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Axonal transport

Axonal transport is the active, bidirectional process by which neurons move essential cellular components—such as proteins, organelles, lipids, and RNA—along their axons, often over long distances exceeding one meter in humans, to sustain neuronal structure, function, and homeostasis.^[1] This transport relies on microtubule-based tracks within the axon, where molecular motor proteins harness ATP hydrolysis to propel cargos: kinesins primarily drive anterograde movement from the cell body (soma) toward synaptic terminals, while cytoplasmic dynein, often in complex with dynactin, powers retrograde transport in the opposite direction.^[2] Axonal transport encompasses both fast components, which move vesicles, mitochondria, and other organelles at speeds up to 400 mm/day, and slow components, transporting cytoskeletal elements and soluble proteins at rates below 8 mm/day, enabling the precise delivery of materials to distal axon regions and the retrieval of signaling molecules and waste from synapses.^[2] The process is highly regulated through cargo-specific adaptor proteins, Rab GTPases, kinases, and scaffolding complexes that ensure motor-cargo binding, directionality, and coordination between opposing motors on the same track, preventing collisions and optimizing efficiency in the confined axonal environment.^[3] Discovered in the 1960s through radioisotope labeling experiments, axonal transport is fundamental to neuronal polarity, synaptic plasticity, and long-term survival, as it supports energy supply via mitochondria delivery, neurotransmitter release through vesicle trafficking, and retrograde signaling for gene expression in the soma.^[2] Disruptions in this system, often due to mutations in motor proteins, adaptors, or microtubule-associated factors, underlie numerous neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease, and Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy, highlighting its clinical significance.^[4]

Introduction

Definition and Overview

Axonal transport refers to the bidirectional, ATP-dependent movement of proteins, organelles, and other cellular materials along neuronal axons, facilitated by motor proteins that "walk" along microtubule tracks within the cytoskeleton.^[2] This process ensures the delivery of essential components from the neuronal cell body (soma) to distal sites such as synapses in anterograde transport, and the return of materials, including signaling molecules and recycled components, from the axon terminals back to the soma in retrograde transport.^[2] In essence, it functions as a cellular logistics system, enabling neurons to sustain their extended structures despite the absence of protein synthesis machinery in axons.^[1] The concept of axonal transport originated from early experimental observations in the mid-20th century, with the seminal work of Paul Weiss and H.B. Hiscoe in 1948 demonstrating what they termed "axoplasmic flow." Using constriction techniques on the sciatic nerves of young rats, they observed localized swelling and accumulation of axoplasm proximal to the constriction site, indicating a continuous, proximo-distal flow of cytoplasmic material from the cell body along the axon at an estimated rate of about 1 mm per day. This finding challenged the prevailing view of axons as static conduits and established the foundational idea of a bulk flow mechanism, later refined through additional studies.^[5] In mature neurons, particularly in humans, axonal transport operates over remarkable distances, with some motor neuron axons extending up to 1 meter from the spinal cord to the toes.^[2] Transport rates vary significantly, ranging from slow components at 0.1–10 mm/day for cytoskeletal elements and soluble proteins, to fast components reaching up to 400 mm/day (approximately 5 μm/s) for membranous organelles and vesicles.^[2] These dynamics are crucial for neuronal maintenance, supporting processes like synaptic plasticity and responding to environmental cues.^[1]

Biological Significance

Axonal transport is indispensable for maintaining the structural and functional integrity of neurons, particularly in polarized cells with extended axons that can span up to a meter in humans. By delivering structural proteins such as neurofilaments, lipids, and organelles like mitochondria from the cell body to distal axonal regions, it prevents degeneration and supports the cytoskeletal framework essential for axonal stability. Disruptions in this process, such as mutations in kinesin motors like KIF5A, lead to axonal swelling and breakdown, underscoring its role in neuronal homeostasis.^[6]^[1] In synaptic function, axonal transport ensures the precise delivery of neurotransmitters packaged in synaptic vesicles, along with vesicle precursors, receptors, and signaling endosomes to presynaptic terminals, enabling neurotransmission, synaptic plasticity, and long-term signaling. For instance, kinesin-1 (KIF5) transports synaptic vesicle precursors to support the formation and maintenance of thousands of en passant synapses along a single axon, while defects in motors like KIF1A impair vesicle delivery and synaptic connectivity. This targeted supply is critical for neurons with vast arbors containing hundreds of thousands of presynaptic sites.^[1]^[7]^[8] During neuronal development, axonal transport facilitates axon growth, guidance, and branching by transporting integrins, mRNAs, and growth-associated proteins to growth cones, promoting elongation and polarity establishment in embryogenesis. In embryonic cortical neurons, for example, KIF4A-mediated anterograde transport of integrins supports axonal outgrowth, a process diminished in mature neurons. This developmental role highlights its necessity for wiring the nervous system.^[9]^[6] Axonal transport imposes substantial energy demands on neurons, consuming a significant fraction of the cellular ATP budget to power motor proteins over long distances; for instance, a single anterograde transport event in a 1-meter human motor neuron axon requires approximately 1.25 × 10^8 ATP molecules. Mitochondria, themselves transported via kinesins like KIF5, provide localized ATP to fuel this process and meet synaptic energy needs. This high metabolic cost reflects the system's efficiency in sustaining neuronal function.^[2] The process exhibits remarkable evolutionary conservation across metazoans, from invertebrates like Drosophila to mammals, with core components such as kinesin-dynein motors and microtubule tracks preserved to support axonal architectures in complex nervous systems. This conservation, evident in the Elongator complex's role in microtubule acetylation across species, emphasizes axonal transport's fundamental contribution to nervous system evolution and function in eukaryotes possessing axons.^[10]

