Black cod, scientifically known as Anoplopoma fimbria and commonly referred to as sablefish, is a long-lived marine fish species belonging to the family Anoplopomatidae, native to the North Pacific Ocean.[1][2] This deepwater groundfish inhabits muddy or silty ocean bottoms at depths typically ranging from 300 to 2,700 meters, with juveniles often found in shallower coastal waters before migrating offshore as they mature.[1][3] Characterized by its elongated, cod-like body with dark gray to blackish-brown skin, a lateral line, and two dorsal fins (the first with 19-27 spines, the second spineless), black cod can reach lengths of up to 114 cm and weights of 25 kg, with lifespans exceeding 90 years—making it one of the longest-lived fish in its range.[2][1]Distributed from the Bering Sea and Alaska southward to central Baja California and westward to Japan, black cod populations exhibit wide-ranging migrations influenced by age, season, and oceanographic conditions, often concentrating in shelf and slope habitats.[1][4] As opportunistic predators, adults primarily feed on fish, squid, euphausiids, and other benthic organisms, while juveniles consume smaller invertebrates and plankton; this diet contributes to their high fat content, particularly omega-3 fatty acids, which enhance their nutritional value.[1] Reproduction occurs from late winter to early summer, with females releasing up to 1.5 million buoyant eggs that hatch into pelagic larvae, supporting sustainable recruitment in well-managed fisheries.[3]Commercially, black cod is one of the most valuable species in North Pacific fisheries, harvested primarily by longline and pot gear in Alaska and the U.S. West Coast, where annual catches support a market exceeding hundreds of millions of dollars.[1] Its flaky, buttery white flesh is prized for fresh, smoked, and frozen products, including high-end applications like miso-glazed fillets in Japanese cuisine (known as gindara), and it is recognized as a "best choice" sustainable seafood by organizations due to strict quotas and low bycatch rates.[5][1] Despite its importance, populations are monitored closely to prevent overfishing, with stocks currently rated as healthy across major fishing grounds.[1]
Taxonomy
Classification
Black cod, scientifically known as Anoplopoma fimbria, belongs to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Actinopterygii, order Scorpaeniformes, family Anoplopomatidae, genus Anoplopoma, and species A. fimbria.[1]The family Anoplopomatidae comprises only two extant species: sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria) and skilfish (Erilepis zonifer). Although commonly referred to as black cod, A. fimbria is unrelated to true cods of the family Gadidae, such as the Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), and its common name reflects superficial resemblances rather than phylogenetic affinity.[2][3]Historically, A. fimbria was first described as Gadus fimbria in 1814 within the Gadidae family, but subsequent taxonomic revisions established its distinct genus and family. Its current placement in the order Scorpaeniformes, separate from Gadiformes, is supported by morphological analyses and molecular phylogenetic studies that highlight unique traits and genetic divergences.[6][1]
Etymology and nomenclature
The common name "black cod" for Anoplopoma fimbria derives from the species' dark coloration, which superficially resembles that of true cods in the genus Gadus, though it belongs to a distinct family, Anoplopomatidae.[7] This name gained popularity among commercial fishers in the 19th century, coinciding with early explorations and fisheries along the North Pacific coast, despite the lack of taxonomic relation to gadids.[1]The alternative market name "sablefish" was introduced in the early 20th century, particularly during World War I, as a deliberate effort to differentiate the species from Atlantic cod and enhance its commercial appeal in response to growing demand.[8] It stems from "sable," evoking the dark, luxurious fur of the sablemarten, in reference to the fish's sleek, dark skin texture.[1]Other common names include butterfish, beshow, coalfish, and skil, with regional variations such as "blackfish" in some North American contexts; however, "skilfish" more accurately applies to the congeneric species Erilepis zonifer, leading to occasional confusion in fisheries records.[9][2] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration recognizes "sablefish" as the sole acceptable market name, while "black cod" persists as a vernacular term.[10]
Description
Morphology
