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Boletus

Boletus is a genus of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the family Boletaceae and order Boletales, comprising boletoid mushrooms characterized by fleshy basidiomata with a central stipe, a porous hymenophore that is white when young and turns yellowish to olive-brown with age, and smooth, ellipsoid to ovoid basidiospores that produce an olive-brown spore print.^[1] The type species, Boletus edulis, known as the porcini or king bolete, exemplifies the genus with its ventricose to cylindrical stipe often featuring reticulate ornamentation, unchanging or rarely bruising context, and a strong nutty odor, making it one of the most economically valuable wild edible mushrooms globally.^[1] Historically broad and polyphyletic, encompassing up to 300 species based on morphological traits like tubular hymenophores and smooth spores, the genus has been redefined through multi-gene phylogenetic analyses to the monophyletic "porcini sensu stricto" clade, excluding many former members now placed in genera such as Xanthoconium and Tylopilus. These fungi form symbiotic associations with trees in temperate and tropical regions worldwide, often found in forests with conifers or hardwoods, contributing to nutrient cycling in ecosystems while some species, like B. edulis, are prized for culinary uses but can be confused with toxic look-alikes.^[1] The genus is divided into five major lineages—"porcini s. str.," "Obtextiporus," "Inferiboletus," "Alloboletus," and "Orientiboletus"—highlighting its evolutionary diversity revealed by molecular studies.^[1]

Taxonomy

Etymology and History

The genus name Boletus derives from the Latin bōlētus, a term for "mushroom," which traces back to the Ancient Greek βωλίτης (bōlitēs), ultimately from βῶλος (bōlos), meaning "lump" or "clod," reflecting the soft, rounded form of the fruiting body.^[2] This name was first formally applied as a genus in Carl Linnaeus's Species Plantarum (1753), where he classified several pore-bearing fungi under Boletus, establishing it as a foundational taxon in fungal nomenclature despite the absence of the modern type species B. edulis from his original list.^[3] In the early 19th century, Elias Magnus Fries significantly expanded the genus in his Systema Mycologicum (1821), defining Boletus broadly to encompass all fleshy fungi with pore-like hymenial structures, resulting in an initial inclusion of over 300 species and solidifying its role as a catch-all for boletes.^[4] This comprehensive approach, while influential, led to taxonomic challenges as morphological diversity became evident, prompting revisions by subsequent mycologists. Fries's framework dominated fungal classification for decades, emphasizing macroscopic features like pore arrangement over microscopic details. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, taxonomists such as Edouard-Jean Gilbert began narrowing Boletus by recognizing distinct subgroups, with Gilbert's work in the 1930s highlighting variations in spore color and habitat that warranted separation.^[5] Rolf Singer advanced these efforts in the 1940s through detailed monographs on bolete anatomy and ecology, segregating genera like Suillus (for slimy-capped species) and Xerocomus (for dry, bruising boletes) from the core Boletus s.s., based on stipe texture, pore reaction, and symbiotic associations. Pre-molecular revisions also addressed anomalies, such as the 19th-century placement of now-independent taxa like Gyroporus—characterized by hollow, detachable stipes—within Boletus before Quélet erected the genus in 1888.^[6] These efforts laid the groundwork for later DNA-based refinements that further delimited the genus.

Current Classification

Boletus belongs to the phylum Basidiomycota, class Agaricomycetes, order Boletales, and family Boletaceae.^[7] Following taxonomic revisions initiated in the early 2000s, the genus Boletus in the strict sense (sensu stricto) has been narrowly defined to include approximately 30 species divided into five major lineages—"porcini s. str.," "Obtextiporus," "Inferiboletus," "Alloboletus," and "Orientiboletus"—including the core "porcini s. str." group centered on the type species Boletus edulis and its close relatives exhibiting traits such as reticulate spore ornamentation.^[1] These boundaries were redefined through multi-gene phylogenetic analyses, with key contributions from Nuhn et al. (2013), who used nuclear large subunit rDNA, translation elongation factor 1-α, and RNA polymerase II data to demonstrate that many traditionally included species are polyphyletic and belong to distinct genera. Similarly, Wu et al. (2014) employed a broader multi-locus approach across the Boletaceae, identifying seven major clades and proposing 22 new generic-level taxa, thereby restricting Boletus s.s. to a monophyletic assemblage centered on the B. edulis lineage. In a recent development, Boletus lakhanpalii, originally described from India, was transferred to the newly erected genus Pseudobaorangia in 2025 based on combined morphological features—such as its unique hymenophore and cystidioles—and molecular evidence from nrLSU, RPB2, and TEF1-α sequences, which placed it outside the core Boletus clade.^[8]