Molecular Mechanisms

Transport Machinery

Axonal transport relies on molecular motor proteins that convert chemical energy from ATP hydrolysis into mechanical work to move cargoes along microtubules. The primary motors are members of the kinesin and dynein families, which exhibit opposite polarities: kinesins generally move toward microtubule plus ends (anterograde transport), while dyneins move toward minus ends (retrograde transport).^[1]^[11] Kinesin-1 (also known as KIF5), the predominant anterograde motor, operates through a hand-over-hand mechanism powered by its ATPase cycle. Each ATP hydrolysis event drives the motor forward by one 8-nm step, corresponding to the tubulin dimer spacing on microtubules, enabling processive movement over long distances.^[12] Cytoplasmic dynein-1, the main retrograde motor, also hydrolyzes ATP but exhibits a more variable, load-dependent step size, taking larger steps up to 32 nm under low load and averaging around 8 nm under higher load, allowing it to generate force and navigate crowded axonal environments.^[13] Adaptor proteins facilitate motor recruitment and cargo linkage. The dynactin complex enhances dynein processivity and is essential for recruiting dynein to microtubule plus ends and activating its motility for retrograde transport initiation.^[14] For kinesin-1, the kinesin light chains (KLCs) mediate direct binding to cargoes, such as amyloid precursor protein, and help regulate motor autoinhibition by suppressing unproductive interactions with microtubules.^[15]^[16] Motor-cargo specificity is finely tuned by post-translational modifications, including phosphorylation. For instance, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation of scaffold proteins like JIP1 alters the affinity balance between kinesin-1 and dynein-dynactin, thereby directing cargo movement and activating kinesin-1 for anterograde transport.^[3]^[17] In bidirectional transport, kinesin and dynein motors on the same cargo coordinate via a tug-of-war mechanism, where the net direction and velocity emerge from the stochastic imbalance of motor forces and detachment rates, enabling pauses, reversals, and efficient navigation without fixed switching signals.^[18]^[19] Recent advances highlight the role of S-acylation, a reversible lipid modification, in enhancing motor processivity during fast axonal transport; for example, palmitoylation of kinesin and dynein components stabilizes membrane associations and boosts velocity by improving ATP utilization efficiency, as demonstrated in 2024 studies on neuronal lipid dynamics.^[20]

Microtubule Tracks and Cargoes

Axonal microtubules form the primary cytoskeletal tracks for intracellular transport, exhibiting uniform polarity with plus ends oriented distally toward the axon terminal and minus ends proximally near the cell body.^[21] This organization ensures directional specificity for motor-driven movement along the axon. Microtubules are hollow cylindrical polymers assembled from α- and β-tubulin heterodimers that polymerize head-to-tail into linear protofilaments, which then associate laterally to form tubes typically 25 nm in diameter.^[22] The cargoes transported along these microtubule tracks are diverse, encompassing both membrane-bound and non-membrane-bound materials essential for axonal maintenance and function. Membrane-bound cargoes include organelles such as mitochondria, lysosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) segments, as well as vesicles like synaptic vesicle precursors and endosomes.^[1] Non-membrane-bound cargoes consist of soluble proteins and mRNAs, which support local protein synthesis, signaling, and membrane biogenesis within the axon.^[23]^[2] Cargo sorting and packaging occur primarily at specialized sites in the axon hillock, including ER exit sites and Golgi outposts, where proteins and lipids are processed and loaded into transport vesicles for entry into the axon.^[24] The pre-axonal exclusion zone within the axon hillock acts as a selective barrier, ensuring that only axonally destined cargoes, such as those bound for synaptic terminals, proceed into the axon proper while somatodendritic materials are retained.^[24] Axonal transport involves distinct compartments for different cargo types: membrane-bound cargoes are packaged into vesicles and organelles that associate directly with microtubule motors, whereas soluble cargoes, including enzymes and mRNA-protein complexes, often travel within these vesicular carriers or as independent assemblies.^[25] A representative example is the amyloid precursor protein (APP), which is transported in specialized vesicles along axons, facilitating its delivery to distal sites for proteolytic processing.^[15] Recent studies highlight the dynamic role of axonal ER in cargo conveyance and cellular homeostasis, with ER tubules extending continuously along microtubules to support local organelle interactions and calcium buffering, thereby modulating axonal excitability and resilience to stress.^[26]

Directional Transport

Anterograde Transport

Anterograde axonal transport refers to the movement of cellular components from the neuronal cell body toward the axon terminal, directed along microtubules from their minus ends to plus ends. This process is primarily powered by members of the kinesin superfamily of motor proteins, such as kinesin-1 (KIF5) and kinesin-3 (KIF1A), which use ATP hydrolysis to generate force and propel cargoes distally.^[27] Key functions of anterograde transport include supporting axonal elongation by delivering cytoskeletal elements and membrane precursors to the growth cone, facilitating synapse formation through the conveyance of synaptic vesicle precursors and active zone components, and enabling trophic factor delivery to sustain distal neuronal health. For instance, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is transported in dense-core vesicles to promote synaptic plasticity and neuronal survival.^[27]^[28] Specific cargoes transported anterogradely encompass neurofilaments, which provide structural support and caliber maintenance via slow component transport mediated by kinesin-1, growth-associated protein 43 (GAP-43), which aids in axonal branching and plasticity, and mitochondria, which supply local ATP for energy-demanding processes at synapses and growth cones.^[29] In development, anterograde transport plays a crucial role in axonal pathfinding by delivering receptors and signaling molecules that enable growth cones to respond to guidance cues like netrins, which attract or repel axons to establish proper connectivity. For example, netrin-1 signaling enhances the anterograde transport of myosin X via KIF13B to direct axonal targeting.^[30] Visualization of this transport has been achieved through live-cell imaging techniques using fluorescent tags, such as GFP fused to cargo proteins, revealing characteristic saltatory movement—intermittent bursts of rapid progression interspersed with pauses.^[31]

