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Artificial urinary sphincter

An artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) is an implantable hydraulic medical device designed to treat severe stress urinary incontinence caused by intrinsic sphincter deficiency, primarily in men following prostatectomy.^[1] It comprises three key components: an inflatable silicone cuff that encircles the bulbar urethra to provide controlled compression and prevent urine leakage, a manually operated control pump typically placed in the scrotum for patient activation, and a pressure-regulating balloon reservoir implanted in the lower abdomen to maintain appropriate pressure levels.^[1] Upon activation, the pump transfers fluid from the cuff to the balloon, temporarily deflating the cuff to allow voluntary voiding; the cuff then passively refills within 3 to 5 minutes to restore continence.^[1] This mechanism mimics natural sphincter function, offering a reliable solution for patients unresponsive to conservative treatments like pelvic floor exercises or absorbent pads. While the AMS 800 remains the gold standard, emerging electronic artificial urinary sphincters, such as the UroActive device, are showing promise in clinical trials as of 2025.^[2]

Introduction

Definition and Purpose

The artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) is an implantable hydraulic medical device designed to mimic the function of the natural urethral sphincter by providing controlled compression to the urethra, thereby regulating urine flow and preventing involuntary leakage.^[1] It typically consists of an occlusive cuff placed around the urethra, a pressure-regulating balloon reservoir, and a control pump, all connected by tubing, allowing for manual deactivation to facilitate urination.^[3] This device is surgically implanted and operates on a hydraulic principle to restore voluntary control over the urinary process in patients with sphincteric deficiency.^[4] The primary purpose of the AUS is to treat moderate to severe stress urinary incontinence (SUI), particularly in men following prostatectomy procedures such as radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer, where damage to the natural sphincter leads to persistent leakage during physical activities or increased abdominal pressure.^[5] It is indicated for patients who have not achieved adequate continence through conservative measures like pelvic floor exercises, medications, or absorbent products, offering a reliable means to achieve social continence (defined as using zero to one pad per day).^[1] By enabling adjustable urethral compression, the AUS restores patient confidence and quality of life, with the cuff maintaining closure to prevent urine escape until the patient activates the pump to temporarily relax it.^[4] Since its introduction in the early 1970s, the AUS has been established as the gold standard surgical treatment for post-prostatectomy SUI in men, with the first multi-component inflatable device developed by F. Brantley Scott in the early 1970s.^[6] Over decades of clinical use, it has demonstrated durable efficacy, with long-term studies reporting high patient satisfaction rates despite potential need for revisions, solidifying its role as the preferred intervention for severe cases unresponsive to other therapies.^[7]

Mechanism of Action

The artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) operates through a hydraulic system comprising three primary components: an inflatable cuff encircling the urethra, a pressure-regulating balloon implanted in the abdominal cavity, and a manual control pump positioned in the scrotum (for male patients) or labia majora (for female patients).^[8]^[9] These elements are interconnected by silicone tubing filled with isotonic saline, enabling fluid transfer to regulate urethral occlusion and restore continence in patients with sphincter deficiency.^[10] The system mimics the natural sphincter's role by providing controlled compression, but relies on mechanical hydraulics rather than biological muscle contraction.^[8] In its normal resting state, the cuff remains inflated with fluid from the pressure-regulating balloon, exerting gentle compression on the urethra to prevent involuntary urine leakage and maintain continence during daily activities.^[9] To initiate voiding, the patient manually compresses the pump bulb multiple times (typically 5-7 squeezes), which transfers fluid from the cuff to the balloon reservoir via one-way valves, thereby deflating the cuff and opening the urethra to allow unobstructed urination.^[10] Once voiding is complete, a built-in hydraulic resistor in the pump automatically facilitates the gradual return of fluid from the balloon to the cuff over 2-5 minutes, reinflating the cuff to reestablish closure without patient intervention.^[9]^[8] The pressure dynamics are critical to the device's efficacy and safety, with the balloon typically set to deliver a constant cuff pressure of 60-70 cm H₂O during implantation, which is sufficient to occlude the urethra while minimizing tissue ischemia.^[9] This pressure is predetermined intraoperatively based on patient anatomy and incontinence severity, allowing customization of balloon volumes (e.g., 61-70 cm H₂O for moderate cases) to prevent over-compression that could lead to urethral erosion or atrophy.^[10] Unlike the dynamic, neurologically mediated adjustments of the native sphincter, the AUS functions as a passive, on-demand system that requires patient activation for voiding, integrating with physiological bladder filling but demanding manual control to simulate voluntary continence.^[8]

