Body odor, medically termed bromhidrosis, is a natural human scent arising primarily from the microbial decomposition of sweat secretions on the skin, resulting in volatile compounds that produce characteristic smells such as tangy, sour, or onion-like odors.[1] This phenomenon is most prominent in areas rich in apocrine sweat glands, including the armpits, groin, and feet, where these glands release a thick, odorless fluid containing proteins, lipids, and steroids during puberty and in response to stress or emotional stimuli.[1] In contrast, eccrine glands, distributed across nearly the entire body surface, produce a watery, mostly odorless sweat for thermoregulation, which only contributes to odor when bacteria metabolize it under certain conditions.[2]The biology of body odor centers on the skin's microbiota, particularly bacteria such as Corynebacterium species and Staphylococcus hominis, which break down apocrine sweat precursors into malodorous volatiles like short-chain fatty acids (e.g., 3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid) and sulfur-containing compounds.[3] These bacteria thrive in moist, nutrient-rich environments provided by sweat and sebum from sebaceous glands, with odor intensity varying by microbial composition, individual genetics, diet (e.g., sulfur-rich foods like garlic or cruciferous vegetables), and hygiene practices.[3] Body odor typically emerges or intensifies at puberty due to hormonal activation of apocrine glands, which are minimal before this stage, and it affects nearly all individuals to some degree, though excessive or atypical odors may signal underlying issues like hyperhidrosis, metabolic disorders (e.g., trimethylaminuria), infections, or liver/kidney dysfunction.[1][2]Management of body odor focuses on reducing bacterial activity and sweat production through daily hygiene, antiperspirants containing aluminum compounds to block ducts, and deodorants that mask or neutralize odors, while severe cases may require medical interventions like antibiotics or Botox injections.[1] Factors exacerbating body odor include obesity, certain medications, menopause, and poor diet, underscoring its role as a multifaceted indicator of physiological and environmental influences on humanhealth.[3]
Biological Mechanisms
Sweat Production and Glands
Human sweat is produced by two primary types of glands: eccrine and apocrine, each contributing differently to the precursors of body odor. Eccrine glands are distributed across nearly the entire body surface, with an estimated 2 to 4 million glands per person, concentrated in areas like the palms, soles, and forehead.[4] These glands secrete a clear, watery fluid that is approximately 99% water, along with small amounts of electrolytes such as sodium, chloride, and potassium, forming a hypotonic solution relative to plasma.[5] Their primary function is thermoregulation, achieved through the evaporation of sweat, which cools the body during heat stress or physical activity; this secretion is odorless and contributes minimally to body odor.[6]Apocrine glands, in contrast, are fewer in number and localized to specific hairy regions, including the axillae (armpits), groin, perianal area, and areolae of the breasts.[7] These glands are present from birth but remain inactive until puberty, when they are stimulated by androgens to begin secretion.[8] Apocrine sweat is viscous and nutrient-rich, containing lipids, proteins, steroids, and ammonia, which provide substrates that can develop into odorous compounds upon interaction with skin bacteria.[9] Key odor precursors in apocrine secretions include volatile fatty acids, such as 3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid, which imparts a characteristic goat-like scent.[10]Sebaceous glands, associated with hair follicles throughout the body but particularly dense in the face, scalp, and upper trunk, produce sebum—a mixture of oils, waxes, and squalene that lubricates the skin and hair.[11] In axillary regions, sebum can mix with apocrine and eccrine secretions, potentially enhancing the volatility of odor precursors, though its direct contribution to body odor is minor compared to sweat gland outputs.[12] Overall, while eccrine sweat dominates in volume for cooling, apocrine and sebaceous secretions serve as the main physiological sources of body odor precursors in humans.
