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Buttress

A buttress is a projecting architectural structure, typically made of masonry or wood, built against or extending from a wall to provide lateral support and stability, counteracting outward thrust from elements like vaults or roofs to prevent the wall from bulging or collapsing.^[1]^[2]^[3] Buttresses have been employed in construction since ancient times, with early examples appearing in Mesopotamian temples and Roman architecture to reinforce thick walls, though they were often more decorative than structural.^[4] Their design evolved significantly during the Romanesque period (c. 10th–12th centuries), where solid, projecting forms helped support heavy stone vaults in churches and castles.^[3] The innovation of the flying buttress in the 12th century marked a revolutionary advancement in Gothic architecture, consisting of an arched or inclined support that transfers weight from the upper walls to external piers, enabling thinner walls, taller structures, and expansive stained-glass windows that flooded interiors with light.^[4]^[5] This technique is exemplified in iconic cathedrals such as Notre-Dame de Paris, where multiple tiers of flying buttresses were added in the 14th century to bolster the structure against settling walls.^[6] Common types of buttresses include angled buttresses, which project at 45 or 90 degrees from corners for diagonal support; clasping buttresses, which wrap around corners to embrace two walls; diagonal buttresses, slanting from the wall face for broader reinforcement; pier buttresses, robust isolated supports often forming towers; and setback buttresses, which step back in tiers to distribute weight gradually.^[7]^[2] Beyond their structural role, buttresses have served aesthetic purposes, adorned with pinnacles, statues, or tracery, particularly in late Gothic and Renaissance designs, influencing modern engineering in bridges, dams, and high-rise buildings.^[3]^[8]

Definition and Terminology

Definition

A buttress is an architectural structure, typically constructed of masonry, that projects outward from a wall to provide lateral support and reinforcement against outward forces such as wind pressure or internal thrusts from arches, vaults, or roofs.^[9]^[3] This feature enhances the stability of tall or thin walls by counteracting horizontal forces that could otherwise cause bulging or collapse.^[10] In engineering terms, a buttress absorbs lateral loads from the supported wall and redirects them downward to the foundation, distributing the forces more evenly across the ground to prevent structural failure.^[3] By doing so, it allows for the construction of lighter, more expansive walls without compromising integrity, enabling greater interior volumes in buildings.^[11] Unlike walls, which serve primarily as enclosures or vertical load-bearers, or piers, which are often isolated supports for vertical compression or as standalone elements, buttresses are integral projections specifically engineered for lateral reinforcement and load transfer.^[3]^[12] The basic components of a buttress generally include a widened base for grounding and stability, a solid body that forms the projecting mass, and optionally a cap or pinnacle at the top to integrate aesthetically with the overall design or add minor weight for enhanced resistance.^[3] A notable variant is the flying buttress, which employs an arched form to transmit forces over an open space.^[3]

Terminology

The term "buttress" originates from the Old French "bouterez," a short form of "arc bouterez" meaning "thrusting arch," referring to its role in pushing against or supporting a structure; this derives from the verb "bouter," meaning "to thrust" or "to push," ultimately tracing back to Frankish *bōtan, "to beat" or "strike."^[13]^[14] In architectural and engineering contexts, "buttress" has synonyms that reflect specialized applications, such as "counterfort," which denotes a buttress-like reinforcement attached to retaining walls or dams to resist lateral earth pressure.^[15] Similarly, "abutment" serves as a near-synonym in bridge design, describing the supporting structure at the ends of a span that bears loads and connects to the embankment. Key technical terms associated with buttresses include "pinnacle," a pointed, often pyramidal or conical ornament crowning the top of a buttress to add weight for stability and aesthetic enhancement, commonly seen in Gothic designs. "Spur" refers to an angled or diagonal projection at the base of a buttress, providing additional lateral support against thrusts, particularly in Romanesque or early Gothic examples. "Setback" describes a stepped or offset profile in the buttress design, where projections recede progressively upward to improve stability and distribute loads more evenly. Regional variations in terminology highlight cultural differences; in English Gothic architecture, the arched "flying buttress" is a prominent term for exposed supports, whereas in Islamic architecture, equivalent projecting supports integrated into iwan (vaulted hall) facades of mosques are often simply termed buttresses, emphasizing their role in stabilizing expansive domes and walls without the arched separation.^[16]^[17]

History

Ancient and Medieval Origins

The earliest known use of buttress-like structures appears in ancient Egyptian architecture during the Early Dynastic period (c. 3100–2686 BCE), where projecting buttresses were incorporated into the sides of mastaba tombs to enhance stability against lateral forces in mud-brick construction. These rectangular, bench-shaped tombs, such as those at Saqqara, featured these projections to reinforce the thick walls and prevent outward bulging under the weight of superstructures or surrounding earth fill, marking an initial engineering response to the challenges of monumental stone and brick masonry.^[18] In Roman engineering, buttresses were employed to reinforce aqueduct walls, particularly at points of structural stress like bends or reservoirs, as seen in the 3rd-century CE Aspendos aqueduct in modern-day Turkey. Here, a prominent stone buttress supported the reservoir wall atop a pressure tower, countering the near-50-degree turn in the water channel and distributing hydraulic pressures effectively to maintain the integrity of the elevated structure.^[19] During the early medieval period, solid buttresses became integral to Romanesque architecture in 11th- and 12th-century Europe, supporting the heavy, thick walls of churches amid the shift toward vaulted interiors. At Durham Cathedral in England, constructed from 1093 onward, these external masonry projections resisted the lateral thrust from ribbed vaults and stone roofs, allowing for taller naves while maintaining structural equilibrium in the region's variable stonework.^[20]^[21] Pre-Gothic innovations in Byzantine and early Islamic architecture further adapted such elements, with the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (completed 537 CE) utilizing massive rectangular piers adorned with engaged half-columns to act as proto-buttresses, channeling loads from the vast central dome to the foundations and stabilizing the pendentive system against seismic stresses.^[22] In seismic-prone regions of the Middle East, such as early Islamic Iran from the 7th century onward, load-bearing needs in stone and brick masonry prompted the widespread adoption of buttresses in mosques and fortifications, like those in Yazd's vernacular structures, to counteract earthquake-induced lateral forces and ensure longevity in earthquake-vulnerable terrains.^[23]^[24] These foundational approaches laid the groundwork for later refinements in Gothic designs.