History and Development

Early Innovations

The concept of an artificial urinary sphincter originated in the mid-20th century with efforts to address severe urinary incontinence through mechanical compression of the urethra. In 1947, Frederic E.B. Foley described the first externally worn device, consisting of an inflatable cuff placed around a surgically isolated segment of the corpora spongiosum, connected to a detachable hand pump for manual inflation and deflation to control continence. This prototype, patented the previous year, represented a significant innovation but was limited by its external nature, lack of precise pressure regulation, and impracticality for long-term use.^[11] During the 1950s and 1960s, developments shifted toward implantable prototypes using compressive materials to mimic sphincter function, though these remained passive and non-adjustable. In 1961, John L. Berry introduced an acrylic prosthesis implanted between the bulbous urethra and the bulbocavernosus muscle to provide fixed compression, achieving initial success in select post-prostatectomy cases but plagued by complications such as pain, erosion, and fistula formation, leading to its abandonment. By the late 1960s, efforts incorporated silicone for improved flexibility; for instance, Joseph J. Kaufman developed early silicone gel-based devices in the early 1970s, involving manual compression via perineal pressure, which offered better tissue tolerance than acrylic but still suffered from dislocation and inadequate durability. These prototypes highlighted the need for dynamic, patient-controlled mechanisms to overcome the limitations of static compression.^[12] A pivotal advancement occurred in 1972 when F. Brantley Scott, William E. Bradley, and Gerald W. Timm at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston performed the first successful implantation of a fully implantable hydraulic artificial urinary sphincter in a human patient, marking the transition to modern designs. This device, refined and commercially introduced as the AMS 721 model in 1973 by American Medical Systems, featured a silicone cuff around the urethra or bladder neck, connected to a pressure-regulating balloon and a manually activated pump bulb, allowing patients to deactivate the cuff for voiding. Subsequent iterations, such as the AMS 791 in 1977, streamlined the components for bulbar urethral placement, improving ease of implantation while maintaining hydraulic adjustability. These early AMS models laid the foundation for widespread adoption, with initial series reporting continence restoration in over 70% of cases.^[13]^[14] Key challenges in these initial designs included material biocompatibility and infection control, which were addressed through material innovations and procedural refinements. Early acrylic and rigid prototypes caused tissue erosion due to poor compliance with urethral anatomy, prompting the shift to silicone elastomers reinforced with Dacron velour for better integration and reduced inflammatory response. Infection rates, often exceeding 10% in prototypes, were mitigated by perioperative antibiotic protocols and a delayed activation technique—keeping the device deactivated for 4-6 weeks post-implantation to allow tissue healing—significantly lowering complication risks and enabling safer clinical use.^[12]^[15]

Modern Advancements

In the 1980s, significant refinements to artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) design addressed early limitations in tissue interaction and infection risk. The AMS 800, introduced by American Medical Systems, featured narrower cuffs to enhance pressure transmission to the underlying urethra, reducing erosion and reoperation rates compared to prior models.^[16]^[17] During the 2000s and 2010s, advancements focused on accommodating challenging anatomies, particularly in patients with radiation-damaged tissue. Narrow-backed cuffs, building on 1980s designs and introduced in 1987, were optimized for smaller urethral circumferences in irradiated patients, demonstrating lower erosion risks when sized appropriately, such as the 3.5 cm variant. The InhibiZone antibiotic coating, introduced in 2007, minimized bacterial adhesion and infection incidence by releasing minocycline and rifampin over time.^[18]^[7]^[16]^[19] Surgical approaches evolved with the adoption of transobturator and transcorporal techniques, which facilitated cuff placement around the urethra while avoiding compromised bulbar tissue, improving outcomes in post-radiation cases.^[20]^[21] In the 2020s, novel AUS models have introduced simplified and adjustable designs to enhance efficacy and ease of implantation. The ZSI 375, a single-component device without a separate pressure-regulating balloon, integrates the cuff, pump, and reservoir into one unit filled with saline, allowing for streamlined surgery and reduced component failure.^[22]^[23] Similarly, the VICTO AUS features an adjustable mechanism with a self-sealing port for post-implantation pressure customization; preliminary 2025 data indicate a 73% social continence rate at six months follow-up.^[24]^[25] Ongoing innovations emphasize infection prevention, user control, and gender-specific modifications. Biofilm-resistant materials, including advanced coatings like diamond-like carbon on silicone components, have shown promise in preclinical tests by inhibiting microbial encrustation and adhesion on AUS surfaces.^[26] Remote activation trials, such as those for the UroActive electronic AUS, enable wireless control via smartphone apps, with first-in-human studies reporting successful activation and continence restoration at one year without increased complications.^[2]^[27] For female patients, adaptations include bladder neck cuff placement and labial pump positioning in devices like the AMS 800, yielding continence rates up to 80% in severe stress urinary incontinence while preserving voiding function.^[28]^[29]