Microbial Interactions
The skin microbiome plays a pivotal role in body odor formation, particularly in moist areas such as the axillae and pubic regions, where bacteria metabolize odorless sweat precursors into volatile compounds. Dominant genera include Corynebacterium (approximately 28% abundance), Staphylococcus (21%), and Cutibacterium, which collectively comprise 45–80% of the microbial community in these sites and thrive due to the nutrient-rich, occluded environment provided by apocrine sweat secretions.[13] These bacteria act as commensals but contribute to odor through enzymatic breakdown of sweat components originating from apocrine glands.[14]Biochemical processes involve bacterial enzymes that transform apocrine precursors into odorous volatiles, including thioalcohols, short- and medium-chain fatty acids, and amines derived from protein degradation. Corynebacterium species primarily utilize C–S β-lyases to cleave S-hydroxyalkyl-L-cysteine or L-cysteinylglycine conjugates, yielding thioalcohols such as 3-methyl-3-sulfanylhexan-1-ol (3M3SH), which imparts a pungent, onion-like scent at concentrations of μg–mg L⁻¹.[15] Meanwhile, Staphylococcus metabolizes branched amino acids like L-leucine into short-chain fatty acids (e.g., isovaleric acid, C5), and Corynebacterium employs Nα-acylglutamine aminoacylase to generate medium-chain fatty acids like 3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid (3M2H, C6) from Nα-acyl-L-glutamine conjugates.[15] Amines arise secondarily from bacterial proteases acting on sweat proteins, though they contribute less intensely to overall malodor compared to fatty acids and thioalcohols.[15]The pH of axillary skin, typically ranging from 6.1 to 6.5 under baseline conditions, favors the proliferation of odor-producing bacteria like Corynebacterium and Staphylococcus, as higher pH values enhance microbial enzymatic activity and precursor degradation.[16] Lowering pH below this range, such as to 5.3–5.7, inhibits these bacteria and reduces odor formation.[16]Post-2020 research highlights variations in skin microbiome diversity influenced by age and ethnicity, impacting body odor profiles. Aging is associated with increased alpha diversity (e.g., Shannon index, p=0.043) on facial skin and shifts in axillary composition, including a decline in Cutibacterium acnes (-16.1%, p=0.024) and a rise in Staphylococcus hominis (+9.03%), which produces thioalcohols and contributes to age-specific odors.[17] Ethnic differences show higher Proteobacteria abundance in East Asians compared to Caucasians and Hispanics (p<0.001), with Cutibacterium more prevalent across most groups except African and Latin American populations, potentially altering volatile compound production.[18] These variations emerge post-infancy and stabilize in adulthood, influencing individual odor distinctiveness without direct ties to lifestyle.[18]Environmental factors like moisture and temperature promote microbial growth in odor-prone areas, as warm, humid conditions (e.g., in the axillae) enhance Corynebacterium and Staphylococcus proliferation by providing optimal substrates from sweat.[19] Such dynamics amplify volatile compound release but are independent of modifiable lifestyle elements.[19]
Evolutionary Functions
In Non-Human Animals
In non-human animals, body odor plays a crucial role in communication and survival through specialized scent glands that produce volatile compounds for marking territories and signaling social status. Many mammals possess anal glands, as seen in dogs (Canis familiaris), which secrete odorous substances used to delineate personal space and convey information about identity and dominance during interactions. Similarly, deer species like the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) utilize musk glands located in the abdomen to deposit scents on vegetation, aiding in territorial defense and advertisement of reproductive status to conspecifics. These glandular secretions, often rich in lipids and proteins, persist in the environment to reinforce boundaries and reduce conflicts within populations.[20][21]Pheromonal functions of body odor extend to alarm signaling and attraction across taxa. In insects, such as ants of the genus Tapinoma, the compound 2-methyl-4-heptanone serves as an alarm pheromone released from the anal glands to recruit nestmates during threats, triggering rapid defensive behaviors like biting or fleeing. In rodents, major urinary proteins (MUPs) in male house mice (Mus musculus) bind and slowly release volatile ligands, functioning as attractants that draw females to potential mates by enhancing the salience of urinary scents over distances. These pheromones facilitate coordinated group responses and mate location, underscoring odor's role in social cohesion.[22][23]Evolutionary adaptations amplify body odor's utility in detection and defense. The vomeronasal organ (VNO), a specialized chemosensory structure present in many mammals and reptiles, detects pheromones with high sensitivity, enabling responses to conspecific scents that influence aggression or affiliation without reliance on the main olfactory system. For predator avoidance, skunks (Mephitis mephitis) employ anal gland spray containing thiols as a potent deterrent, repelling attackers through intense, lingering odor and irritation that signals unprofitability. Studies on gray wolves (Canis lupus) reveal that scent marking contributes to pack hierarchy by allowing subordinates to recognize dominant individuals' odors, thereby maintaining order and minimizing intra-group strife through olfactory cues alone.