Phylogenetic Position

The phylogenetic position of the genus Boletus within the family Boletaceae has been elucidated through molecular analyses, primarily using nuclear ribosomal DNA regions such as the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), large subunit (LSU) rDNA, and the protein-coding gene RPB2. These markers have consistently demonstrated that Boletus sensu stricto (s.s.), comprising five major lineages centered on the type species Boletus edulis, forms a monophyletic clade within the subfamily Boletoideae of Boletaceae. Early foundational work established the monophyly of the order Boletales, including Boletaceae, using LSU rDNA sequences from a broad sampling of basidiomycetes, revealing Boletales as a well-supported sister group to other agaricomycete lineages. Subsequent multi-gene phylogenies have refined the placement of Boletus s.s., showing it as a distinct subclade separated from genera like Xerocomellus, which resides in the separate subfamily Xerocomoidae. For instance, analyses incorporating ITS, LSU, RPB2, and translation elongation factor 1-α (tef1-α) genes highlight the B. edulis clade as robustly supported (bootstrap values >90%, posterior probabilities >0.95), with internal diversification reflecting evolutionary splits among Eurasian and North American lineages. Recent phylogenomic studies using 1,764 single-copy orthologous genes from whole-genome data further confirm the monophyly of Boletus s.s., estimating its crown age at approximately 29–30 million years ago and placing it as sister to a clade including the Central African endemic Boletus alliaceus and Paxilloboletus africanus. These trees feature Boletus branching early within Boletoideae, distinct from butter boletes in Butyriboletus, which form a neighboring but separate clade supported by both molecular and morphological evidence.^[9]^[10] Updates in 2023 using multi-locus datasets (ITS, LSU, RPB2) have reinforced these relationships, identifying Butyriboletus as a consistent sister group to Boletus s.s. in expanded Asian samplings, with high nodal support underscoring the separation of the B. edulis clade from polyphyletic elements previously lumped in broader Boletus. A 2025 study on Pseudobaorangia lakhanpalii (formerly misclassified as Boletus lakhanpalii) exemplifies phylogenetic incongruence in older classifications, using ITS, nrLSU, and tef1-α to resolve it as a distinct monophyletic genus outside Boletus s.s., highlighting how molecular data correct historical misplacements and stabilize genus boundaries within Boletaceae subclades.^[10]^[8]

Morphology

Gross Morphology

The fruitbodies of Boletus species are typically pileate-stipitate, featuring a central stipe supporting a cap bearing a porous hymenophore rather than gills, a defining trait of the genus as originally circumscribed by Fries.^[11] The cap (pileus) is convex when young, expanding to flat or nearly so with maturity, and measures 5-30 cm in diameter in representative species such as B. edulis; its surface ranges from smooth and dry to viscid when moist, with coloration varying from shades of brown, olive, or reddish hues across the genus.^[12] Beneath the cap, the hymenophore consists of a layer of tubes forming pores that are adnate to decurrent, initially white to pale yellow and typically unchanging upon injury in Boletus s.s., though aging to yellowish or olive-brown.^[1] The stipe is central and robust, typically 5-20 cm tall and 2-10 cm thick, frequently featuring a reticulate pattern at the apex and a bulbous or tapered base in species such as B. edulis; its color often matches or contrasts the cap, from pale yellow to brown.^[12] The context, or flesh, is white to pale yellow, firm, and unchanging upon cutting, a key trait distinguishing Boletus s.s. from many bruising bolete genera.^[1] Boletus fruitbodies exhibit a terrestrial habit, occurring solitary to gregarious without a volva or annulus, distinguishing them from many other basidiomycetes.^[11]