The sablefish, or black cod (Anoplopoma fimbria), possesses an elongated, fusiform body that is slightly compressed laterally, facilitating efficient movement through deep-water environments.[11] This body form is covered by small, weakly ctenoid scales that provide minimal resistance during swimming.[12] The fish features a prominent lateral line running along its side for detecting vibrations and pressure changes in the water column, as well as small pelvic fins positioned ventrally to aid in stability.[11] Notably, it has two well-separated dorsal fins: the first with 19–27 spines and the second with 16–20 soft rays,[11] which together support maneuvering in low-visibility conditions.[2]Adapted to dim, deep-sea habitats, sablefish exhibit large eyes relative to their head size, enhancing visual acuity in low-light depths where bioluminescence and faint ambient light prevail.[13] These eyes, combined with a sensitive olfactory system, enable effective prey detection in murky waters, though the species lacks prominent barbels. The head is conical with a terminal mouth equipped with fine teeth in bands on the jaws, vomer, and palatines, suited for capturing soft-bodied organisms.[14]Internally, sablefish lack a swim bladder, a common adaptation in deep-sea species to avoid issues with pressure changes during vertical migrations.[15] Instead, they achieve neutral buoyancy through high lipid reserves, with whole-body crude fat content averaging around 23%, which also contributes to their characteristic flaky, oily flesh.[16] This lipid-rich composition, up to 20–25% of body weight in mature individuals, supports energy storage for prolonged periods in cold, oxygen-poor depths.[1] The overall morphology underscores adaptations for a benthic-pelagic lifestyle, with dark coloration aiding camouflage among muddy substrates.[17]
Size and coloration
Black cod, scientifically known as Anoplopoma fimbria, typically attains a maximum total length of 114–120 cm and a weight of up to 25 kg, though individuals in commercial fisheries commonly measure 60–100 cm in length.[2][18] The species is slow-growing, with females reaching sexual maturity at approximately 5–7 years of age and a length of 55–60 cm, while males mature slightly later.[19][4] Sablefish exhibit remarkable longevity, with maximum reported ages exceeding 90 years, and some individuals documented to 94 years.[1][2]In terms of coloration, adult black cod display a mottled dark gray to blackish dorsum, often with greenish tones and paler blotches or chain-like patterns along the upper back, fading to a lighter gray or whitish ventral surface.[12] Their skin is thick and slimy, embedding small scales that contribute to a subtle iridescent quality, particularly noticeable in fresh specimens.[12] Juveniles are notably paler overall, featuring a silvery sheen that provides camouflage in their pelagic early life stages.[20] This ontogenetic shift in coloration aligns with their transition from surface waters to deeper benthic habitats.
Distribution and habitat
Geographic range
The black cod, also known as sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria), is primarily distributed across the North Pacific Ocean, with its range extending from Baja California in Mexico northward along the eastern Pacific coast to the Gulf of Alaska, and westward through the Aleutian Islands to the Bering Sea.[1] This distribution continues across the Pacific to the western margins, encompassing waters off Japan and Russia, including the Kamchatka Peninsula.[4] The species' abundance is highest in the northern portions of this range, particularly in the Gulf of Alaska and northern British Columbia, where continental shelf and slope habitats support dense populations.[4]Within this broad range, sablefish populations are structured into distinct management stocks, reflecting regional differences in abundance and fisheries oversight, though genetic evidence suggests a largely panmictic population across the North Pacific.[4] In U.S. waters, key stocks include the Pacific Coast stock (from California to Washington), the Gulf of Alaska stock, and the Eastern Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands stock.[1] Canadian management further delineates northern and southern British Columbia stocks, split at approximately 51.25° N latitude, to account for localized dynamics.[4]Sablefish exhibit ontogenetic shifts in distribution, with juveniles typically occupying nearshore and inshore waters after pelagic larval drift, remaining in these shallower areas for 2–5 years until reaching 30–40 cm in length.[2] Around age 2, individuals begin migrating to deeper offshore waters, where adults are found year-round, though seasonal movements occur in response to prey availability and environmental cues, often covering distances of over 1,000 miles within the North Pacific.[21] No evidence indicates trans-Pacific migrations between eastern and western populations.[4]
Environmental preferences