Evolution in Gothic Architecture

The introduction of flying buttresses marked a pivotal innovation in Gothic architecture, first employed in the choir of the Basilica of Saint-Denis around 1140, and prominently employed at Notre-Dame de Paris, where construction began in 1163 and continued until 1345, enabling thinner walls and expansive windows that flooded interiors with light.^[25]^[6] These external arched supports transferred the lateral thrust of the vaults away from the walls, allowing for unprecedented height and openness in cathedral design.^[26] Key developments in the mid-12th century, such as the adoption of pointed arches and ribbed vaults around the 1140s, generated greater outward forces that simple buttresses could no longer contain, necessitating the evolution of more advanced flying systems.^[26] Initially simple in form, buttresses progressed to clustered arrangements, where multiple flyers supported a single bay, and later to openwork designs that incorporated decorative tracery and pinnacles for both structural reinforcement and aesthetic enhancement.^[27] This progression allowed Gothic builders to achieve soaring verticality, as seen in the double-tiered flying buttresses added to Notre-Dame in the 14th century to counter wall deformation.^[6] Regional variations further refined buttress design, reflecting stylistic priorities. In the French Rayonnant style of the 13th century, buttresses emphasized elegance and luminosity, with slender, integrated forms that complemented vast glazed surfaces, as exemplified by the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.^[28] Conversely, English Perpendicular Gothic from the 14th to 16th centuries featured ornate buttresses adorned with pinnacles and paneling, enhancing visual drama and vertical thrust, notably at King's College Chapel in Cambridge.^[29] The prominence of buttresses waned in the 15th century as Renaissance classicism gained favor, favoring symmetrical facades and internal supports inspired by antiquity, which diminished the need for prominent external bracing.^[30] This shift prioritized proportional harmony over the expressive verticality of Gothic forms, leading to a gradual decline in their elaborate use.^[31]

Types

Solid Buttresses

Solid buttresses are massive projections of masonry bonded directly to the exterior of a wall, typically rectangular or polygonal in form, designed to provide lateral support against outward thrusts. These structures are constructed as integral extensions of the wall, often featuring a battered or sloping profile at the base to enhance stability by widening the foundation and distributing loads more effectively to the ground. In Romanesque architecture, such buttresses were commonly square or rectangular with a low profile, projecting significantly from the wall to accommodate the heavy stone vaults prevalent in the style.^[32] Their primary applications appear in Romanesque and early Gothic buildings, where they resist the horizontal thrust generated by barrel or groin vaults, preventing wall deformation or collapse. For instance, in small French Romanesque churches, solid buttresses stabilize arches and vaults by maintaining equilibrium through compression, ensuring the structure remains within safe stress limits. Beyond ecclesiastical architecture, solid buttresses were widely employed in medieval castle fortifications, where they reinforced defensive walls against siege forces and the weight of battlements, as seen in Norman and Plantagenet-era strongholds.^[33]^[34] The advantages of solid buttresses lie in their straightforward design and robust load-transfer capabilities, relying on the compressive strength of masonry to channel forces vertically without complex engineering. Typical dimensions position the buttress projection (depth perpendicular to the wall) at about one-third the span or three times the wall thickness for optimal support, while the width parallel to the wall often equals the wall thickness itself, allowing seamless integration. This simplicity made them reliable for early medieval builders facing material and technological constraints.^[35] However, their substantial mass posed limitations, including increased visual bulk that cluttered facades and obstructed sightlines around buildings, which prompted refinements in later Gothic designs toward more efficient supports.^[36]

Flying Buttresses

Flying buttresses represent a distinctive innovation in Gothic architecture, consisting of arched or half-arch structures that extend from the upper walls of a cathedral or church, spanning the open space over an aisle or lower roof to connect with an external pier or supporting buttress. This design typically features a curved flyer—often in the form of a quarter-circle or segmental arch—combined with a vertical buttress element, which together channel lateral forces away from the main structure. In many cases, these supports are concealed beneath sloping roofs for protection or adorned with decorative flying pinnacles to add aesthetic weight and visual harmony.^[37]^[27] The primary function of flying buttresses is to transfer the outward thrust generated by the high vaults and roofs across open spaces to more stable external supports, thereby allowing for thinner walls and expansive clerestory windows that flood interiors with light. This engineering solution enabled the dramatic increase in building height characteristic of Gothic design, as the arched form efficiently distributes horizontal forces while minimizing material use. First employed systematically in 12th-century France, such as in the experimental designs at Notre-Dame de Paris around 1163–1220, flying buttresses marked a departure from earlier solid precursors by freeing up wall surfaces for fenestration without compromising stability.^[38]^[27] Variations in flying buttress design evolved to address increasing structural demands, ranging from simple half-arches in early examples like the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis (circa 1140) to more complex compound systems featuring multiple layered or tiered arches for spanning greater distances and countering enhanced loads. These compound forms, seen in later High Gothic structures, incorporated steeper inclinations and offset centers to optimize thrust lines and reduce sliding risks, contributing to overall wind and seismic resistance. Such advancements allowed cathedrals to achieve unprecedented scales, as exemplified by Chartres Cathedral (1194–1220), where double-tiered flying buttresses supported a soaring nave height of approximately 37 meters while framing vast areas of stained glass.^[37]^[38]^[27] As a hallmark of Gothic engineering, flying buttresses not only facilitated technical feats but also symbolized aspirations toward the divine through their elegant expression of verticality and lightness, influencing architectural practices well into the Gothic Revival period.^[27]