Microscopic Characteristics

The microscopic characteristics of Boletus species are essential for taxonomic identification, revealing cellular structures that distinguish the genus from related boletes. Basidiospores in Boletus are typically smooth, ellipsoid to ovoid in shape, and measure 12-20 µm in length by 4-7 µm in width, as seen in the type species B. edulis.^[12] These spores exhibit an inamyloid reaction in Melzer's reagent, often appearing ochraceous without the characteristic blue-black staining, which helps differentiate Boletus from genera with amyloid spores.^[13] Basidia, the spore-bearing cells, are club-shaped (clavate) and predominantly 4-spored, with heights ranging from 25-40 µm and widths of 7-12 µm, as observed in standard bolete preparations.^[13] They arise from the hymenium lining the tube surfaces and lack clamp connections at their bases, a consistent absence across Boletus hyphae that supports the genus's phylogenetic separation from clamp-bearing relatives like Suillus.^[1] The pileipellis of Boletus is structured as a trichodermium or gelatinized trichoderm, comprising interwoven to vertically arranged hyphae.^[14] Hymenial cystidia, including pleurocystidia on tube faces, are fusiform to clavate and 25-50 µm long, while cheilocystidia on pore edges are typically absent.^[13] Key diagnostic traits include the microscopic confirmation of reticulate ornamentation on the stipe surface, arising from raised hyphal aggregates visible under high magnification, which is prominent in core Boletus species.^[1] Staining reactions provide additional identifiers: spore prints are olive-brown, reflecting the pigmentation of mature basidiospores in mass deposits.^[15] Application of 3% KOH to the cap surface often yields a red to reddish-brown reaction in many Boletus taxa, aiding differentiation from non-reactive species in allied genera.^[16]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

Boletus species are predominantly distributed across the Holarctic realm, encompassing temperate and boreal forests of Europe, North America, and Asia. The genus Boletus s.str. comprises approximately 50–60 species worldwide.^[17] This dominance reflects the genus's adaptation to cooler climates in these regions, where species thrive in association with various tree hosts. For instance, Boletus edulis, one of the most widespread members, occurs commonly in the European Alps, the Appalachian Mountains of eastern North America, and the Himalayan ranges of Asia.^[18]^[19] In Europe, the genus includes a limited number of species, approximately four such as B. edulis and B. aereus, primarily in central and southern areas, including mountainous and woodland habitats. Eastern North America supports several species, contributing to the approximately 24 recognized across the continent overall, primarily in deciduous and mixed forests, while Asia features significant diversity in eastern and central regions with about 29 species, though documentation remains incomplete in some areas. Tropical zones host fewer species overall, limited by unsuitable climatic conditions.^[17] Presence in the Southern Hemisphere is limited and largely non-native, with rare endemic species such as Boletus austroedulis in Australia and introduced populations of B. edulis established in New Zealand through human-mediated dispersal via pine plantations. South American records are similarly sparse, confined to a handful of sites in temperate zones.^[20]^[18]^[21] Recent observations indicate potential range expansions linked to climatic shifts, such as increased sightings of Boletus aereus in southern European locales beyond its traditional Mediterranean core since the early 2000s, possibly influenced by warmer temperatures.^[22]^[23]

Environmental Preferences

Boletus species generally thrive in well-drained soils that prevent waterlogging, with preferences varying by region but commonly including loamy textures rich in organic matter. In European habitats, many species favor sandy or calcareous soils, which support their ectomycorrhizal growth while maintaining aeration and nutrient availability. For instance, B. edulis often occurs in sandy or loamy substrates, often in areas with good drainage to avoid excess moisture accumulation.^[18]^[24] These soil conditions, typically acidic with pH ranging from 4.5 to 6.5, facilitate root penetration and mycelial expansion without saturation.^[25]^[23] The genus prefers temperate to boreal climates, where fruiting bodies emerge primarily in late summer to fall, coinciding with seasonal rainfall and cooling temperatures. Optimal soil temperatures for development and fruiting fall between 10°C and 20°C, allowing mycelial activity without stress from extremes.^[26]^[27] Annual precipitation of 800–1600 mm supports growth, particularly in humid conditions that promote sporocarp formation, though excessive dryness or heat can inhibit production.^[25]^[27] Terrain suitability includes forest edges, clearings, and open woodlands from sea level up to 2000 m in elevation, where light penetration and moderate slopes enhance microclimatic stability. These locations provide the necessary balance of sunlight and shade, with species often found on slopes less than 20% to optimize drainage and exposure.^[24]^[28] At higher elevations, such as in mountainous regions, dew and fog contribute to humidity, extending fruiting potential even in drier periods. Microhabitat factors emphasize high relative humidity (around 70–80%) for sporocarp maturation, coupled with avoidance of waterlogged zones to prevent mycelial decay; soil moisture at field capacity (20–34%) is ideal, but standing water is detrimental.^[29]^[25]^[30]