Indications and Patient Selection

Primary Conditions Treated

The artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) is primarily indicated for the treatment of moderate-to-severe stress urinary incontinence (SUI) in men following radical prostatectomy, which accounts for approximately 90% of all AUS implantations.^[30] This condition arises due to intrinsic sphincter deficiency resulting from surgical disruption of the urethral sphincter mechanism during prostate removal for cancer. Guidelines from the American Urological Association (AUA) recommend discussing AUS as an option for patients experiencing mild to severe SUI (typically 1-5+ pads per day) after prostate treatment, particularly if symptoms persist despite conservative therapies such as pelvic floor exercises or absorbent products.^[31] AUS is also indicated for other etiologies of severe SUI in men, including post-radiation incontinence, where it is preferred over alternatives like male slings due to higher efficacy in irradiated tissue.^[31] Additional applications encompass neurogenic bladder-related incontinence from conditions such as spinal cord injury or multiple sclerosis, pelvic trauma leading to sphincter damage, and cases of persistent SUI following failed prior interventions like bulking agents or slings.^[30] The European Association of Urology (EAU) guidelines similarly endorse AUS for moderate-to-severe post-prostatectomy SUI after conservative management fails, emphasizing its role in improving quality of life when leakage significantly impacts daily activities.^[32] In women, AUS use remains emerging but is indicated for severe SUI due to intrinsic sphincter deficiency, often following hysterectomy, urethral hypermobility, or prior failed anti-incontinence surgeries.^[30] This application is typically reserved as a last-resort option after conservative and minimally invasive treatments prove inadequate, with ongoing studies supporting its feasibility despite higher complexity in female anatomy.^[33]

Contraindications and Risk Factors

Implantation of an artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) is contraindicated in certain clinical scenarios to minimize risks of severe complications. Absolute contraindications include active urinary tract infection or cellulitis, as these increase the likelihood of postoperative infection and device failure.^[34] Untreated bladder dysfunction, such as significant bladder fibrosis or irresolvable detrusor hyperreflexia, is also an absolute contraindication, as it can lead to inadequate device function and potential urinary retention.^[35]^[36] Additionally, patients with limited manual dexterity or cognitive impairments that prevent reliable operation of the pump mechanism are unsuitable candidates, as they may be unable to deactivate the device for voiding.^[37] Patients unable to tolerate anesthesia or those deemed poor surgical candidates due to overall health status represent further absolute exclusions.^[1]^[38] Relative contraindications involve conditions that elevate complication risks but may not preclude implantation in carefully selected cases. Prior urethral erosion from a previous AUS or other interventions heightens the chance of recurrent erosion, making reimplantation riskier.^[39] Severe radiation damage to the pelvic tissues is a relative contraindication, as it compromises urethral integrity and increases erosion potential.^[28] Coagulopathy or ongoing anticoagulation therapy constitutes a relative contraindication due to heightened bleeding risks during surgery, though perioperative management may mitigate this in some patients.^[40] Risk stratification is essential for assessing patient suitability, particularly regarding erosion and explantation. Patients with a history of pelvic radiation face substantially higher erosion rates, up to 21% compared to 4% in non-radiated individuals, necessitating cautious cuff sizing and placement strategies.^[41] Age greater than 75 years serves as a modifier, correlating with increased explantation rates (34.6% in older patients versus 25.8% overall), likely due to comorbidities and reduced tissue resilience.^[42] Obesity independently elevates perioperative complication risks, including infection and device issues, influencing overall candidacy.^[43] Patient selection incorporates diagnostic tools to evaluate incontinence severity and bladder function. Urodynamic testing is routinely employed to confirm intrinsic sphincter deficiency, exclude detrusor overactivity, and assess overall lower urinary tract dynamics prior to AUS consideration.^[39] The 24-hour pad weight test quantifies urine leakage (e.g., ≥100 grams indicating moderate-to-severe incontinence), aiding in determining treatment appropriateness and expected outcomes.^[44]^[45]