[24][25][26]Body odor also enables kin recognition, fostering familial bonds essential for cooperative behaviors. In mice, urinary volatiles influenced by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes provide distinct odor profiles that allow individuals to discriminate relatives from non-kin, promoting nepotistic aid in nesting or foraging without direct visual cues. This olfactory kinship signaling, conserved across vertebrates, supports inclusive fitness by directing resources toward genetic relatives.[27][28]
In Humans
In humans, body odor serves primarily vestigial functions compared to its more pronounced roles in non-human animals, where apocrine glands facilitate overt chemical communication for territory marking and mate attraction. Although human apocrine glands are fewer and less distributed—concentrated mainly in the axillae and pubic regions—their secretions retain a capacity for subtle signaling, contributing to interpersonal cues amid the dominance of eccrine glands for thermoregulation.[29]Body odor acts as a social signal conveying information about an individual's health, hygiene, and emotional state. For instance, apocrine sweat produced under stress contains compounds like androstadienone, which can influence observers' mood, focus, and behavioral responses, such as increasing individualistic tendencies while reducing cooperation.[30] These chemosignals from stress sweat, distinct from thermal eccrine sweat, may alert others to potential threats or emotional arousal, fostering adaptive social interactions.[31] Anthropological studies in hunter-gatherer societies, such as the Jahai of Malaysia, indicate that body odor contributes to mate choice by signaling genetic compatibility and vitality, with participants in traditional settings rating unmasked odors as key factors in attraction.[32] Neuroimaging research from the 2010s further reveals that human body odors are processed in brain regions associated with emotion and social cognition, such as the insula and fusiform gyrus, rather than primary olfactory areas, underscoring their role in subconscious emotional evaluation.[33][34]Developmentally, human body odor undergoes significant changes, remaining minimal in infancy due to inactive apocrine glands and reliance on eccrine secretions, which are largely odorless until microbial breakdown.[2] At puberty, typically around ages 10-14, apocrine glands activate under hormonal influence, leading to increased volatile compound production and the onset of characteristic axillary and genital odors that persist into adulthood.[35] This transition not only marks physiological maturation but also enhances the potential for odor-based social signaling in reproductive contexts.[14]
Genetic Influences
Major Histocompatibility Complex
The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) in humans, known as the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system, consists of a cluster of genes on chromosome 6 that encode cell-surface proteins essential for the adaptive immune response, particularly in antigen presentation to T cells. These genes exhibit extreme polymorphism, with over 42,000 known alleles across HLA loci such as HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-DR as of 2024, making each individual's MHC profile highly unique and influencing the diversity of immune recognition. This genetic variability extends to body odor, as MHC alleles correlate with distinct volatile compounds in sweat and skin secretions, contributing to individualized odor profiles that may serve as olfactory signals.[36][37]Pioneering research has demonstrated that MHC dissimilarity influences odor preferences, particularly in mate selection, to promote genetic diversity in offspring immunity. In the 1995 "sweaty T-shirt" experiment, women exposed to T-shirts worn by men for two nights rated odors from MHC-dissimilar men as more pleasant and less intense, suggesting an subconscious drive to avoid inbreeding and enhance hybrid vigor in immune function; this preference was modulated by hormonal status, with oral contraceptive users showing reversed patterns. Subsequent studies have replicated these findings, confirming that MHC-heterozygous individuals produce odors perceived as more attractive, linking odor cues to evolutionary advantages in partner choice.[38][39]One hypothesized mechanism involves MHC-associated volatiles, such as branched-chain carboxylic acids (e.g., 3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid), potentially varying by HLA genotype through the binding of peptides or their metabolites to MHC molecules, which may then be released via apocrine sweat glands and modulated by skin microbiota. However, empirical evidence for specific genotype-linked volatile patterns remains limited, with studies indicating no clear HLA associations for key odorous carboxylic acids in axillary secretions. The precise biochemical pathways linking MHC to odor profiles are still under investigation, with recent reviews suggesting that MHC-derived peptides may play a more direct role in olfactory signaling than volatiles.[40][41][37][42]Body odor can signal health status, particularly infection or inflammation, as immune activation alters volatile emissions in sweat within hours, allowing potential mates to assess immunocompetence and avoid disease transmission risk. This olfactory health signaling integrates with broader immune dynamics, potentially aiding in kin recognition and disease avoidance, though direct ties to MHC-specific volatiles are not established.[43][44]