Retrograde Transport

Retrograde axonal transport moves cellular materials from the axon terminal toward the neuronal cell body, directed along microtubules from their plus ends to minus ends. This process is powered exclusively by the microtubule-based motor protein cytoplasmic dynein, which interacts with dynactin and adaptor proteins to facilitate movement.^[32]^[33] Unlike anterograde transport, which supplies essential components to distal sites, retrograde transport primarily enables feedback mechanisms and maintenance functions within the neuron.^[34] Key functions of retrograde transport include feedback signaling, such as neurotrophin-mediated pathways that promote neuronal survival and plasticity. For instance, neurotrophins like nerve growth factor (NGF) bind to Trk receptors at axon terminals, triggering receptor autophosphorylation and endocytosis into signaling endosomes that are transported retrogradely to activate transcription in the cell body.^[35]^[36] This retrograde signaling coordinates processes like synaptogenesis and dendritic growth. Additionally, retrograde transport supports debris clearance by returning damaged organelles and aggregated proteins to the soma for degradation, preventing toxic buildup in the axon. It also plays a critical role in the neuronal injury response, relaying signals from lesion sites to initiate regenerative programs.^[37]^[34] Specific cargoes transported retrogradely include signaling endosomes containing NGF-TrkA complexes, autophagosomes bearing engulfed cellular debris, and misfolded proteins targeted for proteasomal or lysosomal degradation. These endosomes form via receptor-mediated endocytosis at the axon terminal and are actively sorted for dynein-mediated transit, ensuring sustained signaling over long distances.^[38] Autophagosomes, generated in distal axons, fuse with lysosomes en route or upon reaching the soma to recycle components, while misfolded proteins are shuttled to maintain proteostasis.^[39]^[40] In response to axonal injury, retrograde transport conveys signaling molecules such as cyclic AMP (cAMP) and importins from the injury site to the nucleus, where they activate transcription factors like CREB to upregulate regeneration-associated genes. Injury-induced calcium influx promotes local translation of importins, which bind and transport transcription factors retrogradely, amplifying pro-survival responses such as axon outgrowth.^[41]^[42] Local synthesis and retrograde trafficking of CREB itself further link distal injury cues to nuclear gene expression changes.^[43]^[44] Recent studies have highlighted the modulation of retrograde endosome transport by brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in neuromuscular disorders. In mouse models of distal hereditary motor neuropathy, muscle-derived BDNF enhances the velocity and processivity of signaling endosomes in affected motor axons, rescuing transport deficits and suggesting therapeutic potential for BDNF augmentation.^[45] These findings underscore BDNF's role in regulating dynein-driven retrograde flux under pathological conditions.^[46]

Transport Speeds

Fast Axonal Transport

Fast axonal transport involves the rapid translocation of cargoes along neuronal axons at velocities ranging from 200 to 400 mm/day, equivalent to approximately 2 to 5 μm/s.^[47] This high-speed process is distinct from slower transport variants and is characterized by a saltatory pattern, featuring episodic bursts of rapid movement separated by pauses.^[48] The primary cargoes include membrane-bound organelles and vesicles, such as synaptic vesicle precursors, dense-core vesicles, mitochondria, lysosomes, and endosomes, which are essential for maintaining synaptic function and cellular homeostasis.^[2] The mechanism relies on bidirectional motility along the same microtubule tracks within the axon, powered by plus-end-directed kinesin motors for anterograde movement and minus-end-directed dynein motors for retrograde transport.^[5] Cargoes exhibit pauses, particularly at axonal branch points, to facilitate selective routing and prevent misdirection into side branches.^[49] These pauses contribute to the overall saltatory dynamics, allowing for regulatory adjustments during transit.^[48] This transport is energetically demanding, with high ATP consumption per distance traveled due to the stepping action of microtubule motors, where each kinesin step hydrolyzes one ATP molecule to advance 8 nm along the track.^[48] For instance, anterograde transport of a single vesicle over a 1-meter axon requires approximately 1.25 × 10^8 ATP molecules, underscoring the efficiency challenges in long axons.^[48] Experimental quantification of fast axonal transport has historically relied on radiolabeling methods, such as injecting radioactive amino acids into the neuronal soma and tracking the front of labeled material via autoradiography, which first demonstrated rates up to 400 mm/day in mammalian nerves.^[5] Modern approaches, including live-cell video microscopy, have visualized the saltatory movement and episodic bursts, confirming intermittent velocities and pauses in real time.