Specialized Variants

Clasping buttresses, also known as clamped buttresses, feature an L-shaped plan that envelops the corner of a structure, providing bidirectional support to intersecting walls and enhancing overall stability at junctions.^[39] These projections interlock with the masonry to resist lateral forces, commonly employed in medieval and Renaissance buildings to reinforce corners without protruding excessively.^[8] Diagonal or raking buttresses consist of angled supports positioned at the corners of towers or spires, directing forces diagonally to brace vertical elements against wind and gravitational loads.^[40] In English Gothic architecture, such as at Salisbury Cathedral (constructed 1220–1258), these variants stabilize tall spires by distributing thrust along sloped planes, allowing for slender profiles.^[41] Pier buttresses are robust, isolated vertical supports, often developed into towers, that provide strong lateral reinforcement without direct bonding along the full wall length; they serve as anchors for flying buttresses and enhance overall structural integrity in large-scale Gothic edifices.^[2] Setback buttresses step back in successive tiers, gradually reducing in width upward to distribute weight more evenly and improve stability against overturning; this design is particularly effective in high walls or towers, as seen in some Romanesque fortifications.^[7] Openwork or filigree buttresses emerged in late Gothic designs, incorporating perforated latticework or tracery that combines load-bearing function with intricate ornamentation, reducing visual mass while maintaining structural integrity.^[42] Exemplified in the choir flying buttresses of Amiens Cathedral (c. 1258–1288), these variants feature delicate stone screens that blend engineering precision with aesthetic elaboration, influencing Rayonnant and Flamboyant styles.^[43] Cultural adaptations of buttresses appear in non-European traditions, such as stepped buttresses in Mesoamerican pyramids, where sloping talud panels act as integrated supports to stabilize multi-tiered platforms against seismic activity and soil pressure.^[44] In Edzná's Great Acropolis (c. 600–900 CE), these stepped elements frame stairways and reinforce the pyramid's core.^[45] Similarly, Ottoman architecture employs reinforced pilasters as buttress equivalents, with embedded iron ties enhancing masonry walls in mosques to counter earthquake forces; the Süleymaniye Mosque (1550–1557) exemplifies this system, where pilaster-like projections and buttresses effectively distribute gravity and lateral loads.^[46]

Structural Principles

Load Distribution Mechanics

Buttresses primarily resist two types of forces in architectural structures: the horizontal outward thrust generated by the lateral pressure from arches and vaults, which tends to push walls apart, and the vertical loads from the weight of the superstructure above. This horizontal thrust arises as the curved geometry of vaults distributes the weight unevenly, creating expansive forces that must be counteracted to prevent structural failure. Vertical loads, including self-weight and superimposed elements, are transmitted downward but contribute to the overall stability by adding compressive forces. In their load distribution mechanics, buttresses function by redirecting these lateral forces into primarily compressive stresses that are safely transferred to the foundation and ground. This conversion occurs through the buttress's mass and geometry, which absorb the horizontal component and channel it vertically, ensuring the structure remains in compression—a material state masonry can withstand effectively. The process relies on principles of equilibrium, where the buttress exerts an equal and opposite reaction force against the wall's thrust, in accordance with Newton's third law, thereby maintaining static balance within the system. Thrust line analysis, a graphical method, illustrates this by tracing the path of resultant forces through the structure, confirming that loads stay within the buttress's cross-section to avoid tension.^[47] A simple approximation for the horizontal thrust force T produced by a vault can be expressed as

T \approx \frac{W l}{8 h},

where W is the total weight of the vault, h is the rise (height from springing to crown), and l is the span of the vault.^[48] This equation provides a conceptual estimate of the lateral force magnitude, highlighting how greater span or weight increases the demand on the buttress, while a greater rise reduces it; it assumes a symmetric, uniformly loaded parabolic barrel vault for basic analysis. For overall stability, buttresses depend on friction at their base to resist sliding under horizontal loads and on shear resistance within the material to prevent overturning or internal failure. These factors ensure the transferred compressive forces do not exceed the ground's bearing capacity or induce unintended rotations, with the buttress's width and foundation depth calibrated to distribute loads evenly.

Design Considerations

In buttress design, sizing is a critical factor determined by the structural loads and the dimensions of the supported wall. Traditional guidelines in Gothic and masonry architecture often recommend a buttress width of approximately one-fourth to one-third of the supported wall's height or the span it reinforces, ensuring adequate resistance to lateral thrusts without excessive material use.^[49] This proportion derives from geometric rules, such as Blondel's rule, which divides the arch span into three parts to set the buttress depth, promoting stability while optimizing resource allocation. Additionally, buttresses are typically designed to match the full height of the wall they support, providing uniform vertical alignment and preventing differential settlement or uneven load distribution.^[2] Placement strategies emphasize strategic positioning to align with the building's internal force paths. Buttresses are commonly staggered along exterior walls at intervals corresponding to vault bays, where outward thrusts from arches and vaults are most pronounced, thereby channeling forces directly into the ground.^[50] Alignment with internal rib vaults further enhances efficiency, as this configuration allows buttresses to intercept and redirect thrusts along consistent structural lines, minimizing stress concentrations in the masonry.^[37] Aesthetic integration requires balancing functional necessities with visual harmony in the overall architectural composition. Designers often conceal buttresses under roof slopes or integrate them seamlessly into wall profiles to reduce visual prominence, preserving the facade's continuity while maintaining support.^[51] Alternatively, buttresses may be embellished with sculpture or pinnacles to transform them into decorative elements, enhancing the structure's artistic expression without compromising their load-bearing role.^[5] Failure risks in buttress design arise from imbalances between overdesign and underdesign. Overdesign results in superfluous material, increasing costs and dead weight that can strain foundations, whereas underdesign leads to inadequate thrust resistance, potentially causing cracks, leaning, or outright collapse. A historical illustration is the 1284 collapse of Beauvais Cathedral's choir vaults, attributed to insufficient buttress support and excessive slenderness in the flying buttress system, which failed to counter the ambitious height-to-width ratios under lateral and vertical loads.^[52]