Black cod, also known as sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria), primarily occupy depths ranging from 100 to 2,000 meters along continental slopes, shelf gullies, and deep fjords, where adults are most abundant on the upper slopes at 300 to 1,000 meters. Juveniles inhabit shallower waters, typically 50 to 300 meters on continental shelves, nearshore bays, and inlets during their first few years before transitioning to deeper adult habitats. These depth preferences reflect the species' demersal lifestyle, with individuals often found within 1 meter of the bottom in structured environments like gully entrances.[11][22][23]The species thrives in cold water conditions, preferring temperatures between 2 and 8°C, with a mean around 2.5°C, which characterizes the stable deep-water environments of the North Pacific. They favor soft mud or silt substrates that allow burrowing and provide cover, particularly in low-lying areas such as channels and flats with minimal rocky outcrops. While sablefish exhibit tolerance to low oxygen levels and are known to inhabit hypoxic zones, they generally prefer well-oxygenated slopes to support metabolic demands.[11][22][24]Habitat use includes seasonal shifts, with adults moving to shallower depths of 300 to 500 meters for pelagic spawning in spring and summer, before returning to deeper slopes. Juveniles display inshore-offshore migrations, settling in nearshore areas in fall and gradually shifting seaward with age. These patterns occur within the broader North Pacific distribution. Sablefish are vulnerable to ocean acidification, which can indirectly affect prey availability through disruptions to lower trophic levels and habitat quality.[23][22][25]
Biology and ecology
Life cycle and reproduction
Black cod, or sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria), undergoes a complex life cycle beginning with pelagic eggs that are buoyant and develop in deep waters. Eggs, measuring 1.8–2.2 mm in diameter, are released during spawning and remain pelagic, hatching after 2–3 weeks at temperatures around 4°C.[26] Hatched larvae, initially 5.0–6.0 mm in notochord length, exhibit planktonic behavior, sinking to depths of approximately 1,000 m before rising to surface waters after 1–2 months as they deplete their yolk sacs.[27] These larvae remain planktonic for several months, growing rapidly in epipelagic zones during spring and summer, reaching sizes of 30–70 mm standard length before transitioning to juveniles.[26] Juveniles settle into a benthic lifestyle at approximately 7 cm (70 mm standard length), migrating to shallower coastal waters where they grow slowly before moving to deeper habitats upon maturity.[28]Reproduction in black cod is oviparous, with spawning occurring primarily in winter to spring from January to March at depths ranging from 300 to 1,200 meters along continental slopes.[15] Females are batch spawners, releasing multiple clutches over the season in a determinate manner, where the total number of advanced yolked oocytes prior to spawning equals annual potential output.[19]Fecundity is high, with females producing 100,000 to approximately 2.8 million eggs per spawning season depending on size, though larval survival rates are low due to pelagic drift and environmental factors.[29][30] Maturity is reached slowly, typically at ages 3–6 years and lengths of 48–71 cm, after which adults aggregate in deep waters for spawning.[28]Black cod exhibit longevity exceeding 90 years, with maximum recorded ages up to 113 years, contributing to stable population dynamics despite slow growth.[1] The species is gonochoristic with rare hermaphroditic tendencies, maintaining a sex ratio near 1:1 across most life stages and populations.[30] Emerging research as of 2025 suggests that warming ocean temperatures may influence larval dispersal and settlement success, potentially affecting recruitment in response to climate variability.[1]
Diet and behavior
Black cod, or sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria), are carnivorous predators that exhibit opportunistic scavenging behaviors, relying heavily on their acute olfactory senses to detect prey. Their diet consists primarily of polychaete worms, crustaceans such as euphausiids and shrimp, and small fish including myctophids and Pacific whiting.[28] Juveniles target smaller midwater prey like copepods and mysids, while adults shift toward larger benthic items such as scorpaenids (e.g., thornyheads) and cephalopods (e.g., squids), with prey size scaling proportionally to the fish's length (e.g., 0.019–0.027 mm prey per mm sablefish).[28] Adults consume large rations equivalent to 14% of body weight every 7–10 days and can survive up to 260 days of starvation by utilizing lipid stores, demonstrating high feeding plasticity.[28]Sablefish display benthic and demersal behaviors, inhabiting depths that increase with body size (slope of 0.32 m per m length).[28] They are largely inactive during the day, with juveniles showing nocturnal foraging activity across the water column (e.g., mean counts of 474 per night vs. 30 per day in May observations), while adults remain sedentary near the seafloor.