Device Design and Types

Core Components

The artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) is a multicomponent implantable device designed to restore continence by mechanically occluding the urethra. Its core elements include the urethral cuff, pressure-regulating balloon, control pump, and interconnecting tubing, which together form a closed hydraulic system. These parts are typically constructed from biocompatible silicone to minimize tissue reaction and ensure long-term functionality.^[30] The urethral cuff is the primary occlusive component, consisting of an inflatable silicone ring that encircles the bulbar urethra to compress it against the corpora spongiosa, thereby preventing urine leakage. Available in circumference sizes ranging from 31 to 61 mm, the cuff is selected based on urethral diameter to achieve complete but reversible coaptation without excessive pressure that could compromise blood flow. When inflated, it maintains urethral closure pressures sufficient for continence during daily activities.^[46] The pressure-regulating balloon serves as the fluid reservoir, typically placed in the retropubic space to provide a stable hydraulic pressure of 51 to 70 cm H₂O, which is transmitted to the cuff for sustained occlusion. Filled with approximately 20 mL of radiopaque solution, the balloon ensures consistent reservoir function and allows for pressure customization to match patient needs, balancing continence with voiding ease.^[46] The control pump is a manual activation bulb, positioned in the scrotum for male patients or the labia majora for females, enabling user-initiated voiding. Squeezing the pump transfers fluid from the cuff to the balloon, deflating the cuff to open the urethra; the system then automatically refills the cuff from the balloon reservoir within 3 to 5 minutes, restoring closure. This design promotes patient autonomy while preventing prolonged incontinence episodes.^[47]^[48] Silicone tubing connects the cuff, balloon, and pump, forming a sealed circuit for fluid transfer. Engineered to be kink-resistant, the tubing reduces the risk of obstruction during implantation or movement, and many modern devices incorporate antibiotic impregnation, such as rifampin and minocycline coatings, to lower infection rates.^[1]^[49]

Commercially Available Models

The AMS 800, manufactured by American Medical Systems (now part of Boston Scientific), is a three-component artificial urinary sphincter consisting of an inflatable cuff, a control pump, and a pressure-regulating balloon (PRB), all connected by kink-resistant tubing and filled with radiopaque saline.^[50] It has been the gold standard for treating moderate to severe male stress urinary incontinence since its commercial introduction in 1983, with over 250,000 units implanted worldwide.^[50] The device features cuff circumferences ranging from 31 to 61 mm to accommodate varying urethral sizes, and PRB pressures from 51-60 to 71-80 cm H₂O to provide customizable urethral occlusion.^[51] The ZSI 375, developed by Zephyr Surgical Implants, represents a single-component alternative that integrates the cuff and pump into one unit, eliminating the need for a separate balloon and simplifying the design for potentially easier implantation.^[52] This silicone-based device includes an adjustable cuff that wraps circumferentially around the bulbar urethra, with a manual pump mechanism allowing deactivation for up to 30 minutes to facilitate voiding.^[53] It is indicated for moderate to severe stress urinary incontinence in males, particularly post-prostatectomy, and has been implanted in clinical settings across Europe and beyond since its approval.^[54] VICTO, produced by Promedon, is an emerging adjustable three-component model pre-connected for streamlined surgical handling, featuring an occluding cuff, an ergonomic control pump, and a PRB with a self-sealing titanium port for postoperative pressure adjustments in an outpatient setting.^[55] Available in cuff sizes from 3.7 to 5.5 cm, it allows fine-tuning of occlusion pressure to as low as needed for continence while aiming for a reduced complication profile through its conditional occlusion mechanism.^[23] Introduced in recent years and gaining traction by 2025, VICTO targets male stress urinary incontinence with a focus on adaptability and durability, backed by a five-year warranty.^[55] Earlier AMS models, such as the 791, which featured a simplified single-unit control assembly, have been phased out in favor of the more refined AMS 800 design.^[56] For female patients, adaptations of the AMS 800 are used, often placed periurethrally or at the bladder neck to address intrinsic sphincter deficiency, though implantation remains less common than in males due to anatomical considerations.^[57]