Slow Axonal Transport

Slow axonal transport is a fundamental process that delivers cytoskeletal and cytosolic proteins to axons at rates of 0.1–10 mm/day, enabling the long-term maintenance and growth of neuronal structure in contrast to the rapid delivery of vesicular cargoes in fast transport.^[2] This transport is divided into two main components based on speed and cargo type: slow component a (SCa), moving at 0.2–1 mm/day, and slow component b (SCb), progressing at 2–5 mm/day.^[2] SCa primarily conveys assembled cytoskeletal polymers, while SCb transports soluble and aggregated proteins, both occurring along microtubule tracks with intermittent dynamics that result in the overall slow net progression.^[50] The primary cargoes of slow axonal transport include cytoskeletal elements such as neurofilaments, tubulin subunits for microtubules, and actin filaments, alongside soluble enzymes like metabolic proteins (e.g., phosphofructokinase) and chaperones (e.g., HSP70).^[50] These materials move in an intermittent "stop-and-go" fashion, featuring brief episodes of rapid, motor-driven advancement (up to several micrometers per second) separated by extended pauses that account for over 90% of the time, leading to the observed bulk rates.^[50] This pattern differs from the continuous motility of fast transport, emphasizing a strategy suited for structural accumulation rather than quick distribution. Mechanistically, slow axonal transport involves polymer sliding, where cytoskeletal filaments like neurofilaments and microtubules glide past one another at varying speeds, facilitated by intermittent interactions with motors such as kinesin-1, though less continuously than in fast transport.^[51] Local protein synthesis also contributes significantly, with axonal mRNA translation generating cytoskeletal components on-site to supplement transported materials and reduce dependence on somatic supply.^[52] These processes support key functions, including axon caliber regulation—where neurofilament delivery and spacing via phosphorylation expand axonal diameter to optimize conduction velocity—and structural plasticity, allowing cytoskeletal remodeling in response to neuronal demands.^[53] A 2025 review underscores recent advances in understanding how axonal mRNA translation directly influences slow transport, particularly through local synthesis of neurofilament proteins in peripheral axons, which enhances the intermittent delivery and integration of structural elements for sustained axonal integrity.^[52]

Regulation

Molecular Regulators

Axonal transport is tightly regulated by various kinases and phosphatases that modulate the activity of motor proteins. Glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) inhibits kinesin-mediated transport by phosphorylating kinesin light chains, thereby disrupting the association between kinesin-1 and its cargoes such as tau protein.^[54] Similarly, GSK-3β impairs the function of KIF1A, a kinesin-3 family motor essential for neurotrophic factor transport in hippocampal neurons.^[55] Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5), activated by its cofactor p35, regulates dynein function through phosphorylation of dynein-interacting proteins like Nudel, which is critical for force production and adaptation during retrograde transport.^[56] CDK5 also influences dynein-dynactin complexes via Lis1/Ndel1 pathways, where its stress-induced activation disrupts overall transport dynamics.^[57] MicroRNAs (miRNAs) further fine-tune axonal transport by targeting motor protein expression in motor neurons. For instance, miR-140-3p directly binds to the 3' untranslated region of KIF5A mRNA, reducing kinesin heavy chain levels and impairing anterograde transport of synaptic vesicles in spinal muscular atrophy models.^[58] This regulation highlights miRNAs as endogenous controllers of motor protein abundance, with dysregulation linked to transport deficits in motor neuron diseases. Post-translational modifications play a pivotal role in controlling motor protein turnover and microtubule track integrity. Ubiquitination targets motor proteins like kinesin homologs (e.g., UNC-104 in model organisms) for proteasomal degradation, ensuring precise regulation of anterograde transport rates and preventing accumulation of dysfunctional motors.^[59] Acetylation of α-tubulin on microtubules enhances track stability by reducing depolymerization and improving motor processivity, as evidenced by experiments where increased acetylation restored transport in models of microtubule instability.^[60] Feedback loops involving energy-sensing and stress-response kinases adapt transport speeds to cellular conditions. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation under metabolic stress promotes neuronal protection by enhancing axonal transport efficiency and reducing protein aggregation.^[61] The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, triggered by oxidative or inflammatory stress, modulates retrograde transport; its inhibition rescues dynein-mediated vesicle movement in axonal injury models.^[62] These pathways form interconnected loops, where AMPK and p38 signaling converge to adjust motor velocities during stress, maintaining transport homeostasis without altering core motor functions. Local protein synthesis in axons, mediated by ribosomes and mRNA transport, allows on-site production of transport regulators. Axonal ribosomes translate ribosomal protein mRNAs delivered by RNA-binding proteins like TDP-43, enabling rapid synthesis of components needed for local transport adjustments in response to synaptic demands.^[63] This decentralized synthesis supports the maintenance of motor-cargo complexes distally from the soma, with mRNAs trafficked via lysosomal vesicles to sustain ribosomal function and regulator availability.^[64]