[28] Juveniles often school and undertake seasonal migrations (inshore in summer, offshore in fall), whereas adults form loose aggregations but exhibit solitary tendencies and limited movement, with most recaptures occurring at release sites.[28] Aggression is minimal, as evidenced by subdued responses to submersibles, though brief darting may occur when disturbed.[28] Sensory adaptations, such as olfactory detection of bait odors, trigger changes in swimming and turning behaviors to locate food.[31]Predators of sablefish include larger fish such as halibut, Pacific cod, and salmon sharks, as well as marine mammals like killer whales, which depredate hooked adults (accounting for 10–25% of some harvests).[32][33][34] Juvenile sablefish are particularly vulnerable to Chinook and coho salmon, as well as seabirds and other large fish during their pelagic phase.[33] Parasitic infections, including nematodes, trematodes, and caligids, are common across life stages but typically non-lethal, often excluded from dietary analyses due to incidental ingestion.[1][35][36]
Fisheries
Harvesting methods
Black cod, also known as sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria), is primarily harvested using longline fishing with bottom-set gear deployed on continental slopes at depths typically exceeding 300 meters, where the species aggregates.[37] This method involves anchoring lines with baited hooks spaced at standardized intervals, such as 42 inches, to target the fish as they move along the seafloor.[38] Pot traps, often conical or rectangular in design, represent an alternative primary method, particularly in Alaskan waters, offering higher species selectivity and reduced bycatch compared to hooks.[37] These traps, which include escape mechanisms like 18-inch openings with degradable twine, allow non-target species to exit while retaining black cod, and they are soaked for 24-36 hours before retrieval.[38] Although black cod occasionally appears as bycatch in trawl fisheries, efforts focus on minimizing such incidental captures through gear modifications and operational adjustments.[37]In Alaska, the core harvesting region, longline operations peak from June to August, aligning with the species' seasonal migrations to shallower, more accessible depths on upper slopes.[38] Pot fishing follows in September to November, extending the harvest window into late fall when longlining becomes less efficient due to weather and fish distribution.[38] Gear specifics emphasize seabird mitigation; circle hooks are required on longlines, as they promote jaw hooking rather than gut entanglement, significantly lowering mortality rates for albatrosses and other seabirds during gear deployment.[37]Historically, black cod harvesting began with hook-and-line techniques in the late 19th century, primarily by U.S. and Canadian fishermen targeting nearshore populations off the Pacific coast.[3] By the early 20th century, commercial longlining expanded, but the fishery remained small-scale until the 1970s, when foreign vessels intensified effort in Alaskan waters, prompting regulatory shifts.[39] The introduction of pot gear in 1970 marked a key evolution, enhancing selectivity, while the 1976 Magnuson-Stevens Act established U.S. exclusive economic zone control, leading to regulated longline fisheries with quotas and gear standards by the late 1970s.[38][39]
Commercial production and trade
The commercial fishery for black cod, also known as sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria), produces an annual global catch of approximately 28,000 metric tons, primarily from capture fisheries in the North Pacific. The United States, particularly Alaska, dominates production, accounting for about 85-90% of the total with landings of around 25,493 metric tons in 2023. In 2024, U.S. landings were approximately 18,700 metric tons as of October, reflecting a decline due to weak market conditions and conservative harvest levels.[40]Canada contributes roughly 10-12%, with an average annual catch of about 2,500 metric tons over the past decade (2014-2023), including 2,508 metric tons in 2020 and 3,297 metric tons in 2023.[41][1]Aquaculture remains minimal, representing less than 5% of global supply, limited to three facilities in British Columbia, Canada, with two currently active.[42][43]Trade in black cod is valued at approximately $100-150 million USD annually at the ex-vessel level, with major exports directed to Japan for sushi and other high-end markets, followed by the United States and Europe. In 2023, U.S. landings alone were valued at $113 million, with over 90% of frozen exports to Japan totaling around 9,000 metric tons for the year. The product is traded primarily in fresh, frozen, and smoked forms, with Japan importing 92% of its frozen black cod from the U.S. during early 2024. Market challenges, including a weak Japanese yen and oversupply of smaller fish, have led to price fluctuations but maintained overall trade stability.[1][44][45]The industry operates under quota-based management systems to ensure sustainability and economic stability. In the U.S., the Individual Fishing Quota (IFQ) program, implemented in 1995 for fixed-gear sablefish fisheries off Alaska, allocates harvest rights to permit holders, reducing derby fishing and improving safety and product quality. Canada employs a similar Individual Vessel Quota (IVQ) system since 1991 in British Columbia, limiting annual catches to recommended levels such as those derived from management procedures in 2023-2024. Processing occurs mainly in coastal plants employing seasonal labor for filleting, freezing, and smoking, supporting regional economies in Alaska and British Columbia.[46][47][41]
