HCO}_3^-]}{0.03 \times \text{PCO}_2} \right)

where 6.1 is the pKa of carbonic acid, [HCO₃⁻] is the bicarbonate concentration in mmol/L, and PCO₂ is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in mmHg. The ratio of HCO₃⁻ to CO₂ (reflected in PCO₂) allows precise adjustments: increased ventilation lowers PCO₂ to counteract acidosis, while renal mechanisms adjust HCO₃⁻ reabsorption or generation to address longer-term imbalances.^[59] In contrast to intracellular fluid (ICF), ECF exhibits high Na⁺ and low K⁺ concentrations, while ICF has low Na⁺ and high K⁺. This asymmetry is actively maintained by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump, located on the plasma membrane of cells, which hydrolyzes ATP to transport three Na⁺ ions out and two K⁺ ions into the cell per cycle.^[60]

Interactions and Dynamics

Exchange with Intracellular Fluid

The plasma membrane serves as the primary barrier regulating the exchange between extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF), characterized by a lipid bilayer that is impermeable to most polar molecules and ions, thereby necessitating specialized proteins for transport.^[61] This selective permeability is achieved through ion channels, which allow passive diffusion of specific ions down electrochemical gradients; transporters, which facilitate the movement of solutes like glucose via facilitated diffusion; and active pumps, such as the Na+/K+-ATPase, which consume ATP to maintain steep ion gradients against concentration differences.^[61] These mechanisms ensure that the cell's internal environment remains distinct from the ECF, preventing uncontrolled leakage while enabling controlled bidirectional exchange.^[62] Key exchanges include ion fluxes critical for signaling, such as calcium (Ca²⁺) entry from the ECF into the cytosol through voltage-gated or ligand-gated channels, which triggers intracellular cascades for processes like muscle contraction and neurotransmitter release.^[63] Nutrient uptake, exemplified by glucose transport via facilitative glucose transporters (GLUTs) like GLUT4 in insulin-responsive tissues, occurs through conformational changes in the transporter proteins that shuttle glucose across the membrane without energy input, driven by the concentration gradient from ECF to ICF.^[64] Conversely, waste products like lactate are effluxed from the ICF to the ECF via monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs), such as MCT4, which co-transport lactate with protons to mitigate intracellular acidification during glycolysis.^[65] The Donnan equilibrium arises from the presence of impermeant negatively charged proteins within the ICF, leading to an unequal distribution of diffusible ions across the membrane; for instance, higher intracellular concentrations of potassium (K⁺) and lower sodium (Na⁺) compared to the ECF result from this electrostatic imbalance, which would otherwise cause osmotic swelling if not counteracted by active transport.^[66] In a true Donnan state, small ions distribute according to both concentration and electrical gradients, but living cells deviate from this passive equilibrium through energy-dependent pumps that actively extrude Na⁺ to preserve volume and composition.^[67] This regulated exchange maintains cellular homeostasis by providing a stable ECF milieu that supports essential ion gradients, such as the high intracellular K⁺ and low Na⁺ levels upheld by the Na+/K+-ATPase, which are vital for generating resting membrane potentials around -70 mV and propagating action potentials in excitable cells like neurons and myocytes.^[68] These gradients enable rapid depolarization via Na⁺ influx and repolarization through K⁺ efflux during signaling events, ensuring precise cellular communication and function without disrupting the overall ionic balance.^[69]

Role of Blood Plasma, Interstitial Fluid, and Lymph

Blood plasma, interstitial fluid, and lymph form an integrated circulatory network within the extracellular fluid (ECF) compartment, facilitating continuous fluid exchange to maintain homeostasis. At the capillary level, fluid movement between plasma and interstitial space is governed by Starling forces, where hydrostatic pressure exceeds oncotic pressure at the arterial end, promoting filtration of water, electrolytes, and small solutes into the interstitial space.^[37] Conversely, at the venous end, oncotic pressure predominates due to declining hydrostatic pressure, driving reabsorption of fluid back into the plasma.^[37] This dynamic exchange ensures nutrient delivery and waste removal while preventing excessive fluid accumulation in tissues.^[70] The lymphatic system complements this process by collecting the excess interstitial fluid—approximately 2-4 liters per day—that escapes reabsorption, forming lymph that is protein-rich and carries escaped plasma proteins.^[71] Lymphatic capillaries, with their permeable endothelial flaps, uptake this fluid and propel it through larger vessels via smooth muscle contractions and external compression, ultimately returning it to the systemic circulation primarily through the thoracic duct into the subclavian vein.^[72] Beyond fluid balance, lymph flow enables immune surveillance by transporting antigens, lymphocytes, and dendritic cells to lymph nodes for immune response initiation.^[72] In steady-state conditions, ECF turnover is achieved through this continuous cycle of filtration and reabsorption, with plasma flow driven by a cardiac output of approximately 5 liters per minute at rest, of which a portion filters across capillaries.^[73] The interstitial-lymph circuit accounts for the return of approximately 2–4 liters of fluid daily, recycling fluid and proteins to sustain vascular integrity.^[74] Disruption of lymphatic drainage, such as by obstruction, leads to edema formation as unreturned interstitial fluid accumulates, increasing tissue pressure and impairing function.^[75]

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Thus, bicarbonate is the primary means by which carbon dioxide is transported throughout the bloodstream according to the equation CO2 + H2O --> H2CO3 --> H+ + ...Introduction · Cellular Level · Mechanism · Clinical Significance
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When open, channels let selected ions diffuse rapidly down electrical and concentration gradients, whereas ion pumps labour tirelessly to maintain the gradients ...
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Facilitative glucose transporters (GLUTs) The GLUTs transport glucose across the plasma membrane by means of a facilitated diffusion mechanism.
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Quantitative interrelationship between Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium ...
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Physiology, Resting Potential - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The resting membrane potential of a cell is defined as the electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane when the cell is in a non-excited state.
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Ion Channels and the Electrical Properties of Membranes - NCBI - NIH
Thus, the function of ion channels is to allow specific inorganic ions—primarily Na+, K+, Ca2+, or Cl-—to diffuse rapidly down their electrochemical gradients ...Ion Channels And The... · Ion Channels Are... · Single Neurons Are Complex...Missing: homeostasis | Show results with:homeostasis
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Jan 19, 2016 · It has been estimated in humans that plasma has a volume of 3 L and a lymph fluid turnover of 8 L/day. A post-nodal lymph flow of 4 L/day drains ...Interstitial Fluid Transport · Lvc Within The Lymph Nodes · Peripheral Lvc
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May 1, 2023 · Additionally, lymphatic obstruction is a well-known cause of edema, and common causes include lymphedema, tumors, fibrosis, inflammation, ...