Environmental Factors

Axonal transport is highly sensitive to temperature variations, with velocities decreasing markedly below physiological levels of 37°C. For instance, kinesin-driven motility increases smoothly with rising temperature, but dynein activity exhibits a high activation energy, leading to near-complete shutdown below 15°C and overall transport rates dropping from 410 mm/day at 37°C to 53 mm/day at 10°C in garfish olfactory nerves.^[65] In myelinated regions, thermosensitive gating mechanisms further modulate transport; TRPM4 channels at nodes of Ranvier display steep thermal sensitivity (Q10 ≈ 8–10), enhancing activity upon warming and shifting voltage activation curves, which influences cargo passage through these constrictions.^[65] Changes in pH and ion concentrations, particularly calcium waves, dynamically alter motor protein activity during axonal transport. Elevated intracellular Ca²⁺ levels promote the binding of Miro1 to the kinesin-1 motor domain, sterically inhibiting microtubule engagement and thereby halting anterograde transport of cargos such as mitochondria.^[2] These calcium waves, often triggered by neuronal activity or injury, propagate retrogradely and correlate with modulated transport rates; for example, axotomy-induced Ca²⁺ waves in sensory neurons adjust regeneration extent by influencing dynein-mediated retrograde motility.^[66] Mechanical stress, such as axonal stretching, induces pausing and disruptions in transport, particularly at nodes of Ranvier. A 2024 study in mouse motor axons demonstrated that stretch-related forces at these nodal constrictions cause organelles like mitochondria and signaling endosomes to pause frequently, with velocities reduced by 28–48% and accumulation peaking distally ~3–4.5 μm from the node center.^[67] This pausing arises from the narrowed axonal diameter at nodes, which acts as a mechanical barrier, temporarily halting cargo progression before acceleration in adjacent internodes.^[67] Trophic factors like brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) enhance endosome motility in axonal transport. BDNF stimulation increases the speed and processivity of retrograde signaling endosomes in motor neurons by activating TrkB receptors, boosting dynein-driven trafficking velocities in wild-type models while this enhancement is impaired in neurodegenerative contexts.^[68] Compartmental barriers, notably nodes of Ranvier, significantly influence organelle passage during axonal transport. These structures serve as bottlenecks where organelles such as mitochondria and signaling endosomes accumulate due to diameter reductions, leading to transient pausing and higher fluorescence intensity (~50% greater than in internodes) as observed in vivo imaging studies.^[67] Such barriers ensure selective organelle trafficking, with larger cargos exhibiting delayed passage compared to smaller ones, thereby regulating material flow along the axon.^[67]

Pathological Implications

Disruptions and General Consequences

Disruptions to axonal transport arise from pharmacological interventions that target cytoskeletal elements or from genetic alterations affecting motor proteins and associated components. Pharmacological agents like nocodazole depolymerize microtubules, leading to a marked reduction in microtubule density within axons after prolonged exposure, which inhibits fast axoplasmic transport and increases neurofilament accumulation.^[69] Genetic knockouts or mutations, such as those in kinesin family members (e.g., KIF5A) or dynein heavy chain (e.g., DYNC1H1), impair the motility of transport complexes, resulting in defective anterograde and retrograde trafficking of cargos.^[70] Immediate consequences of these interruptions include the accumulation of cargos proximal and distal to the disruption site, forming axonal swellings that range from several to tens of micrometers in diameter due to stalled organelles like vesicles, mitochondria, and mRNAs.^[71] Mitochondrial stasis, a prominent feature, exacerbates local energy deficits by limiting ATP production and delivery, as reduced motility in mature axons drops the proportion of mobile mitochondria to 20-30%, promoting depolarization and metabolic stress following injury or blockade.^[72]^[73] Over time, persistent transport failures lead to axonal dystrophy, characterized by chronic swellings and structural abnormalities that compromise axonal integrity.^[74] This progresses to synaptic loss through inadequate replenishment of synaptic vesicles and proteins, disrupting neural circuit function.^[74] Ultimately, such disruptions trigger Wallerian degeneration, a programmed axonal breakdown involving NAD+ depletion, calcium overload, and calpain activation, culminating in fragmentation and clearance of the axon distal to the impairment.^[71] Neurons employ compensation mechanisms to counteract these effects, notably by upregulating local protein synthesis in axons to locally produce essential proteins like cytoskeletal elements and stress-response factors, thereby supporting maintenance and regeneration when transport is compromised.^[75] This response is evident post-injury, where translation of pre-localized mRNAs increases via pathways like mTOR, mitigating some deficits in cargo delivery.^[75] Experimental models, such as in vitro squid axoplasm assays, have been instrumental in demonstrating these disruptions by isolating axonal cytoplasm to observe halted organelle flow upon pharmacological intervention, confirming that transport persists independently of the plasma membrane but ceases with microtubule destabilization.^[76]

Role in Neurodegenerative Diseases

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), hyperphosphorylated tau disrupts axonal transport by reducing its association with microtubules, which impairs the binding and function of kinesin motor proteins, leading to stalled anterograde transport.^[77] This tau pathology also causes accumulation of amyloid precursor protein (APP) vesicles, as mutations in APP hinder kinesin-1-mediated transport, exacerbating amyloid-beta production and synaptic dysfunction.^[77] In Parkinson's disease (PD), α-synuclein aggregates impair dynein-mediated retrograde axonal transport by reducing dynein binding to cargoes such as TrkB receptors and adapters like dynactin and snapin, resulting in endosome accumulation and disrupted neurotrophic signaling.^[78] This transport deficit is exacerbated by overactivation of AMPK/p38 MAPK signaling, which lowers PIKE protein levels and activity, promoting early axonal pathology independent of overt neuronal loss.^[78] Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) involves disruptions from SOD1 mutations, which interact with and impair KIF5-mediated anterograde axonal transport, leading to mitochondrial mislocalization and motor neuron degeneration. Recent studies highlight miR-140-3p dysregulation as a contributor, where its upregulation targets and reduces KIF5A expression by approximately 40%, further compromising transport in ALS models, with antagomir interventions restoring KIF5A levels by 50% and improving motor function.^[58] In Huntington's disease (HD), mutant huntingtin with polyglutamine expansions disrupts axonal transport by sequestering dynactin components, such as p150^Glued, reducing their soluble levels and causing organelle accumulations along axons.^[79] This leads to the formation of pathogenic inclusions that block vesicle trafficking, contributing to early synaptic and neuronal loss in affected regions like the striatum.^[79] Defects in lysosomal transport contribute to axonopathy across multiple neurodegenerative diseases by impairing retrograde trafficking, resulting in lysosomal accumulations and deficits in protein degradation.^[80] In AD and PD, stalled lysosome movement near plaques or aggregates exacerbates toxic protein buildup, while in ALS and HD, it leads to autophagosome accumulation and axonal swellings, underscoring shared mechanisms of neurodegeneration.^[80]