Culinary uses
Preparation and dishes
Black cod, prized for its rich oil content that imparts a buttery texture, benefits from gentle cooking methods to maintain its delicate flesh. Grilling and broiling are popular techniques that enhance the fish's natural flavors while allowing the skin to crisp when left intact, creating a textural contrast. Poaching in liquids like court bouillon or seasoned broth preserves the moisture and oiliness, resulting in tender, flaky results suitable for light presentations. In Asian fusion cuisine, marinating the fillets in a mixture of white miso, sake, and mirin— a method developed by chef Nobu Matsuhisa in the late 1980s at his Beverly Hills restaurant—followed by broiling, yields a signature caramelized glaze.Notable dishes highlight black cod's versatility across culinary traditions. The miso-glazed black cod, broiled to a glossy finish after overnight marination, has become an emblematic offering in global fine dining, originating from Matsuhisa's menu. In Jewish-American cuisine, smoked sablefish—prepared via a dry cure with salt and sugar before light smoking—serves as a creamy, bagel-topping staple in delis, emphasizing the fish's silky quality. Pan-seared preparations, often with brown butter or lemon-garlic sauces, involve cooking skin-side down in a hot pan for crispiness, followed by basting to infuse richness without overpowering the mild flavor. Chefs emphasize avoiding overcooking, as the fish's fragile structure can toughen quickly beyond medium doneness.Black cod holds cultural prominence in Japanese kaiseki, where miso-marinated versions appear as an elegant, multi-course element celebrating the fish's subtlety and seasonal harmony. In American fine dining, it symbolizes refined seafood innovation, elevated by Matsuhisa's fusion approach that blended traditional techniques with contemporary appeal. Filleting typically produces thick loins from the belly area, achieved by making precise cuts along the backbone with a flexible knife to separate the flesh while retaining the skin for cooking.
Nutritional value
Black cod, also known as sablefish, provides a nutrient-dense profile per 100-gram serving of raw fish, offering approximately 195 calories, with 13.4 grams of high-quality protein, 15.3 grams of total fat (predominantly healthy unsaturated fats), and negligible carbohydrates at 0 grams.[48][49] The fat content is notably rich in omega-3 fatty acids, including about 1.5 grams total, with roughly 1.4 grams from eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which contribute to its buttery texture and health-promoting properties.[50][48]In terms of micronutrients, black cod is an excellent source of vitamin B12, providing around 1.4 micrograms (about 58% of the daily value), along with significant amounts of selenium (approximately 47 micrograms, or 85% DV) and phosphorus (about 256 milligrams, or 20% DV), which support nerve function, antioxidant defense, and bone health, respectively.[49][51] Compared to many other deep-sea fish, it has relatively low mercury levels, with a mean concentration of 0.361 parts per million, placing it in the FDA's "best choices" category for safe consumption.[52]The omega-3 fatty acids in black cod offer notable health benefits, including support for cardiovascular health by reducing triglycerides and inflammation, as well as potential anti-inflammatory effects that may aid overall wellness.[53][54] Dietary guidelines from the American Heart Association and the U.S. Dietary Guidelines recommend consuming at least two servings of fatty fish like black cod per week to achieve these benefits and meet omega-3 needs.[54][55]
*Based on a 2,000-calorie diet; values sourced from USDA and NOAA data.[49][48]
Conservation status
Population assessments