Materials and Construction

Traditional Materials

In traditional buttress construction, stone served as the primary material due to its exceptional durability and high compressive strength, which enabled it to withstand the substantial lateral forces exerted by vaulted roofs and walls. Limestone and sandstone were particularly favored in medieval and Gothic architecture for their availability, workability, and ability to be quarried in large blocks suitable for load-bearing elements. These stones typically exhibit compressive strengths ranging from 30 to 100 MPa, providing the necessary stability for structures that reached unprecedented heights.^[53] Construction techniques emphasized precision to ensure structural integrity, with ashlar masonry being the dominant method. This involved cutting stones into finely dressed, rectangular blocks that were laid in regular courses with thin mortar joints, often made from lime-based mortars that allowed for slight flexibility while bonding the stones securely. Quarrying occurred near construction sites to minimize transportation costs, followed by on-site carving to achieve precise fits, especially in the Gothic era when intricate shaping was required for flying buttresses and decorative pinnacles. This labor-intensive process relied on skilled masons using chisels, hammers, and templates to align stones without excessive voids, enhancing overall load distribution.^[54]^[55] Secondary materials played crucial supporting roles during and after construction. Timber was essential for temporary centering—wooden frameworks that propped up arches and vaults, including those in buttresses, until the mortar set and the structure could self-support. These scaffolds, often made from oak or pine, were designed to be reusable and dismantled once the masonry achieved stability. For weatherproofing, lead flashings were installed at joints and intersections to seal against moisture infiltration, preventing erosion of the stone over time; lead's malleability and corrosion resistance made it ideal for forming watertight seals around buttress caps and roof abutments.^[56] Regional variations in stone selection reflected local geology and practical needs, influencing buttress design and longevity. In Scotland, granite was preferred for its superior hardness and resistance to weathering, quarried from sites like those near Aberdeen to construct robust buttresses capable of enduring harsh climates. Conversely, in Italy, marble—such as the fine-grained Carrara variety—was chosen for its ease of carving and aesthetic polish, allowing for more ornate detailing in buttresses while still providing adequate compressive strength. These choices optimized both functionality and regional resource utilization in historical architecture.^[57]

Modern Materials and Techniques

In the 20th and 21st centuries, reinforced concrete has become a cornerstone material for buttress construction, particularly in hidden configurations within dams where it supports upstream water barriers and transfers loads efficiently. This material combines concrete's high compressive strength—typically 20-40 MPa—with embedded steel rebar to address tensile stresses, providing ductility and preventing cracking under dynamic loads.^[58]^[59] The rebar, often spaced according to ACI standards, enhances overall stability in buttress dams like flat-slab or multiple-arch types, allowing for thinner profiles compared to unreinforced alternatives.^[59] Steel I-beams and advanced composites, such as carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP), offer lightweight yet high-strength options for buttresses in seismic-prone areas, where they mitigate buckling and improve energy dissipation. CFRP wraps, applied in layers around steel tube supports, increase ductility coefficients beyond 4.5 while confining concrete to prevent local failures in plastic hinge regions.^[60] These materials enable slender designs that resist lateral forces more effectively than traditional stone, reducing material volume without compromising load-bearing capacity. Modern fabrication techniques emphasize precision and efficiency through prefabrication, where components are manufactured off-site using CAD and BIM modeling for accurate 3D simulations and structural analysis. This approach, integrated with tools like Revit and ETABS, optimizes buttress geometry, rebar placement, and load distribution, achieving prefabrication rates up to 40% in concrete elements.^[61] For retrofitting existing structures, injection grouting fills voids and cracks with cementitious slurries, restoring compressive integrity and waterproofing without invasive alterations, as demonstrated in applications to deteriorated concrete supports.^[62] Sustainability drives further innovation, with recycled aggregates—sourced from demolished concrete and limited to 10% of total volume—incorporated into buttress mixes to sequester CO2 and divert waste, while low-carbon cements like Portland-limestone blends reduce emissions by up to 10% through partial limestone substitution. Supplementary materials such as fly ash can cut the carbon footprint by 40% when replacing 50% of Portland cement, ensuring durable performance in structural applications like dams and bridges.^[63] These practices align with life-cycle assessments showing significant environmental benefits without sacrificing strength.^[63]