Ecology and Life Cycle

Symbiotic Associations

Boletus species are predominantly ectomycorrhizal fungi, forming mutualistic associations with the roots of various trees by enveloping fine root tips in a fungal sheath known as the Hartig net, which facilitates the exchange of nutrients and water between the fungus and its host. This symbiosis enhances the host plant's uptake of essential minerals from the soil, particularly in nutrient-poor environments. Common host genera include Pinus (pines), Quercus (oaks), Fagus (beeches), and Betula (birches), where the fungal hyphae extend into the soil to access resources beyond the reach of plant roots alone.^[31]^[32] The degree of host specificity varies among Boletus species, with some exhibiting broad compatibility and others showing more restricted associations. For instance, Boletus edulis forms ectomycorrhizae with a wide array of over 30 tree species across conifers and hardwoods, including members of the Pinaceae, Fagaceae, and Betulaceae families, allowing it to thrive in diverse forest ecosystems. In contrast, species like Boletus aereus demonstrate greater specificity, primarily associating with oaks (Quercus spp.) and occasionally beeches (Fagus spp.), which influences their distribution in oak-dominated woodlands. These associations underscore the role of host-fungus compatibility in shaping fungal community structure and forest biodiversity.^[33]^[34]^[22] In these symbiotic relationships, Boletus fungi supply host plants with mobilized phosphorus and nitrogen, often derived from organic soil compounds through enzymatic activity, while receiving carbohydrates such as sugars from the plant's photosynthates. This nutrient exchange is critical for plant growth, especially in phosphorus-limited soils, where ectomycorrhizal fungi can increase phosphorus acquisition by up to several fold compared to non-mycorrhizal roots. Nitrogen transfer, including from recalcitrant organic sources, further supports host vigor and forest productivity. Although primarily mycorrhizal, rare saprotrophic tendencies have been observed in some Boletus species under disturbed soil conditions, where they may partially decompose organic matter independently of living hosts, though this mode is not dominant.^[35]^[36]^[37]

Reproduction and Development

Boletus species reproduce sexually through the production and dispersal of basidiospores from mature fruitbodies, known as basidiocarps. These spores are ballistospores forcibly ejected from basidia lining the pore surfaces at speeds of 0.6–1.4 m/s over short initial distances of 25–300 µm, after which wind serves as the primary vector for longer-range dispersal, enabling spores to travel up to 1.5 km or more beyond the source forest.^[29]^[38] Spore concentrations peak in late summer and autumn, correlating positively with temperature and humidity, which facilitate release and airborne transport.^[29] Upon landing in suitable moist soils, basidiospores germinate to produce primary monokaryotic mycelium consisting of haploid hyphae that extend and colonize organic substrates.^[13] Compatible hyphae from different mating types then undergo plasmogamy, forming a dikaryotic secondary mycelium that develops extensive networks underground, supporting nutrient acquisition and persistence over seasons.^[39] This secondary mycelium represents the dominant vegetative phase in Boletus, with no prominent asexual reproduction mechanisms observed.^[13] Fruitbody initiation in Boletus is triggered by environmental signals such as rainfall during warm periods, particularly in autumn, which stimulates primordia development from the secondary mycelium.^[29] Basidiocarps typically mature within 1–2 weeks following sufficient precipitation (20–40 mm over 24–48 hours), progressing from button-stage primordia to fully expanded caps and stems capable of spore production.^[40] In the mature basidiocarp, karyogamy fuses the two haploid nuclei within each basidium to form a diploid zygote, followed immediately by meiosis that yields four haploid basidiospores per basidium, completing the sexual cycle.^[41] This process ensures genetic recombination and dispersal for the next generation.^[39]

Diversity

Number of Species

The genus Boletus in the strict sense currently encompasses an estimated approximately 30 accepted species, a significant reduction from the more than 300 species historically placed within it due to extensive taxonomic segregations informed by molecular data.^[19] Species counts are estimated using fungal databases, with Index Fungorum listing over 300 names under Boletus, though only a subset belong to the core Boletus s.s. clade; the NCBI Taxonomy database includes numerous entries, many of which are synonyms or outdated classifications.^[42]^[43] Taxonomic challenges persist due to cryptic species uncovered by DNA barcoding, such as the B. edulis complex, which comprises numerous phylogenetic species, with at least 27 identified globally differing in genetic and morphological traits.^[19] Recent trends show continued reductions in species numbers, exemplified by the 2025 transfer of Boletus lakhanpalii to the newly established genus Pseudobaorangia, thereby decreasing the Boletus count by one (as of 2025). Recent studies continue to uncover cryptic diversity within the genus.^[8]^[44]