Surgical Procedure

Preoperative Preparation

Preoperative preparation for artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) implantation involves a systematic diagnostic workup to confirm stress urinary incontinence (SUI) and exclude confounding factors such as urethral obstruction. Urodynamic studies are recommended for high-risk patients, including those with neurological conditions or prior pelvic radiation, to assess detrusor function, bladder compliance, and outlet obstruction, helping to predict surgical success and identify coexisting issues like detrusor overactivity. Cystoscopy is considered mandatory to evaluate the urethra and bladder for abnormalities such as strictures, stenosis, or contractures that could compromise device placement or function. Additionally, preoperative urine cultures are essential to identify and treat any asymptomatic bacteriuria, as positive cultures increase infection risk and should be sterilized prior to surgery to minimize device-related complications.^[1] Patient counseling is a critical component, focusing on informed consent and setting realistic expectations to enhance satisfaction and reduce decisional regret. Discussions should cover key risks, including device infection (rates of 1-5%) and urethral cuff erosion (5-10%), both of which often necessitate device explantation and subsequent revision surgery. Patients are advised on necessary lifestyle adjustments, such as avoiding heavy lifting during the initial recovery period, and the standard activation delay of 4-6 weeks postoperatively to allow tissue healing and reduce early erosion risk. Validated quality-of-life tools, like the Incontinence Quality of Life questionnaire or Michigan Index, are used to quantify incontinence bother and guide shared decision-making. Medical optimization aims to mitigate modifiable risk factors that elevate perioperative complications. Smoking cessation is strongly encouraged, as tobacco use impairs wound healing and is associated with higher infection rates in prosthetic surgeries, though direct evidence for AUS is limited. Anticoagulation management involves balancing thrombotic and bleeding risks, with guidelines recommending discontinuation or bridging for high-risk agents to prevent hematoma formation without excessive thrombosis. Control of comorbidities, such as achieving HbA1c ≤7% in diabetic patients, reduces infection susceptibility, while frailty assessment via tools like the NSQIP-FI (scores ≥0.27 indicate elevated complication odds, OR 3.5) informs perioperative planning. Although mechanical bowel preparation is sometimes employed to lower infection risk in abdominal approaches, its routine use remains variable and is not universally mandated. Anesthesia planning typically involves general or spinal techniques, selected based on patient comorbidities and surgical approach, with spinal anesthesia preferred in some cases to reduce cardiopulmonary stress. Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis is standard, with cefazolin as the first-line agent (2 g IV) administered within 60 minutes of incision to prevent surgical site infections, per AUA recommendations tailored to local resistance patterns.

Implantation Techniques

The implantation of an artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) primarily utilizes the standard perineal approach, which allows precise placement of the cuff around the bulbar urethra while minimizing trauma to surrounding tissues. The patient is positioned in the dorsal lithotomy configuration under general or spinal anesthesia, with a Foley catheter inserted for urethral guidance. A vertical midline perineal incision, approximately 5-6 cm long, is made over the bulbospongiosus muscle to expose and mobilize the bulbar urethra by sharply dividing the muscle fibers longitudinally.^[1]^[58] A separate low transverse suprapubic or subinguinal incision is created for retropubic placement of the pressure-regulating balloon, typically filled with 20-25 mL of saline or isotonic contrast solution, while the control pump is positioned in a dartos pouch within the scrotum via a small scrotal or inguinal incision.^[59]^[58]^[1] Key surgical steps include measuring the urethral circumference using a dedicated sizer to select a cuff that provides a snug fit, typically 4-4.5 cm in diameter, ensuring 1-2 mm of overlap without excessive tension. The cuff is then passed around the mobilized urethra using right-angle forceps or a pre-placed tape guide, secured with sutures, and connected to the pump and balloon via kink-resistant tubing. The system is cycled several times intraoperatively to verify patency and function, after which the device is deactivated by deflating the cuff to promote tissue healing; activation occurs 4-6 weeks postoperatively.^[1]^[58]^[60] Alternative minimally invasive techniques, such as the penoscrotal approach, employ a single transverse incision at the penoscrotal junction to access the bulbar urethra, balloon reservoir, and pump, thereby reducing the number of incisions and potential infection sites. This method facilitates urethral dissection through the tunica dartos, cuff placement proximal to the bulbar urethra, and direct tunneling for component connections, often shortening operative time to 35-90 minutes compared to the traditional multi-incision perineal method.^[61]^[58] Emerging techniques as of 2025 include robotic-assisted implantation, particularly for female patients, with 5-year outcomes showing sustained efficacy, and protocols enabling same-day catheter-free discharge in select cases.^[62]^[63] Operative considerations for AUS implantation generally include a total procedure duration of 60-120 minutes, estimated blood loss under 200 mL, and a postoperative hospital stay of 1-2 days, with the catheter removed prior to discharge following confirmation of voiding ability. Prophylactic antibiotics and meticulous hemostasis are standard to mitigate early risks, building on thorough preoperative evaluation including cystoscopy and urine cultures.^[59]^[1]^[61]