Notable Examples

European Cathedrals

European cathedrals, particularly those of the Gothic era, exemplify the transformative role of buttresses in architectural innovation, enabling unprecedented heights and expansive interiors filled with light. Flying buttresses, emerging in the 12th century, allowed builders to construct thinner walls pierced by vast windows, redirecting lateral forces from ribbed vaults to external supports and creating ethereal spaces that symbolized divine illumination. This structural advancement shifted cathedrals from the heavy Romanesque style to the luminous Gothic aesthetic, where solid buttresses complemented flying ones to ensure stability amid soaring vaults.^[6]^[64] At Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris, begun in 1163, early flying buttresses marked a pivotal development, supporting the structure's high vaults and enabling the installation of expansive rose windows that flooded the nave with colored light. Constructed initially in the 13th century and modified between 1225 and 1250 to accommodate taller windows and terraces, these buttresses—totaling 28 around the apse and choir—distributed the weight of the stone roof, preventing wall collapse. In the 14th century, architect Jean Ravy reinforced the choir's flying buttresses with spans up to 15 meters, further enhancing stability. Following the 2019 fire, the buttresses remained largely intact and served as critical anchors during the restoration (completed in 2024), where temporary wooden shoring was added to bolster them against potential failure during works. The cathedral reopened to the public on December 7, 2024, after restoration, with the buttresses contributing to the structure's enduring stability.^[65]^[6]^[66] Chartres Cathedral, constructed from 1194, showcases multi-tiered flying buttresses that epitomize High Gothic engineering, rising to 37 meters to support vaults reaching approximately 37 meters in height within the overall structure's 115-meter tower elevation. This three-level system—two initial tiers linked by columns, with a third added later—provided robust counter-thrust for the wide nave, allowing slender walls and minimal interior obstructions. Decorative pinnacles crowned these buttresses, integrating aesthetic elegance with function, as they helped secure the supports while visually harmonizing with the cathedral's sculptural facade. Chartres was among the first to employ a comprehensive flying buttress network, pioneering the balance of height and openness in Gothic design.^[67] Westminster Abbey in London, rebuilt in the 13th century under Henry III from 1245, blends solid and flying buttresses in the English Gothic style, ensuring the nave's stability through a combination of robust pier supports and arched external braces. Solid buttresses, some adorned with 17th-century statues during restorations, anchored the lower walls, while flying buttresses countered the outward thrust of the 31-meter-high ribbed vaults, enabling a long, narrow nave approximately 11 meters wide, with wider transepts extending to about 30 meters. This hybrid approach, influenced by French cathedrals like Reims, allowed for a geometrically proportioned interior with rose windows, adapting continental innovations to England's emphasis on horizontal extension and intricate tracery.^[68] The engineering feats of buttresses in these cathedrals facilitated interior spans and heights of 30 to 50 meters, revolutionizing spatial perception by minimizing solid masonry and maximizing glazed surfaces for natural light. By channeling vault forces externally, flying buttresses permitted open naves up to 15 meters wide between piers, transforming enclosed Romanesque interiors into vast, vertically oriented sanctuaries that evoked heavenly ascent. This not only enhanced structural efficiency but also amplified the spiritual impact through luminous stained-glass narratives, as seen in the unified glow at Chartres and the dramatic vistas at Notre-Dame.^[37]

Non-Ecclesiastical Structures

In medieval castles, thick solid buttresses were employed to reinforce defensive walls, providing structural stability against siege forces and the weight of battlements. The White Tower of the Tower of London, constructed in the late 11th century under William the Conqueror, exemplifies this approach with flat pilaster buttresses integrated into its massive stone walls, enhancing resistance to lateral pressures without compromising the fortress's imposing silhouette.^[69] These early Norman designs prioritized sheer mass over ornate flying forms, marking a utilitarian adaptation of buttressing for military architecture.^[70] Bridges also utilized buttresses, often in the form of abutments and counterforts, to distribute loads from arches and withstand river currents. The Roman Pont du Gard aqueduct bridge, completed around 19 BCE, features robust stone abutments and pier-like buttresses that support its three tiers of arches, spanning the Gardon River while channeling water over 50 kilometers to Nîmes.^[71] Similarly, the medieval London Bridge, rebuilt in stone between 1176 and 1209, incorporated starlings—triangular buttress supports encasing each pier—to protect against erosion and ice floes, enabling the structure to bear heavy traffic and buildings atop its spans for centuries.^[72] Secular Gothic architecture extended buttressing to civic and industrial buildings, blending aesthetic flair with engineering needs. The Bruges Town Hall (Stadhuis), begun in 1376, features a richly decorated late-Gothic facade with tall gables and spires, allowing for structural stability in its administrative role. In 19th-century Britain, industrial textile mills adopted similar techniques to reinforce multi-story walls against machinery vibrations and fire risks.^[73] Beyond Europe, global examples demonstrate buttressing's versatility in stabilizing monumental forms. At Chichén Itzá, the Mayan pyramid known as El Castillo (Temple of Kukulcán), constructed around the 9th century CE, relies on its stepped profile and massive balustrades along the stairways, providing stability against seismic forces through its solid mass and broad base, ensuring longevity in the Yucatán's limestone terrain.^[74] These adaptations highlight buttressing's role in diverse cultural contexts, from defensive fortifications to civic landmarks.

Contemporary Applications

In Architecture

The revival of buttress forms in 20th-century architecture emerged prominently in neo-Gothic skyscrapers, where traditional elements were adapted to modern materials and scales. The Woolworth Building in New York, completed in 1913 and designed by Cass Gilbert, exemplifies this trend through its incorporation of decorative flying buttresses at the tower's upper levels, which evoke medieval Gothic support structures while cladding a robust steel frame. These buttresses, rendered in terracotta and limestone, serve primarily aesthetic purposes, emphasizing verticality and grandeur in a structure that reached 792 feet, the world's tallest building at the time.^[75]^[76] Sustainable architecture in the late 20th and 21st centuries has repurposed buttresses for eco-friendly load-bearing in earth-sheltered homes, enhancing stability against lateral earth pressures while minimizing environmental impact. In bermed or underground designs, such as those using earthbag construction, buttresses—often spaced every 10 feet along straight walls—reinforce concrete or masonry to counter the substantial weight of overlying soil (approximately 300 pounds per square foot for three feet of earth), promoting passive thermal regulation and reduced energy use. These adaptations draw from practical building techniques to create resilient, low-maintenance structures integrated with the landscape.^[77]^[78] Recent research as of 2022 has explored nature-inspired buttress forms to enhance earthquake resistance in masonry structures, demonstrating improved load distribution and stability in experimental models.^[79]