Selected Species

Boletus edulis serves as the type species of the genus Boletus and is widely recognized as the king bolete or porcini. This fungus typically exhibits a convex to flat cap ranging from 7 to 30 cm in diameter, with a smooth to slightly tacky surface colored in shades of brown, often with a paler margin. The pore surface starts white and yellows with maturity, while the stout stipe, up to 25 cm tall and 10 cm thick, features a prominent white reticulate network on its upper portion. It forms ectomycorrhizal associations with diverse trees including pines, spruces, oaks, and beeches, contributing to its widespread distribution across temperate forests in Europe, North America, and Asia.^[45]^[46]^[47] Boletus aereus, known as the bronze bolete, is distinguished by its dark olive-brown to nearly black cap, which measures 5 to 20 cm across and develops a cracked or areolate texture in dry conditions. The pores are small, white to pale yellow, and the stipe is robust, up to 15 cm long, with a subtle yellowish reticulation that becomes more pronounced toward the apex. This species fruits primarily in summer and early autumn, associating ectomycorrhizally with broadleaf trees such as oaks and beeches in Mediterranean and southern European woodlands.^[22]^[48] Boletus pinophilus, or the pine bolete, is characterized by a reddish-brown to maroon cap, 8 to 20 cm in diameter, that is initially hemispherical and smooth but may become slightly viscid in wet weather. Its pores are white to pale yellow, and the bulbous stipe, reaching 20 cm in height, displays coarse orange-red reticulation, particularly on the upper half. Restricted to Europe, it forms specific ectomycorrhizal partnerships with Pinus species, such as Scots pine, in coniferous forests from late summer through autumn.^[49]^[50] Boletus sensibilis, referred to as the lurid bolete in some contexts, features a vivid red to reddish-brown cap up to 15 cm wide, with a dry, velvety texture. The pore surface is bright yellow and stains intensely blue upon handling, a reaction that occurs rapidly due to its sensitivity, while the stipe is yellow with red flushing and subtle reticulation. Primarily found in North American hardwood forests, it associates with oaks and other deciduous trees during summer and fall.^[51] Among regional endemics, Boletus reticulatus, known as the reticulate bolete, is notable for its distribution in Europe and association with broadleaf trees. It has a pale brown cap up to 20 cm across, white pores turning yellowish, and a robust stipe with prominent white reticulation. This species fruits in autumn and is valued for its edibility.

Human Uses and Safety

Culinary Applications

Boletus edulis, commonly known as the porcino or king bolete, is one of the most prized edible mushrooms worldwide due to its rich, nutty flavor and meaty texture, often utilized fresh, dried, or powdered in various dishes.^[52] Fresh specimens are sautéed, grilled, or added to omelets and meats, while dried forms rehydrate well for incorporation into risottos, sauces, and soups, enhancing depth with their concentrated umami taste derived from glutamates and nucleotides.^[53] In powdered form, B. edulis serves as a seasoning to boost savory profiles in stocks, gravies, and baked goods without overpowering other ingredients.^[54] Harvesting guidelines emphasize selecting prime specimens to optimize texture and flavor; ideal caps measure 5-10 cm in diameter, offering firm flesh that avoids the sponginess of overripe or the tenderness of immature ones.^[55] Collectors cut the stipe close to the base with a knife to minimize soil disturbance and preserve mycelium health, ensuring sustainable yields in subsequent seasons.^[56] In global cuisines, B. edulis holds a central role, particularly in Italian dishes where fresh or dried porcini feature prominently in risottos and pasta sauces for their earthy umami.^[57] In Polish cuisine, dried boletus (known as suszarki or borowik suszony) is a staple in creamy soups, pierogi fillings, and forest mushroom stews, valued for its intense aroma when rehydrated.^[58] Commercial cultivation attempts in Europe, such as controlled mycorrhizal plantations with host trees like pine and oak, have been explored to meet demand, though challenges with symbiosis limit large-scale success, keeping most supply wild-harvested.^[57] Nutritionally, fresh B. edulis offers a low-calorie profile of approximately 30-35 kcal per 100 g, with 3-5% protein content that includes essential amino acids, making it a valuable meat substitute.^[59] It is also rich in B-group vitamins, such as riboflavin and niacin, supporting energy metabolism, and contains vitamin D precursors like ergosterol, which convert to active vitamin D2 upon UV exposure, aiding bone health.^[52] Global exports of porcini mushrooms, primarily dried, are valued at approximately 1.5 billion USD as of 2023, with key markets in Europe and North America driving trade from producers like China and Italy.^[60]