ABCC11 Gene
The ABCC11 gene encodes a member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family, specifically ABCC11 (also known as MRP8), which functions as an apical efflux pump responsible for transporting lipids and other precursors essential for apocrine sweat secretion in glands such as those in the axillae and ceruminous glands of the ear.[45] This transporter facilitates the secretion of odor precursors that, upon bacterial metabolism, contribute to axillary body odor.[46] A key single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), 538G>A (rs17822931), results in a glycine-to-arginine substitution at amino acid position 180 (G180R), leading to a loss-of-function variant that impairs the protein's transport activity.[47]The homozygous AA genotype of this SNP is associated with significant phenotypic effects, including the production of dry, flaky earwax (instead of wet, sticky earwax) and a marked reduction in axillary body odor due to decreased apocrine sweat lipid content and altered microbial substrate availability.[48] Individuals with the AA genotype exhibit less apocrine sweat secretion and odorless axillary secretions, as the dysfunctional ABCC11 protein fails to export necessary lipid precursors for bacterial odor formation.[49] This genotype predominates in East Asian populations, with allele frequencies reaching 80-95%, contrasting with much lower frequencies (0-3%) in European and African populations.[50]The link between ABCC11 and reduced body odor was established in 2009 through studies demonstrating a strong association between the 538G>A SNP and axillary osmidrosis (excessive underarm odor), where the GG and GA genotypes correlate with wet earwax and higher odor intensity, while AA homozygotes show minimal odor.[51]Population genetic analyses reveal a clinal distribution of the A allele, with high frequencies in East Asia decreasing progressively westward through Central and South Asia (30-50% in some groups) to near absence in Europe, suggesting historical migration patterns from Northeast Asia.[48]Evolutionary analyses indicate that the A allele has undergone positive selection in East Asian populations, potentially conferring advantages such as reduced body odor in cold climates by minimizing heat loss through apocrine secretions or aligning with cultural hygiene practices that favor lower odor profiles.[52] This selection signal is evident in extended haplotype homozygosity around the ABCC11 locus, highlighting its adaptive significance without interaction from other major genetic factors like the major histocompatibility complex.[46]
Factors Modifying Odor
Diet and Lifestyle
Dietary choices significantly influence body odor through the production of volatile compounds that are metabolized and excreted via sweat, breath, and other secretions. Consumption of sulfur-rich foods such as garlic and onions leads to the formation of allyl methyl sulfide (AMS), a volatile metabolite that is exhaled in breath and secreted in sweat, contributing to a persistent pungent odor. This compound arises from the breakdown of organosulfur precursors like allicin in Allium vegetables, which are absorbed into the bloodstream and eliminated through sweat.[53]Red meat intake has been shown to alter axillary body odor, making it less attractive to others. In a controlled study involving male participants on meat versus non-meat diets for two weeks, odor samples from the meat diet group were rated as less pleasant and more intense.[54]Certain spices, including cumin, can impart a distinctive aroma to body odor. These effects stem from phenolic and sulfur-containing compounds in spices that are metabolized and released through perspiration, often amplified by skin microbiota.[55]Alcohol consumption modifies body odor via its metabolic byproducts. During metabolism, ethanol is converted to acetaldehyde, which can be detected in perspiration and contributes to a fruity or vinegary scent, particularly in heavy drinkers.[56]Lifestyle habits further modulate body odor intensity and quality. Smoking introduces a smoky scent through the excretion of tobacco alkaloids and their metabolites, such as cotinine, in sweat and sebum, leading to a characteristic stale odor on the skin and clothing.[57] Exercise exacerbates body odor by increasing sweat volume from eccrine and apocrine glands, providing more substrate for bacterial decomposition into odorous compounds like 3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid.[58]Hygiene practices, such as regular shaving of axillary hair, reduce bacterial colonization by minimizing the habitat for odor-producing microbes like Corynebacterium, thereby decreasing overall odor intensity. Clinical evaluations confirm that shaved underarms exhibit lower bacterial loads and more favorable odor profiles compared to unshaved ones.[59]In populations with spice-heavy diets, body odor often reflects these culinary traditions through the excretion of aromatic metabolites in sweat.[56]