Clinical Outcomes

Efficacy and Success Rates

The artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) demonstrates high efficacy in restoring continence for men with moderate to severe stress urinary incontinence following prostatectomy, with recent meta-analyses reporting social continence rates (defined as dry or using 0-1 pad per day) of 80-90% at 1 year post-implantation.^[31] At 5 years, these rates typically range from 60-80%, reflecting sustained but gradually declining performance due to factors such as device wear and tissue changes.^[64]^[65] These outcomes are assessed using standardized metrics, including reduction in daily pad usage (often from ≥2 pads preoperatively to ≤1 postoperatively), the 24-hour pad weight test (measuring leakage volume under controlled conditions), and scores from the International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire (ICIQ), which quantifies symptom severity and impact.^[31] Success rates vary significantly based on patient factors, particularly prior radiation therapy. In non-radiated patients, continence achievement approaches 90%, whereas radiated patients experience approximately 70% success, corresponding to a 65% reduced odds of achieving no incontinence (OR 0.35, 95% CI 0.21-0.59) in a 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis of over 700 cases.^[7] This disparity arises from radiation-induced urethral fibrosis and reduced tissue compliance, which impair device function despite equivalent surgical techniques.^[66] In women with intrinsic sphincter deficiency, AUS implantation achieves continence rates of approximately 72% based on a 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis of 300 patients.^[67] Regarding durability, AUS devices exhibit 40-56% survival at 10 years in large cohort studies of men, with mechanical failure rates remaining low at 5-10% over the same period, primarily due to cuff or pump malfunctions rather than erosion or infection.^[68]^[69] Radiation therapy is associated with shorter time to device failure of any cause.^[70]

Patient Satisfaction and Quality of Life

Patient satisfaction with artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) implantation is generally high, with overall rates ranging from 85% to 95% reported in recent studies.^[71] In a 2025 study, 90.7% of patients indicated they would definitely or probably recommend the procedure to others, reflecting strong endorsement despite potential challenges.^[72] Approximately 90% of patients express willingness to undergo AUS implantation again, underscoring its perceived value in managing stress urinary incontinence.^[73] Quality of life improvements following AUS placement are substantial and multifaceted, including reduced social isolation and enhanced emotional well-being. Men with post-prostatectomy incontinence often experience depression, social withdrawal, and embarrassment prior to treatment, but AUS implantation alleviates these issues by restoring continence and confidence in daily activities.^[74] Sexual function is largely preserved, with studies showing no significant decline in erectile function or sexual satisfaction scores six months post-implantation.^[75] Validated instruments demonstrate meaningful gains, such as drops in International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire-Short Form (ICIQ-SF) scores of 10 to 15 points, indicating reduced incontinence severity and bother.^[64] Factors influencing satisfaction include manual dexterity required for pump activation, with patients exhibiting better fine motor skills reporting easier device handling and higher confidence in use.^[76] Female patients face greater challenges in pump manipulation, often due to anatomical differences or dexterity limitations, leading to higher rates of incomplete activation and adjustment difficulties compared to males.^[77] Long-term surveys reveal sustained but gradually declining satisfaction, with approximately 75% of patients reporting contentment at five years post-implantation, though rates may decrease due to the need for revisions.^[47] Despite this, AUS outcomes remain superior to alternative treatments for severe incontinence in terms of overall quality of life benefits.^[72]