Toxicity and Identification Risks

Among the species traditionally classified under Boletus, now often reclassified into genera like Rubroboletus and Suillellus, certain ones pose significant toxicity risks. Rubroboletus satanas, commonly known as the devil's bolete, is a highly poisonous species that induces severe gastrointestinal distress, including intense nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, typically manifesting within 30 minutes to three hours after ingestion.^[61] This toxicity stems from bolesatine, a glycoprotein that inhibits protein synthesis, with symptoms potentially lasting several days and requiring medical attention in severe cases.^[62] Key identification features include bright red pores that do not change color upon bruising and a distinctive fishy or unpleasant odor, particularly noticeable in mature specimens.^[61] Other species in the former Boletus luridus group, such as Suillellus luridus, are mildly toxic and can lead to gastric upset, including abdominal pain and vomiting, especially if consumed raw due to thermolabile toxins that are partially inactivated by thorough cooking.^[63] These mushrooms exhibit rapid bluing of the flesh and pores upon handling, a reaction linked to the presence of variegatic acid and related compounds that may contribute to the digestive irritation in uncooked forms.^[64] While not life-threatening, ingestion of raw specimens has been associated with disulfiram-like reactions when combined with alcohol, exacerbating symptoms.^[65] Misidentification poses substantial risks for foragers, as edible Boletus species like B. edulis can be confused with inedible or toxic look-alikes. Tylopilus felleus, the bitter bolete, mimics the appearance of choice edibles with its brown cap and reticulated stem but is unpalatable due to extreme bitterness from intense taste receptors in its tissues, rendering it inedible despite lacking true toxicity.^[66] Similarly, slimy-capped Suillus species, such as S. luteus, are often mistaken for dry Boletus boletes; their gelatinous cuticle and decurrent pores lead to digestive discomfort if eaten without removal of the slimy layer.^[67] Notably, blue bruising of the flesh—a common trait in many Boletus—is not a reliable indicator of toxicity, as both edible species (e.g., B. sensibilis) and poisonous ones (e.g., R. satanas) may exhibit it, while some toxic boletes show no color change.^[68] To mitigate these risks, foragers should prioritize spore print analysis, where true Boletus species yield an olive-brown deposit, contrasting with the pinkish print of T. felleus, and confirm habitat associations, such as R. satanas favoring calcareous soils in broadleaf woodlands.^[66] There is no universal antidote for bolete poisoning; treatment focuses on symptomatic relief like hydration and antiemetics, with symptoms from toxic species like R. satanas appearing rapidly, underscoring the need for expert verification before consumption.^[61]