Environmental and Industrial Exposures
Environmental exposures to pollutants can influence body odor through dermal adsorption and metabolic changes. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from air pollution, such as those emitted by vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions, can be absorbed through the skin, potentially altering the volatile profile of sweat and contributing to distinct odors.[60] Heavy metals like arsenic, historically present in contaminated groundwater, lead to a characteristic garlic-like odor in breath and body tissues due to the excretion of volatile arsenic compounds through sweat and skin.[61][62]In industrial settings, occupational exposures often result in specific odor signatures from chemical absorption or residue on the skin. Chemical workers handling solvents like benzene or toluene may emit a sweet, petroleum-like scent, as these compounds have inherent sweet odors and can be absorbed dermally, persisting in body emissions.[63][64] Similarly, agricultural workers exposed to organophosphate pesticides can develop a garlic-like body odor from the metabolic breakdown of these compounds, which are excreted via sweat.[65] Fish processing workers, encountering high levels of trimethylamine—a volatile compound with a strong fishy smell—often experience temporary fish-like body odors from direct skin contact and inhalation during handling of spoiled or fresh seafood.[66][67]Climatic conditions, particularly higher humidity, exacerbate body odor intensity by promoting bacterial proliferation on the skin. In humid environments, sweat evaporates more slowly, creating moist conditions that enhance microbial growth and the breakdown of apocrine secretions into odorous compounds like thioalcohols.[68][69] Studies show that higher relative humidity levels can increase bacterial growth rates on skin, intensifying odor production without altering the underlying sweat composition.[70]
Pathological Aspects
Associated Medical Conditions
Body odor can be a prominent symptom in various metabolic disorders, where genetic defects impair the breakdown of specific compounds, leading to their accumulation and excretion through sweat, urine, or breath. Trimethylaminuria, also known as fish odor syndrome, results from a deficiency in the flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 (FMO3) enzyme, which normally oxidizes trimethylamine—a volatile compound derived from dietary precursors like choline and carnitine—into odorless trimethylamine N-oxide. This leads to the buildup and release of trimethylamine, producing a pungent, fish-like body odor that affects sweat, breath, and urine. The carrier prevalence of trimethylaminuria is approximately 0.5–1% in white British populations, though the homozygous condition is rarer, with a global incidence estimated at 1 in 200,000 to 1 in 1,000,000 individuals. Another metabolic disorder, isovaleric acidemia, arises from mutations in the IVD gene, causing a deficiency in isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase and the accumulation of isovaleric acid, which imparts a characteristic sweaty feet odor during acute episodes. This odor is particularly noticeable in sweat and breath when metabolic crises occur, often triggered by infections or fasting.Infections can also contribute to abnormal body odors through microbial overgrowth and tissue breakdown. Hidradenitis suppurativa, a chronic inflammatory condition affecting apocrine gland-bearing areas like the axillae and groin, involves follicular occlusion and secondary bacterial overgrowth, leading to abscesses, sinus tracts, and purulent drainage with a foul odor due to anaerobic bacterial metabolism. This malodor arises from the degradation of proteins and other substrates by bacteria such as Staphylococcus and Streptococcus species, exacerbating psychosocial distress in affected individuals.Certain systemic diseases manifest abnormal odors as diagnostic clues. In uncontrolled diabetes, particularly during diabetic ketoacidosis, elevated ketone bodies like acetone accumulate, producing a fruity odor in the breath and occasionally in sweat, reflecting the body's shift to fat metabolism for energy. Liver failure, often in advanced cirrhosis or acute hepatic encephalopathy, is associated with foetor hepaticus—a distinctive musty or sweet breath and body odor—resulting from the liver's impaired detoxification, allowing volatile sulfur compounds like dimethyl sulfide to escape into the bloodstream and excretions.Endocrine disorders may intensify or alter body odor by disrupting sweat production or composition. Hyperhidrosis, characterized by excessive sweating beyond thermoregulatory needs, amplifies normal body odor by providing more moisture for bacterial proliferation on the skin, particularly in areas like the axillae where apocrine glands are abundant. Hormonal fluctuations during menopause can lead to changes in body odor, often described as stronger or more pungent, due to altered sweat gland activity, shifts in skin microbiota, and increased hot flashes that promote sweating.