Complications

Intraoperative and Early Postoperative Issues

Intraoperative complications during artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) implantation primarily include bleeding, urethral injury, and component malposition. Bleeding, often manifesting as scrotal hematoma, occurs in a notable proportion of cases, with rates up to 30% in patients on anticoagulation therapy compared to 6% in those without, typically requiring surgical evacuation only in severe instances. Urethral injury, the most common intraoperative issue, arises from catheter placement or cystoscopy and affects approximately 1-5% of procedures, sometimes necessitating abandonment of the surgery if significant. Component malposition, such as pump migration, is reported in about 11% of revision cases but can occur initially, leading to discomfort or functional issues that demand immediate repositioning via imaging confirmation like fluoroscopy. Early postoperative complications within 0-30 days encompass infection, urinary retention, and wound dehiscence, contributing to an overall 30-day complication rate of 15-20%. Infection rates range from 1-5%, including urinary tract infections in 7.6% of patients, often requiring culture-specific antibiotics and, in severe cases, device explantation to prevent sepsis. Urinary retention affects 8-32% of patients, particularly with transcorporal cuff placement, and typically resolves with temporary catheterization. Wound dehiscence is less frequently quantified but is associated with underlying hematoma or infection, potentially prolonging recovery. Management of these issues emphasizes preventive and supportive measures to minimize morbidity. Prophylactic antibiotics are administered perioperatively in line with AUA best practice statements to reduce infection risk, with no proven benefit from extended postoperative oral antibiotics. A urethral catheter (10-14 Fr) is routinely placed for 24-48 hours post-implantation to manage initial retention and prevent erosion, transitioning to suprapubic diversion if prolonged. Early ambulation is encouraged to promote circulation and reduce hematoma formation, alongside vigilant monitoring for signs of infection or bleeding during the initial hospital stay. One of the primary long-term complications associated with artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) implantation is urethral erosion, where the device cuff abrades the urethral mucosa, leading to tissue breakdown. This occurs in approximately 3.8% to 10% of cases overall, with rates increasing to 21% in patients who have undergone prior radiation therapy compared to 4% in non-radiated individuals.^[41] Erosion typically presents with symptoms such as gross hematuria, dysuria, worsening incontinence, or perineal pain, often manifesting within the first 2 years post-implantation but persisting or emerging up to 10 years later.^[71] Risk factors include prior radiation, smaller cuff sizes, low testosterone levels, and multiple prior urethral interventions, which compromise urethral integrity and elevate the likelihood of this complication.^[41] Urethral atrophy and device malfunction represent additional chronic issues that can compromise AUS functionality over time. Urethral atrophy, characterized by tissue thinning beneath the cuff leading to recurrent incontinence, affects 4% to 26% of patients in historical series, though rates have decreased to 9.6-11.4% with contemporary designs such as the narrow-backed 3.5 cm cuff; often necessitating cuff downsizing or tandem cuff placement in 10% to 20% of revision cases.^[71]^[78] Mechanical failures, such as pump leaks or fluid loss from the reservoir, account for up to 83% of device revisions and occur at a rate of approximately 6.2% (ranging from 2% to 13.8%), with median onset around 11 to 68 months post-implantation.^[79] These malfunctions are more prevalent in replacement procedures than initial implants, highlighting the cumulative wear on device components.^[80] Late-onset infections, though less common than early postoperative ones, pose a significant risk for device salvage, occurring in 1% to 7% of cases beyond the initial period and often requiring complete explantation due to biofilm formation.^[41] These infections may recur in 2% to 4% of patients with predisposing factors like diabetes or prior explantations, presenting with scrotal inflammation or systemic symptoms that necessitate urgent intervention to prevent further complications.^[71] Overall revision rates for AUS reflect the cumulative impact of these long-term problems, with 20% to 30% of devices requiring surgical intervention by 5 years and up to 45% by 10 years, based on prospective cohort studies tracking durability.^[81] Factors such as radiation history and the need for cuff downsizing contribute to these rates, with surgery-free survival dropping to 56% at 10 years in some populations.^[82] While revisions can restore function, repeated procedures increase the risk of subsequent failures, underscoring the importance of patient selection and ongoing monitoring.^[83]