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The average annual temperature ranges between 8 and 14 °C. Annual rainfall ranges from 600 to 2500 mm, with some sites over 3000 mm per year.Missing: drainage | Show results with:drainage
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[PDF] Managing Forest Ecosystems to Conserve Fungus Diversity and ...
Each site was described in detail including topography, climate, soil type, and vegetation. From late August through mid-November, each shiro was monitored ...
[33]
Seasonality and intensity of airborne Boletus-type spores in relation ...
Dec 20, 2023 · The aim of this study was to perform a spatial and temporal analysis of the occurrence of Boletus-type spores in the warm temperate climate of ...
[34]
[PDF] Influence of some ecological variables on wild mushroom (Boletus ...
Jan 18, 2019 · Factors influencing mushroom production such as genes and environmental conditions are not clear (Murat et al. 2008) because the literature ...
[35]
Effects of ectomycorrhizal fungus bolete identity on the community ...
Sep 8, 2021 · Ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECMF) colonizing the root tips of their hosts form an ectomycorrhiza, which improves nutrient and water acquisition of ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[36]
Ectomycorrhizal Fungi: Participation in Nutrient Turnover and ... - MDPI
These fungi can promote the uptake of nutrients (e.g., nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P)) and water by host plants, as well as facilitate host plant growth and ...
[37]
Rockroses and Boletus edulis ectomycorrhizal association
B. edulis is mainly associated with a large number of trees and shrubs of Fagales, Malvales, Malpighiales, Ericales and Pinales (Águeda et al. 2008).
[38]
Proteome analysis of an ectomycorrhizal fungus Boletus edulis ...
It belongs to EMF species with a broad host range and could form mycorrhizal relationships with conifers, oak, birch, fir, etc (Molina et al., 1992, Mao, 1997).
[39]
Cyanoboletus pulverulentus, Inkstain Bolete mushroom - First Nature
Boletus pulverulentus is most commonly found under beech or oak trees, but this ectomycorrhizal species is also sometimes found under other kinds of hardwoods.
[40]
The ectomycorrhizal contribution to tree nutrition - ScienceDirect.com
Ectomycorrhizal fungi colonize the roots of their hosts and improve their access to nutrients, usually nitrogen (N) and, in exchange, trees deliver a ...
[41]
Mycorrhizal symbiosis and the nitrogen nutrition of forest trees - PMC
Sep 9, 2024 · This review considers current knowledge of the functionality of ectomycorrhizal (EM) symbiosis in the mobilisation and acquisition of soil nitrogen (N)<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
Diversity in phosphorus mobilisation and uptake in ectomycorrhizal ...
Jan 14, 2011 · The aim of this review was to examine our current knowledge about the capacity of ectomycorrhizal fungi to release organic compounds as low-molecular-weight ...
[43]
Dispersion of Boletus-Type Spores Within and Beyond Beech Forest
The aim of this study was to investigate the concentration of airborne Boletus-type spores in a forest environment and evaluate the thesis that their ...Missing: avoidance | Show results with:avoidance
[44]
Basidiomycete - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The life cycle of basidiomycetes begins as haploid basidiospores develop into a mycelium with one haploid nucleus per cell. These monokaryotic hyphae are the ...
[45]
King Boletes Identification and Foraging - Mushroom Appreciation
Apr 2, 2022 · King boletes grow worldwide, though not naturally in the Southern Hemisphere. They are an introduced species to Australia, Brazil, and South ...
[46]
24.3D: Basidiomycota- The Club Fungi - Biology LibreTexts
22 Nov 2024 · In the basidium, nuclei of two different mating strains fuse (karyogamy), giving rise to a diploid zygote that then undergoes meiosis. The ...
[47]
Molecular phylogenetic analyses redefine seven major clades and ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Our phylogenetic analyses revealed that seven major clades at the subfamily level, namely Austroboletoideae, Boletoideae, Chalciporoideae, Leccinoideae, ...
[48]
Search Page - Index Fungorum
1753, (also see Species Fungorum: Boletus); Boletaceae · Boletus Tourn. ex ... Austroboletus Corner 1972, (also see Species Fungorum: Austroboletus); Boletaceae
[49]
Taxonomy browser (Boletus) - NCBI - NIH
THE NCBI Taxonomy database allows browsing of the taxonomy tree, which contains a classification of organisms.Missing: count | Show results with:count
[50]
Boletus edulis (MushroomExpert.Com)
Boletus edulis is a well-known European bolete that associates with spruces and, depending on how the species is defined, various hardwoods.
[51]
Boletus edulis, Cep, Penny Bun Bolete mushroom - First Nature
Boletus edulis, known as the Cep, Porcino or Penny-bun Bolete, is a most sought-after edible bolete. It is frequently found at the edges of clearings in broad- ...
[52]
California Fungi: Boletus edulis - MykoWeb