Black cod, also known as sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria), maintains healthy stock levels across much of the North Pacific, particularly in Alaskan waters, where the 2024 stock assessment estimates total biomass at 705,000 metric tons and spawning stock biomass (SSB) at 191,000 metric tons, equivalent to 63% of the unfished equilibrium level (B100%).[40] Projections for 2025 indicate SSB will rise to 219,714 metric tons, or 73% of B100%, surpassing the management target of B40% (121,069 metric tons) and confirming the stock is not overfished.[40] In contrast, populations along the U.S. West Coast show signs of decline, with biomass estimates decreasing over decades despite not being classified as overfished; recent assessments highlight vulnerabilities exacerbated by incidental capture in other fisheries. The 2025 U.S. West Coast stock assessment, reviewed by the STAR Panel in July 2025, reaffirms declining biomass trends over decades but confirms the stock remains above overfished thresholds and sustainable under current management.[56][57]Historical overfishing contributed significantly to past reductions, with North Pacific stocks dropping by approximately 66% from 699,000 metric tons in 1960 to a low of 234,000 metric tons in 2015, largely due to peak catches in the 1970s exceeding 50,000 metric tons annually before regulatory reforms in the 1990s.[40] Current threats include climate change-driven ocean warming, which shifts prey distributions and prompts sablefish to migrate to deeper, cooler waters, potentially halving West Coast harvest potential by the end of the century.[58]Ocean acidification poses additional risks by altering calcifying prey species and larval development, though direct impacts on adult sablefish remain under study.[59] On the West Coast, bycatch in trawl and non-target fisheries continues to pressure populations, accounting for notable incidental mortality despite overall low discard rates.[56]Monitoring efforts rely on annual and biennial surveys, including NOAA's longline surveys (tracking relative population numbers since 1979) and triennial Gulf of Alaska trawl surveys, which provide biomass indices and age data essential for trend analysis.[40] Age-structured stock assessment models, such as the single-cohort catch-at-age (SCAA) approach in Model 23.5, integrate catch records, survey indices, and tagging data to estimate population dynamics and forecast stability.[40] These models predict continued SSB growth in Alaska through 2030, peaking at around 258,000 metric tons by 2029 under moderate fishing scenarios, supporting overall North Pacific stability despite regional variations.[40]Sablefish's long lifespan, exceeding 90 years, aids resilience but amplifies sensitivity to persistent environmental stressors.[60]
Management and sustainability
The management of black cod, also known as sablefish, in U.S. waters is overseen by the North Pacific Fishery Management Council (NPFMC) under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, which establishes annual harvest specifications to ensure long-term sustainability.[1] The Individual Fishing Quota (IFQ) system, implemented in 1995 for sablefish and halibut longline fisheries off Alaska, allocates specific harvest shares to individual permit holders, effectively limiting fishing effort and reducing derby-style overcapitalization while promoting economic stability.[61] International coordination occurs through the NPFMC's framework for North Pacific fisheries, aligning U.S. measures with broader regional conservation goals. The total allowable catch (TAC) is determined annually based on scientific assessments, with the final 2025 Alaska-wide TAC set at 40,912 metric tons, distributed across the Gulf of Alaska (22,836 metric tons) and Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands (18,076 metric tons).[62][63]In Canada, the Pacific sablefish fishery employs an Individual Vessel Quota (IVQ) system since 1990, managed by Fisheries and Oceans Canada to cap harvests and minimize bycatch, complementing U.S. efforts in shared North Pacific stocks.[64] Sustainability certifications underscore these regulatory frameworks; the U.S. North Pacific sablefish fishery has been certified sustainable by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) since 2005, with ongoing re-certifications emphasizing low bycatch and habitat protection, while the British Columbia sablefish fishery achieved MSC certification in 2010 and maintains it through rigorous monitoring.[65][66] Efforts to reduce ghost gear—lost fishing equipment that continues to trap marine life—include mandatory escape panels in pot gear to prevent prolonged entrapment, and bycatch mitigation through gear modifications and real-time monitoring in both MSC-certified fisheries. These measures support healthy stock levels, as assessed in ongoing population evaluations.[1]Looking ahead, adaptive management strategies by the NPFMC incorporate climate resilience, adjusting TACs and monitoring protocols to account for environmental shifts like ocean warming that could affect recruitment and distribution.[67] Research into sablefish aquaculture, including U.S. pilot programs for marine net-pen farming, aims to supplement wild harvests and reduce pressure on natural stocks, with projections for commercial viability by 2030 to enhance overall sustainability.[68]