Follow-up and Management

Immediate Post-Discharge Care

Following hospital discharge after artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) implantation, patients receive specific instructions to promote healing and prevent complications during the initial recovery period. A urinary catheter is typically in place for 24 to 48 hours postoperatively, with removal occurring in the hospital or at an early clinic visit if prolonged drainage is needed. Patients are advised to complete any prescribed antibiotic course, often lasting 7 to 14 days, to reduce infection risk.^[84]^[85]^[86] Wound care emphasizes maintaining cleanliness and dryness at the incision sites, which are usually located in the lower abdomen, scrotum (for male patients), or labia (for female patients). Showering is permitted approximately 48 hours after surgery, but patients should avoid scrubbing the surgical sites and pat them dry gently without rubbing; submersion in baths, hot tubs, or swimming pools is prohibited for at least 2 weeks to minimize infection risk. Bandages should be changed if they become wet or soiled, and ice packs may be applied intermittently to the scrotal or perineal area for 48 hours to reduce swelling and bruising. Patients are instructed to monitor for signs of infection, including fever above 101°F (38.3°C), increasing redness, swelling, drainage of pus, severe pain, or difficulty urinating, and to contact their urologist immediately if these occur.^[84]^[85]^[87]^[86] Activity restrictions are designed to protect the device and surgical sites during the early healing phase. Light activities and a normal diet can resume immediately, but heavy lifting exceeding 10 pounds, strenuous exercise, or straddle-position activities (such as biking or horseback riding) should be avoided for 4 to 6 weeks. A scrotal support garment is recommended for male patients during the first week to minimize swelling, and a doughnut-shaped cushion may aid comfort when sitting. Driving is permitted once narcotic pain medications are discontinued, typically within a few days, and a gradual return to work is encouraged based on the patient's occupation, often within 1 to 2 weeks for sedentary roles. Sexual activity is generally deferred for at least 6 weeks or until device activation and clearance by the urologist.^[84]^[85]^[87]^[86] The AUS device remains deactivated immediately after implantation to allow tissue healing around the cuff, with activation performed by the urologist during a follow-up visit, typically 4 to 8 weeks postoperatively. At this appointment, patients receive education on proper voiding technique, including how to manually squeeze and release the pump in the scrotum or labia to open the cuff for urination, ensuring continence between voids. Until activation, some urinary leakage is expected and managed with absorbent pads.^[84]^[85]^[87] Follow-up care begins with a clinic visit approximately 2 weeks after discharge to assess wound healing, remove any remaining drains or catheters if applicable, and monitor for early issues. A subsequent visit at 4 to 6 weeks focuses on device activation and initial instruction. Patients are encouraged to schedule these appointments promptly and report any concerns, such as persistent pain or changes in urinary output, to facilitate a smooth transition to long-term management.^[84]^[85]^[87]^[86]

Ongoing Monitoring and Revision

Patients with an artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) require lifelong surveillance to ensure device functionality and address potential deterioration. Annual urological evaluations are recommended to assess overall device performance, including manual testing of the pump mechanism to verify fluid transfer and cuff deflation efficiency.^[5] If recurrent incontinence develops, further diagnostic testing such as urodynamic studies is indicated to evaluate for underlying issues like detrusor overactivity or elevated storage pressures, with the cuff deflated during the procedure to avoid complications.^[31] Revisions are common over the device's lifespan, with indications including urethral erosion requiring cuff replacement or relocation, tissue atrophy necessitating downsizing or tandem cuff placement, and mechanical failure or fluid loss prompting full device adjustment or replacement. Explantation occurs in approximately 10% of cases lifetime due to severe erosion or infection, though overall revision rates reach 24% at 5 years and 50% at 10 years.^[31]^[88] Reimplantation after explantation is feasible in approximately 50% of explanted cases, often after a period of urethral rest to promote healing, with success rates comparable to primary procedures in non-erosion scenarios.^[88]^[83]^[89] To optimize long-term outcomes, patients receive guidance on lifestyle modifications, such as maintaining adequate hydration to support urinary flow and incorporating high-fiber intake or laxatives to prevent constipation, which could strain the device. Early reporting of pump malfunction, persistent leakage, or pain is emphasized to facilitate timely intervention and reduce the risk of erosion.^[90]^[91] At end-of-life, deactivation of the AUS is advised prior to death to prevent complications during postmortem handling or unrelated procedures; this involves deflating the cuff to minimize pressure on the urethra.^[12]

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