In Civil Engineering

In civil engineering, buttresses are essential structural elements that enhance stability in large-scale infrastructure by transferring lateral loads to the foundation, particularly in dams and bridges where they counteract immense forces from water, wind, or earth pressure. These supports allow for efficient load distribution, reducing the overall material volume compared to solid gravity structures while maintaining integrity under dynamic conditions.^[58] Buttress dams, such as multiple-arch designs, exemplify this application by using inclined buttresses to support curved arches that span valleys and resist hydrostatic pressure. The Daniel-Johnson Dam in Quebec, Canada, completed in 1968, is the world's tallest multiple-arch buttress dam at 214 meters high, featuring 14 concrete buttresses that uphold 13 cylindrical arches across its 1,314-meter length, effectively distributing the reservoir's water load to the bedrock foundation.^[80]^[81] This configuration minimizes concrete usage—requiring about one-third the volume of a conventional gravity dam—while providing superior resistance to overturning and sliding forces.^[58] For seismic resilience in earthquake-prone regions, reinforced concrete buttresses are integrated into foundational systems to dampen vibrations and dissipate energy. Failure analyses of dams, such as the 1959 Malpasset Dam collapse due to foundation uplift and geological weaknesses, highlight the critical need for thorough geotechnical investigations to prevent vulnerabilities in systems relying on strong bedrock anchorage.^[82] The advantages of buttresses in such projects include cost-effective material allocation through targeted mass placement, which optimizes foundation loads and reduces construction expenses relative to monolithic alternatives.^[58] However, such designs require rigorous analysis to ensure stability under dynamic conditions.