Effects of Infections

Pathogens, particularly viruses and bacteria, frequently exploit or disrupt axonal transport mechanisms to facilitate their spread within the nervous system or to evade host defenses. Alphaherpesviruses such as herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) hijack the anterograde axonal transport machinery by recruiting kinesin-1 motors, including KIF5A, KIF5B, and KIF5C, to propel enveloped virions from neuronal cell bodies toward peripheral synapses, enabling viral dissemination to epithelial tissues.^[81] Similarly, the rabies virus glycoprotein (RABV-G) mediates retrograde axonal transport by binding to the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR), accelerating dynein-driven movement of viral particles from peripheral nerve endings to central neurons, which promotes neuroinvasion and lethal infection.^[82] These hijacking strategies allow viruses to traverse long axonal distances efficiently, often at speeds matching fast anterograde or retrograde transport rates. Bacterial pathogens also manipulate axonal transport to exert toxic effects. Tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT), produced by Clostridium tetani, binds to gangliosides at neuromuscular junctions and undergoes retrograde transport via dynein motors along microtubules to reach inhibitory interneuron synapses in the spinal cord, where its light chain cleaves synaptobrevin/VAMP2, blocking glycine and GABA neurotransmitter release and causing spastic paralysis.^[83] This targeted exploitation underscores how bacterial toxins can weaponize the retrograde pathway to disrupt synaptic function remotely from the infection site. Viral infections can indirectly impair axonal transport through inflammation-mediated mechanisms. For instance, HIV-1 glycoprotein gp120 triggers neuroinflammation by binding neuronal microtubules, reducing tubulin acetylation levels and inhibiting kinesin-1-driven fast axonal transport, which contributes to motor neuron dysfunction and peripheral neuropathy.^[54] Such inflammatory responses, involving cytokine release and microglial activation, further exacerbate transport deficits by altering microtubule stability and motor protein activity, leading to stalled vesicular trafficking and axonal degeneration. These disruptions enable significant pathological consequences, including neuroinvasion and persistent infection. Poliovirus exploits retrograde axonal transport from muscle to motor neurons in the spinal cord, particularly following muscle injury, facilitating central nervous system entry and replication that results in axonal damage and paralysis through direct cytopathic effects and impaired transport.^[84] In HSV-1 infections, retrograde transport delivers the virus to sensory ganglia, where it establishes lifelong latency in neuronal nuclei, periodically reactivating to cause recurrent outbreaks via anterograde spread back to peripheral sites.^[85] Recent studies on SARS-CoV-2 indicate that the virus can traverse axons retrogradely and anterogradely in olfactory neurons, with its spike protein relying on endosomal entry pathways independent of TMPRSS2 for neuronal infection, potentially disrupting endosome trafficking and contributing to anosmia and neuroinvasive complications.^[86]