Habitat. In the California, Boletus edulis is associated primarily with pine, particularly Pinus muricata (Bishop pine), and Pinus radiata (Monterey pine).Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[53]
Bronze Bolete - Wild Food UK
Habitat. Ectomycorrhizal with various broad leaf trees, particularly Beech ... Bronze Bolete (Boletus aereus). Back to mushroom guide. Related Recipes ...
[54]
Boletus pinophilus, Pine Bolete - First Nature
Cap. 8 to 20cm across, initially hemispherical and eventually becoming almost flat; smooth or slightly bumpy; dry or slightly greasy, becoming viscid in wet ...
[55]
B. pinophilus - boletales.com
Fruitbody large to medium sized, boletoid, without veil and ring. Stipe solid, with surface usually covered with granules or network.
[56]
Boletus sensibilis (MushroomExpert.Com)
Boletus sensibilis is one of many North American red-capped, blue-staining boletes, but Peck named it "sensibilis" (sensitive) because of "the ease and rapidity ...
[57]
Butyriboletus regius, Royal Bolete mushroom - First Nature
Very rare in Britain and rare in some other European countries, noticeably Italy, France, Spain and Portugal, Boletus regius is also known to occur in parts of ...
[58]
Boletus regius - The Global Fungal Red List Initiative
Mar 24, 2014 · Obviously a rare species, red-listed in all European countries (16) where it is known. Probably not the same species in Asia and North America.
[59]
Chemical profiles and health-promoting effects of porcini mushroom ...
Oct 1, 2022 · Boletus edulis is also a good source of copper, iron, manganese, zinc, and various vitamins, such as B-group vitamins, ascorbic acid, and ...
[60]
A comparative analysis of the umami taste of five fresh edible ...
Feb 15, 2023 · The umami flavor of mushrooms is thought to be enhanced by monosodium glutamate (MSG)-like amino acids (Asp and Glu) and 5′-nucleotides (5′- ...
[61]
How to eat a bolete - Cornell Mushroom Blog
Jun 22, 2009 · Although the texture of these are lacking, they are excellent for adding flavor to soups, or as flavoring in salads or meats. One interesting ...
[62]
How to Forage Porcini Mushrooms - Lovely Greens
Sep 25, 2024 · Porcini can be harvested very young and at just a few inches tall. When fresh out of the ground, the flesh is almost completely white, and the ...Missing: prime | Show results with:prime
[63]
[PDF] Mushroom Harvesting Guide - USDA Forest Service
You may only use up to an 18-inch long x 1 inch wide harvesting device to pluck or cut mushrooms from the ground. We recommend cutting the mushroom over ...<|separator|>
[64]
https://www.mykoweb.com/TFWNA/P-53.html
[65]
Boletus | Journey From A Polish Kitchen
Most Poles think the best dried mushrooms are Boletus edulis, in Poland they are called borowik, prawdzik or prawdziwek(translates as – the real thing!), in ...Missing: global cuisine
[66]
Porcini – Origin, nutrients & meals - Every-foods
Porcini Nutrition Facts per 100g: Typical Values, 100g. Calories, 32. Fat, 0g. Carbohydrates, 1g. Fibre, 5.5g. Sugar, 0g. Protein, 4g. Nutrients found in ...Missing: profile | Show results with:profile
[67]
Porcini Mushrooms Market Report | Global Forecast From 2025 To ...
The European market is projected to maintain steady growth, with a CAGR of 7.2% during the forecast period. North America is emerging as a lucrative market for ...
[68]
Rubroboletus satanas, Devil's Bolete mushroom - First Nature
Toxicity. Rubroboletus satanas is a poisonous mushroom, and particularly so if it is eaten raw. Muscarine (in very small quantities) has been found in this ...
[69]
[PDF] BOLESATINE, A TOXIC PROTEIN FROM THE MUSHROOM ...
Mar 9, 2018 · Bolesatine is a toxic glycoprotein from the mushroom Rubroboletus satanas, causing nausea and vomiting if eaten raw, and inhibits protein ...
[70]
Suillellus luridus, Lurid Bolete mushroom - First Nature
Suillellus luridus is most commonly found under beech trees on calcareous soil. This ectomycorrhizal species is also sometimes seen beneath oak trees and ...Missing: sandy | Show results with:sandy<|separator|>
[71]
Toxic Fungi of Western North America - MykoWeb
Collectors should generally avoid these boletes in Section Boletus and Subsection Luridi, although Boletus erythropus is edible and very tasty. All of the ...
[72]
[Boletus luridus and alcohol. Case report] - PubMed
Three cases of a disulfiram-alcohol type reaction after ingestion of Boletus luridus and alcohol are described. No serious symptoms were observed.Missing: toxicity | Show results with:toxicity
[73]
About Boletes: An Introduction To Bolete Foraging and Identification
Aug 31, 2023 · In North America, there are over 300 bolete species. Of that 300, 200 have red in their pores, stems, or caps, and over 80 may develop red pores ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[74]
Boletales: Boletus, Suillus etc fungi picture gallery - First Nature
Suillellus satanas, a large and very attractive mushroom with bright red pores, is seriously toxic and so no part of it should be tasted. Most boletes grow on ...
[75]
Red pores and blue bruising? Who cares? - The Bolete Filter
Red pores and blue bruising somehow combined in a way that could make people ill. Modern DNA and chemical studies have debunked that myth.