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buttresses have openings such as the type of a oor with the port covering of circular arch type; · are scienti c solutions for restorers and architects to ...
[17]
Friday Mosque of Neyriz; one of the earliest in Iran - Tehran Times
Dec 21, 2020 · The sanctuary iwan also dominates the exterior appearance of the mosque with its projecting buttresses. The mosque is made of baked bricks, ...
[18]
[PDF] THE ARCHITECTURE OF ANCIENT EGYPT
This book aims to trace the architectural tradition of ancient Egypt, giving a historical view and noting changes in aesthetic ideals.
[19]
Expedition Magazine | Roman Aqueducts - Penn Museum
The buttress strengthened the wall of the reservoir on top of the tower since here the line of the aqueduct makes a bend of almost 50 degrees. Existing remains ...
[20]
Architectural Importance – Durham World Heritage Site
... buttresses were used to resist the sideways thrust of a vault. Precursors to flying buttresses can be found in Durham Cathedral, though are not easily visible.
[21]
The Structural System | Durham Cathedral | Medieval Architecture
The view is that they acted as proto-flying buttresses reinforcing the upper walls of the building just below the springing point of the high vault. This ...
[22]
[PDF] hagia sophia from the age of justinian - Scholars at Harvard
The essays are organized along themes that include structural precursors; observations of the fabric of the Byzantine Hagia Sophia and related buildings; ...
[23]
Local seismic culture in Iranian vernacular architecture - Built Heritage
Mar 9, 2022 · In Yazd earthen vernacular architecture, masonry buttresses were used to resist out-of-plane movement and overturning of massive, high, and long ...
[24]
(PDF) Typology and Developments in buttresses from the beginning ...
Abstract As a masonry structure, buttresses have the role of controlling the sliding force of the main wall. This architectural element has been used in ...
[25]
Gothic architecture, an introduction - Smarthistory
The Gothic grew out of the Romanesque architectural style, when both prosperity and relative peace allowed for several centuries of cultural development and ...
[26]
[PDF] Flying Buttresses and the Artistic Expression of Vertical Ambition in ...
Aug 1, 2024 · Abstract. This paper explores the pivotal role of flying buttresses in Gothic church architecture, emphasizing their.Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[27]
English Gothic Architecture | Phases, Style & Examples - Study.com
The final stage of English Gothic Architecture is referred to as the English Perpendicular Gothic style. ... Flowing flying buttresses on exterior walls helped ...
[28]
A brief history of Gothic Architecture - ICON Magazine
Apr 29, 2020 · Gothic architecture began to decline as Renaissance architecture began to rise in popularity in Italy, France and around Europe.
[29]
The Difference between Renaissance V/s Gothic Architecture
Flying buttresses of the Gothic style were replaced by the piers in the Renaissance style. Both the styles however incorporated an ample number of windows ...
[30]
Buttress - Ancient and medieval architecture
The buttress is to reinforce the wall and move the weight of the building vault to the ground. Viewed from the side, it extends stepped or tilted.
[31]
[PDF] Equilibrium systems - DSpace@MIT
Gothic quadripartite vault and Romanesque groin vault ... for a solid buttress (d). Page 29. 29. Equilibrium ... [F] Romanesque Architecture of the Bourbonnais, ...
[32]
Buttress - Castles
The purpose of the Buttress was to make a castle wall stronger and defensible by reinforcing with a buttress. The Introduction of the Buttress The buttress was ...
[33]
(PDF) Geometry and equilibrium: The gothic theory of structural design
Geometry and equilibrium: The gothic theory of structural design. January 2006; The Structural Engineer 84(2). Authors: Santiago Huerta at Universidad ...
[34]
[PDF] analysis of architectural geometries affecting stress ... - K-REx
Modifying the solid buttress with a void that creates a shape of an arch enables the structure to reach new heights while allowing light in interior spaces ...
[35]
[PDF] Structure and Form of Early Gothic Flying Buttresses - Faculty
Early Gothic flying buttresses are a key element of Gothic architecture, with structural function explored, and formal characteristics like length and ...
[36]
[PDF] Examining the Impact of Flying Buttresses and Other Innovative ...
The advent of the flying buttress was a fundamental mechanism in early French gothic architecture which subsequently facilitated additional structural ...
[37]
Clasping buttress | architecture - Britannica
buttress, in architecture, exterior support, usually of masonry, projecting from the face of a wall and serving either to strengthen it or to resist the side ...
[38]
Diagonal buttress | architecture - Britannica
Diagonal buttresses are a type of corner buttress that support intersecting walls, along with angle, clasping, and setback types.
[39]
Salisbury Cathedral and Its Diversity of Flying Buttresses
Feb 12, 2012 · The flying buttresses of Salisbury Cathedral are unique in their number of diverse types and in the irregular layout of these types in the Cathedral plan.Missing: diagonal | Show results with:diagonal
[40]
Amiens cathedral (article) | Gothic - Khan Academy
... openwork flying buttresses in the choir. Left: nave flying buttresses; right: choir flying buttresses, Amiens Cathedral, begun 1220. Why did Renaud do this? Art ...
[41]
Amiens Cathedral - Smarthistory
Amiens Cathedral is not only one of the most important examples of Gothic architecture from the medieval period, it is an experiential work of art signed by its ...
[42]
La Joya Pyramid, Central Veracruz, Mexico: Classic Period Earthen ...
La Joya is a major site built of stamped earth, dating mainly from the first millennium AD. It was the capital of a political entity of the so-called Central ...
[43]
Edzná Part 3 of 8: Pyramids and temples of the Great Acropolis
Feb 3, 2020 · There is a similar buttress on the right side of the stairs. These Puuc/Chontal features were added during the Terminal Classic period (900-1100 ...
[44]
Evaluation of the Buttress System of a Great Ottoman Mosque ...
The study demonstrated that the buttress system of the Süleymaniye Mosque is highly effective against gravity loads and transverse seismic forces.
[45]
Physical Demonstration of Flying Buttresses in Gothic Cathedrals
The three main structural characteristics of gothic cathedrals are: pointed arches, flying buttresses, and ribbed vault ceilings. The ribs of the ceiling ...
[46]
[PDF] TUTORIAL 1: FLYING BUTTRESS - MIT
The construction for the thrust line is using graphic statics. For an introduction to Graphic Statics, we refer to the book “Shaping. Structures” by Allen & ...
[47]
Geometric Proportioning Strategies in Gothic Architectural Design
Jun 20, 2014 · ... width introducing imprecision into the geometries. The goal in ... building centerline and the buttress axis measured at ground level.
[48]
Systematic calculation of flying buttress parameters by means of ...
Huerta. Geometry and equilibrium: the gothic theory of structural design. Struct. Eng., 84 (2) (2006), pp. 23-28. View in Scopus Google Scholar. [2]. R. Willis.Original Article · 3. Methods · 3.2. Geometric Regression<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
Flying Buttresses and the Artistic Expression of Vertical Ambition in ...
Aug 2, 2024 · This paper explores the pivotal role of flying buttresses in Gothic church architecture, emphasizing their structural innovation and symbolic significance.
[50]
Beauvais Cathedral: The Ambition, Collapse and Legacy of Gothic ...
Huerta Fernández, S. Geometry and equilibrium: The gothic theory of structural design. ... Available online: https://oa.upm.es/701/1/Huerta_Art_001.pdf (accessed ...
[51]
An empirical model for compressive strength of the limestone ...
Oct 20, 2020 · This experimental study aims to contribute to the knowledge of the mechanical behaviour of limestone masonry.Missing: architecture | Show results with:architecture