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Microtubule control of functional architecture in neurons - PMC
Feb 7, 2019 · Axonal microtubules are uniformly oriented with their plus-ends positioned distal, or away from the cell body. Microtubules in the dendrites of ...
[22]
Axonal transport: Driving synaptic function - PMC - PubMed Central
Soluble protein supply to the axon can be sustained by slow axonal transport of proteins generated in the soma (5). Slow axonal transport (0.2–10 mm/day) ...
[23]
The functional organization of axonal mRNA transport and translation
In this Review, we will try to place these mRNA transport ... This mechanism is energetically advantageous, having the potential to transport many axonal cargoes ...
[24]
ER and Golgi Trafficking in Axons, Dendrites, and Glial Processes
These two regions are separated by the pre-axonal-exclusion zone (PAEZ), a region within the axon hillock where organelles or cargos destined for transport down ...Missing: export | Show results with:export
[25]
Axonal transport of membranous and nonmembranous cargoes
Membranous organelles are the principal cargoes of fast axonal transport. The many proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides that move along the axon at fast ...
[26]
Endoplasmic reticulum in the axon: Insights into structural dynamics ...
Oct 22, 2025 · This review synthesizes current knowledge of axonal ER biology, highlighting its structural and dynamic characteristics, its impact on organelle ...
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https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2020.556175
[28]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.09.040
[29]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2005.06.027
[30]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7687062/
[31]
Real-Time Imaging of the Axonal Transport of Granules Containing ...
A hybrid protein, tPA/GFP, consisting of rat tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and green fluorescent protein (GFP) was expressed in PC12 cells and used to ...
[32]
Dynein is the motor for retrograde axonal transport of organelles.
Dynein is the motor for retrograde axonal transport of organelles ... kinesin from axoplasmic supernatant blocks both directions of movement (13).
[33]
Ordered Recruitment of Dynactin to the Microtubule Plus-End is ...
Aug 7, 2013 · Dynactin is a multisubunit complex that is necessary for most dynein-mediated functions, including retrograde axonal transport (Schroer, 2004).
[34]
Cargo-Specific Mechanisms of Motility and Regulation: Neuron
Oct 22, 2014 · This review provides an overview of axonal transport pathways and discusses their role in neuronal function.
[35]
Trk Receptors Function As Rapid Retrograde Signal Carriers in the ...
In mature nerves, activated Trk receptors function as rapid retrograde signal carriers to execute remote responses to target-derived neurotrophins.
[36]
Mechanisms of Neurotrophin Trafficking via Trk Receptors - PMC - NIH
Mar 27, 2018 · Neurotrophins bind Trk receptor tyrosine kinases in axon terminals to promote endocytosis of ligand-bound phosphorylated receptors into signaling endosomes.Functions Of Retrograde... · Neuronal Survival · Mechanisms Of Retrograde...
[37]
[PDF] FUNCTIONS AND MECHANISMS OF RETROGRADE ...
These signalling pathways coordinate several developmental processes, including cell survival, axonal and dendritic growth, synaptogenesis, and the acquisition ...
[38]
Retrograde NGF Axonal Transport—Motor Coordination in the ...
Briefly, the binding of NGF to its membrane TrkA receptor at the axon terminals triggers the internalization of NGF-TrkA into early endosomes of 50–150 nm in ...
[39]
Autophagy generates retrogradely transported organelles
This involves the retrograde axonal transport of signalling endosomes containing nerve growth factor (NGF) and other synaptically derived molecules. These are ...
[40]
[PDF] Retrograde axonal transport: pathways to cell death?
Cargos that are actively transported along the axon include transport vesicles, mitochondria, lysosomes, autophagosomes, and signaling endosomes. Below, a ...
[41]
cAMP-responsive Element-binding Protein (CREB) and cAMP Co ...
Expression of activated CREB and cAMP up-regulation co-regulate AP1-dependent regeneration-associated gene expression and enhance axon growth.
[42]
Axonal transcription factors signal retrogradely in lesioned ...
Jan 13, 2012 · The involvement of importins in retrograde transport suggests that transcription factors (TFs) might be directly involved in axonal injury ...
[43]
Intra-axonal translation and retrograde trafficking of CREB promotes ...
Here we describe a role for axonal mRNA translation in the regulation of neuronal survival and nuclear transcription elicited by axonal application of NGF.
[44]
Local translation and retrograde axonal transport of CREB regulates ...
Jul 4, 2014 · A candidate for this nascently synthesized retrograde signaling molecule is the transcription factor cAMP-responsive element (CRE)-binding ...Missing: importins | Show results with:importins
[45]
Boosting BDNF in muscle rescues impaired axonal transport in ... - NIH
To assess the impact of boosting muscle BDNF on endosome axonal transport, bilateral injections into the tibialis anterior muscles of YarsE196K/E196K mice were ...
[46]
Boosting BDNF in muscle rescues impaired axonal transport in a ...
Jun 1, 2024 · Boosting BDNF in muscle rescues impaired axonal transport in a mouse model of DI-CMTC peripheral neuropathy. · Authors · Document Type.<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
Axonal transport of membranous and nonmembranous cargoes
Abstract. Membranous and nonmembranous cargoes are transported along axons in the fast and slow components of axonal transport, respectively.Missing: seminal papers
[48]
https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(14)00917-9
[49]
Selective axonal transport through branch junctions is directed by ...
Apr 26, 2022 · We demonstrate that anterograde transport of membrane vesicles through axonal branch junctions is highly selective, which is influenced by branch length and ...<|separator|>
[50]
Seeing the Unseen – the Hidden world of Slow Axonal Transport - NIH
Aug 2, 2013 · Known as slow axonal transport, these cargoes include microtubules, neurofilaments, actin/actin-related proteins, metabolic enzymes ...
[51]
Polymer Sliding In Axons - Company of Biologists Journals
Feb 1, 1986 · In axons the cytoskeletal polymers are transported by slow axonal transport. Microtubules, microfilaments and neurofilaments move at ...
[52]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452224007772
[53]
The Regulation of Axon Diameter: From Axonal Circumferential ...
Axonal diameter is generically regarded as being regulated by neurofilaments. When neurofilaments are absent or low, microtubule-dependent mechanisms can also ...
[54]
Histone deacetylase 6 inhibition rescues axonal transport ... - Nature