Diagnosis and Management
Diagnosis of body odor disorders typically begins with a detailed clinical history to identify potential underlying causes such as hyperhidrosis, infections, or metabolic conditions.[71]Physical examination may include a sniff test, where the clinician assesses the odor intensity on a standardized scale after patient activity or garment sampling. For volatile compounds, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry can quantify specific odorants like trimethylamine in urine or sweat to confirm metabolic disorders.[72]In cases of suspected trimethylaminuria (TMAU), genetic testing via sequencing of the FMO3 gene is the gold standard for diagnosis, identifying mutations that impair trimethylamine oxidation.[73] This approach distinguishes primary TMAU from secondary forms caused by liver or gut issues.[72]Management strategies target the underlying mechanisms, starting with conservative measures. For bacterial overgrowth contributing to bromhidrosis, antibacterial soaps containing chlorhexidine reduce skin flora and odor production by disrupting microbial metabolism of apocrine secretions.[3] Botulinum toxin injections into axillary areas treat associated hyperhidrosis by inhibiting sweat gland activity, leading to an 82-87% reduction in sweating and consequent odor amelioration lasting 3-12 months.[74]For TMAU, a low-choline diet that limits precursors like eggs, liver, and cruciferous vegetables can significantly decrease trimethylamine levels, often combined with acidic soaps to neutralize odor.[75] In severe bromhidrosis refractory to topical therapies, surgical options such as apocrine gland removal via curettage or liposuction provide long-term relief by eliminating odor-producing glands, with low complication rates when performed minimally invasively.[76]Advancements in the 2020s include microbiome-targeted probiotics, such as topical lactobacilli, which can rebalance skinmicrobiota to inhibit odor-causing species like Corynebacterium, showing improved odor control in clinical studies.[77] Laser therapies, including 1444 nm Nd:YAG, achieve up to 70-90% odor reduction through targeted gland coagulation, offering a non-surgical alternative with high patient satisfaction.[78]Multidisciplinary care is essential, involving dermatologists for topical and procedural interventions, endocrinologists for hormonal evaluations, and geneticists for TMAU confirmation to tailor comprehensive treatment plans.[79]
Prevention Methods
Preventing body odor in healthy individuals primarily involves consistent hygiene practices that target sweat and bacterial activity on the skin. Regular showering or bathing at least once daily, using soap with antibacterial properties, effectively removes bacteria and sweat residues that contribute to odor formation. [80] Applying antiperspirants containing aluminum salts, such as aluminum chlorohydrate, helps by forming temporary plugs in sweat ducts, reducing perspiration output by up to 20-30% in clinical assessments and thereby limiting the moisture available for bacterial breakdown. [81] Choosing breathable, natural fabrics like cotton for clothing allows sweat to evaporate more quickly, minimizing trapped moisture and bacterial growth compared to synthetic materials. [80]Lifestyle adjustments can further support odor control by addressing dietary and physiological triggers. A balanced diet that limits consumption of sulfur-rich foods, such as garlic, onions, and red meat, helps reduce the volatile compounds excreted through sweat that intensify body odor. [80] Managing stress through techniques like mindfulness or exercise is beneficial, as emotional stress activates apocrine glands, leading to protein-rich sweat that bacteria metabolize into odorous byproducts. [80] Shaving or trimming underarm hair as a long-term habit decreases the surface area for bacterial colonization, with studies showing temporarily more pleasant odor ratings immediately after removal. [82]Deodorants and emerging products offer targeted prevention, with evidence indicating substantial odor reduction. Clinical evaluations demonstrate that deodorant formulations can lower malodour compounds by 26.6% to 77% through antimicrobial action against odor-causing bacteria. [83] Natural alternatives, such as tea tree oil, provide antibacterial effects due to its terpinen-4-ol content, which inhibits staphylococcal growth responsible for odor, serving as a gentler option for daily application. Post-2020 innovations in microbiome-friendly deodorants, incorporating prebiotics or plant-derived antimicrobials like propanediol caprate, aim to neutralize odor while preserving beneficial skinbacteria, reflecting a shift toward balanced formulations. [84] These hygiene-focused strategies, which disrupt microbial odor production, form the foundation of effective prevention. [14]