[52]
A Return to the Source: Gothic Material and Meaning | Article Archive
Limestone ashlars joined with hydraulic lime mortar make up the faces of the walls and external buttress piers while their cores are filled with rubble and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[53]
Ashlar: Architectural Stonemasonry Explained
Jun 26, 2024 · Ashlar is a term used in architectural stonemasonry to describe finely dressed stone blocks, typically cuboid, that are arranged in regular patterns to create ...
[54]
Flying buttress - Wikipedia
The architectural design of Late Gothic buildings featured flying buttresses, some of which included flyers decorated with crockets (hooked decorations) and ...History · Construction · Aesthetic style of the Gothic... · Gallery of flying buttresses
[55]
[PDF] Preservation Brief 4: Roofing for Historic Buildings
But more often, lead was used for protective flashing. Lead, as well as copper, covered roof surfaces where wood, tile, or slate shingles were inappropriate ...
[56]
British Granite - Building Conservation Directory
As one of the most distinctive of building stones, granite has long been prized for its strength and durability as well as its attractive appearance. Few stone ...
[57]
Carrara marble - Wikipedia
Carrara marble, or Luna marble (marmor lunense) to the Romans, is a type of white or blue-grey marble popular for use in sculpture and building decor.Missing: buttresses | Show results with:buttresses
[58]
[PDF] Chapter E-5 - Bureau of Reclamation
Jul 1, 2019 · Buttress dams are typically designed as reinforced concrete structures (although some elements may be mass concrete depending on the thickness) ...
[59]
[PDF] CHAPTER X OTHER DAMS
Chapter X covers an introduction, review procedures, forces, loading combinations, and buttress dams.
[60]
Seismic behavior of carbon fiber reinforced polymer confined ...
Jan 1, 2022 · In this paper, carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) is adopted in the potential plastic hinge region to prevent the local buckling of steel tube.
[61]
[PDF] Research on the Design Method of Prefabricated Concrete Structure ...
This research combines BIM with prefabricated concrete design, using ETABS for analysis, to maximize design efficiency and quality. BIM is used to establish ...
[62]
Injection grouting for retrofitting of buildings and structures
Jan 28, 2022 · Injection grouting is a retrofitting technique of application of new material in cracks/voids/honeycombs in concrete surfaces.Missing: buttresses | Show results with:buttresses
[63]
[PDF] THE TOP 10 WAYS TO REDUCE CONCRETE'S CARBON ... - NRMCA
Consider permitting the use of recycled aggregates made of demolished concrete on the project and possibly require that those recycled aggregates be exposed ...
[64]
[PDF] Gothic Architecture
Italian Romanesque build- ers were proficient in domical vault construction that reduced lateral thrust and thus required less in the way of buttressing.<|control11|><|separator|>
[65]
Architecture of Notre-Dame de Paris
1225-1250: upper part of the façade and the two towers. Expansion of the cathedral with high windows, creation of terraces, modification of flying buttresses, ...<|separator|>
[66]
The 13th century Cathedral… | Cathédrale de Chartres
The flying buttresses allowed for other evolutions. Thus, the large stands above the side aisles disappear completely and are replaced with a triforium – a ...
[67]
Architecture | Westminster Abbey
... Gothic features of pointed arches, ribbed vaulting, rose windows and flying buttresses. The design is based on the continental system of geometrical ...Missing: solid | Show results with:solid
[68]
Norman Tower Keeps - Medieval and Middle Ages History Timelines
Each of the main faces of the castle has a flat buttress running up the centre of the wall for extra strength. The only parts that have decoration are usually ...
[69]
Medieval London: Architecture of the White Tower
The White Tower is the central "hall keep" of the Tower of London complex. ... Buttress of South-East Corner. Screen-Sized image. Courtesy of Kristen ...
[70]
Nîmes (France) - Roman Aqueducts
Mar 25, 2005 · The NW abutment of the Pont du Gard is quite abrupt, the SE abutment makes a smooth junction to the next parts of the aqueduct. On this side ...
[71]
The Perils Of Old London Bridge | Londonist
Mar 10, 2014 · Medieval London Bridge was aligned slightly to the east of the current bridge and the church was right by the northern end; the fire swept ...
[72]
Gothic Town Halls in and around Flanders, 1350-1550 - EMIS
... buttress ridge, and that the lateral sides coincide with the tangents of the ... Stadhuis Brugge, De Gulden Engel. Wommelgem. Bayard, J.-P. 1977. Le ...
[73]
Textile Mills | Historic England
Jan 31, 2024 · The commanding architecture of textile mills has become a key characteristic of industrial towns, imparting a powerful sense of place that in ...
[74]
Archeological Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico - jstor
two massive buttress-like balustrades. The slightly sunken wood lintel ... CHICHEN-ITZA. TCMPLC AND MOUNDS. X. Punt of View of Panorama. Page 183. Page ...
[75]
Skyscraper Gothic: Medieval Style and Modernist Buildings
... flying buttresses to dizzying spires; from the Chicago Tribune Tower to the Woolworth Building in Manhattan. Drawing on archival evidence and period texts ...
[76]
The Development of Modern Architecture: The Skyscraper
Preachers at time called the Woolworth Building the "Cathedral of Commerce ... Note the flying buttresses at the top of the tower. MAS. William Van Alen ...
[77]
Designing the Sydney Opera House - Arup
Danish architect Jørn Utzon won the international design competition for the Sydney Opera House design. In 1957, we were appointed as the project's ...
[78]
Design Considerations for Earthsheltering - Green Home Building
Paul Shippee answers questions about design considerations for earthsheltered building.
[79]
Making Buttresses for Earthbag Buildings
For straight walls, the rule of thumb is that they should be buttressed about every 10 feet so your 26 foot wall would need some buttressing, although this ...Missing: matching | Show results with:matching
[80]
Frank Gehry: The Deconstructivist Architect Who Creates Sculptural ...
Departing from traditional architectural angles, the structure features undulating curves that reflect light and captivate the eye. The juxtaposition of ...Missing: postmodern buttresses supports
[81]
Daniel Johnson Dam (Côte-Nord, 1968) - Structurae
Jul 29, 2014 · Daniel Johnson Dam is a multiple arch and buttress dam, hydroelectric dam / plant and concrete dam that was completed in 1968.
[82]
Buttress Dams - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Daniel Johnson Dam in Québec, Canada, a multiple-arch structure 214 m (703 ft) high, with the highest arch spanning 161.5 m (530 ft). View chapterExplore book.
[83]
The Forth Bridge/General Description of the Structure - Wikisource
Sep 17, 2023 · Each double cantilever consists of a central tower supported on four circular masonry piers—a cantilever projecting from each side of it. The ...
[84]
Forth Bridge (Forth Rail Bridge) - HistoricBridges.org
Their innovative cantilever design allowed spans nearly four times larger than any railway bridge previously built and it remains the world's longest bridge ...Missing: counterforts buttresses
[85]
[PDF] Structural Design of Tokyo Sky Tree - ctbuh
It will be a height of 634m (2,080ft) and the highest tower in the world for broadcasting, when completed in the spring of 2012. This tower is expected to be a ...Missing: buttresses | Show results with:buttresses
[86]
[PDF] Tokyo Sky Tree®
The trusses, called kanae (tripod kettle) trusses, are composed of four main mem- bers and are located in each corner of the equilateral triangle of the tower ...Missing: buttresses | Show results with:buttresses
[87]
Dam Failure Case Study: Malpasset Dam (France, 1959)
Approximately five years later, when the first filling was nearly complete, Malpasset Dam failed on December 2, 1959 after the area experienced several days of ...Missing: buttress | Show results with:buttress