Sep 12, 2019 · For instance, glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β), which is downstream of CXCR4 activation, phosphorylates kinesin light chains and inhibits ...
[55]
GSK3β Impairs KIF1A Transport in a Cellular Model of Alzheimer's ...
Nov 5, 2020 · We investigated how KIF1A, a kinesin-3 family motor protein required for the transport of neurotrophic factors, is impaired in mouse hippocampal neurons ...
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Regulation of in vivo dynein force production by CDK5 and 14-3-3ε ...
Jan 16, 2019 · We report that CDK5, 14-3-3ε, and CDK5 cofactor KIAA0528 together promote NudEL phosphorylation and are essential for force adaptation.
[57]
Cdk5 and GSK3β inhibit fast endophilin-mediated endocytosis
Apr 23, 2021 · We find that Cdk5 and GSK3β are negative regulators of FEME. They antagonize the binding of Endophilin to Dynamin-1 and to CRMP4, a Plexin A1 adaptor.
[58]
MiR-140-3p regulates axonal motor protein KIF5A and contributes to ...
Oct 7, 2025 · First, SMN is actively transported along the axons at rates consistent with fast axonal transport [35]. Secondly, SMN overexpression in SOD1 and ...
[59]
Transport properties of the motor protein UNC-104 are robust and ...
Moreover, improper regulation of ubiquitination, a key post-translational modification affecting protein degradation, activation, and localization, is linked to ...
[60]
Increasing microtubule acetylation rescues axonal transport and ...
Oct 15, 2014 · Increasing microtubule acetylation prevents microtubule association, restores axonal transport and rescues locomotor deficits caused by LRRK2 ...
[61]
Energy metabolism in health and diseases - Nature
Feb 18, 2025 · It also activates AMPK, increasing neuronal protection against oxidative stress, reducing tau and Aβ accumulation, and improving axonal ...
[62]
Inhibiting p38 MAPK alpha rescues axonal retrograde transport ...
May 22, 2018 · A mutation in dynein rescues axonal transport defects and extends the life span of ALS mice. ... Regulation of axonal transport by protein kinases ...
[63]
TDP-43 transports ribosomal protein mRNA to regulate axonal local ...
Aug 16, 2020 · TDP-43 transports ribosomal protein mRNA to regulate axonal local translation, which is required for local protein synthesis in response to ...
[64]
Messenger RNA transport on lysosomal vesicles maintains axonal ...
Apr 10, 2024 · These findings indicate that hitchhiking on lysosome-related vesicles is a major pathway for the transport of mRNAs into the axon and that this ...
[65]
New insights into the influence of temperature on axonal transport ...
Aug 28, 2025 · This review presents a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on the impact of temperature on various aspects of axonal function, ...
[66]
Calcium and Cyclic AMP Promote Axonal Regeneration in ...
Mar 3, 2010 · Here we show that axotomy of PLM sensory neurons triggers axonal calcium waves whose amplitude correlates with the extent of regeneration.
[67]
The node of Ranvier influences the in vivo axonal transport of ...
Oct 11, 2024 · We reveal (1) similar morphologies of the NoR in fast and slow motor axons, (2) signaling endosomes and mitochondria accumulate specifically at the distal node.Missing: mechanical stretch-
[68]
BDNF-dependent modulation of axonal transport is selectively ... - NIH
Aug 22, 2022 · We report that despite displaying similar basal transport speeds, stimulation of wild-type MNs with BDNF enhances in vivo trafficking of ...
[69]
Nocodazole action on tubulin assembly, axonal ultrastructure and ...
After 2.5 hr of exposure to 10 micrometers nocodazole, there is a slight decrease in axonal microtubules and an increase in 10 nm neurofilaments.
[70]
The Genetics of Axonal Transport and Axonal Transport Disorders
Sep 29, 2006 · In contrast, slow axonal transport occurs in the anterograde direction at a rate of 0.01–0.001 μm/sec, considerably slower than fast axonal ...
[71]
Mechanisms of Pathological Axonal Degeneration - NCBI
As a result, the disrupted axonal transport causes the focal accumulation of such cellular components, producing axonal swelling. Those swellings, ranging from ...
[72]
Facilitation of axon regeneration by enhancing mitochondrial ...
Here, we reveal that reduced mitochondrial motility and energy deficits in injured axons are intrinsic mechanisms controlling regrowth in mature neurons.Missing: stasis | Show results with:stasis
[73]
https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/fulltext/S2211-1247(22)01148-2
[74]
Disruption of axonal transport in neurodegeneration - PMC
Jun 1, 2023 · An early and unifying event in neurodegeneration is disruption of axonal transport, a constitutive process that is necessary for maintaining neuron survival.
[75]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2018.10.003
[76]
Fast Axonal Transport in Extruded Axoplasm from Squid Giant Axon
This observation demonstrates that the plasma membrane is not required for fast axonal transport and suggests that action potentials are not involved in the ...Missing: assay | Show results with:assay
[77]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcdb.2019.07.010
[78]
Disruption of axonal transport in Parkinson's disease - Nature
May 6, 2025 · Our current investigation illustrates that the levels of proteins associated with axonal transport are disrupted by α-Syn* aggregates at an ...
[79]
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00594-4
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceb.2024.102382
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Kinesin-1 Proteins KIF5A, -5B, and -5C Promote Anterograde ...
Sep 26, 2018 · We concluded that kinesin-1 proteins are important in the anterograde transport of the majority of HSV enveloped virions in neuronal axons and ...
[82]
Rabies Virus Hijacks and accelerates the p75NTR retrograde ...
Aug 28, 2014 · Rabies Virus Hijacks and accelerates the p75NTR retrograde axonal transport machinery ... Glycoprotein (RABV-G) with high affinity. However ...
[83]
Tetanus toxin as a neurobiological tool to study mechanisms of ...
To produce its effects, tetanus toxin undergoes retrograde, intra-axonal transport to the CNS, where it blocks preferentially the release of gamma-aminobutyric ...
[84]
Mechanism of injury-provoked poliomyelitis - PubMed - NIH
Skeletal muscle injury induces retrograde axonal transport of poliovirus and thereby facilitates viral invasion of the central nervous system and the ...
[85]
The cycle of human herpes simplex virus infection - PubMed
After infection of skin or mucosa, herpes simplex virus enters the sensory nerve endings and is conveyed by retrograde axonal transport to the dorsal root ...
[86]
Neuroinvasion and anosmia are independent phenomena upon ...
Jul 26, 2023 · COVID-19-related anosmia is associated with viral persistence and inflammation in human olfactory epithelium and brain infection in hamsters.