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CD44

CD44 is a multifunctional transmembrane glycoprotein that functions as a major cell surface adhesion receptor, primarily binding hyaluronic acid (HA) in the extracellular matrix to mediate cell adhesion, migration, and signaling processes essential for tissue homeostasis and immune responses.^[1] Encoded by the CD44 gene on human chromosome 11p13, it exists in various molecular weights ranging from 85 to 200 kDa due to alternative splicing and post-translational modifications such as glycosylation.^[2] As a member of the cartilage link protein family, CD44 plays critical roles in physiological processes including leukocyte rolling, wound healing, and lymphocyte activation, while its dysregulation is implicated in pathological conditions like inflammation and cancer.^[3] The structure of CD44 consists of an extracellular N-terminal domain responsible for ligand binding, a single transmembrane helix, and a cytoplasmic C-terminal tail that facilitates intracellular signaling.^[1] The extracellular domain features a link module essential for HA recognition, with specific arginine and tyrosine residues forming the binding site, while glycosylation patterns modulate its affinity for HA and other ligands like osteopontin, collagens, and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs).^[1] Alternative splicing of 10 variable exons (v1–v10, corresponding to exons 6–15) generates the standard isoform (CD44s) and numerous variant isoforms (CD44v), with CD44v often incorporating motifs that enable interactions with growth factors such as epidermal growth factor (EGF) and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF).^[2] Upon ligand binding, CD44 undergoes cleavage by metalloproteases and γ-secretase, releasing a soluble ectodomain and an intracellular domain (CD44-ICD) that translocates to the nucleus to regulate gene expression.^[2] CD44 is ubiquitously expressed in normal tissues, particularly on hematopoietic cells such as B cells, T cells, monocytes, and erythrocytes, as well as in epithelial, mesenchymal, and neural tissues.^[3] The standard isoform predominates in most cell types, while variant isoforms like CD44v6 are more restricted to epithelial cells and activated immune cells.^[4] Physiologically, CD44 orchestrates immune cell trafficking by promoting rolling adhesion on endothelial cells via HA interactions, supports tissue remodeling during development and repair, and acts as a co-receptor for receptor tyrosine kinases to amplify signaling pathways like MAPK/ERK and PI3K/Akt.^[2] In the central nervous system, it contributes to myelination and neuronal plasticity.^[3] In disease contexts, CD44 is prominently overexpressed in various solid tumors and hematological malignancies, serving as a hallmark of cancer stem cells (CSCs) that drive tumor initiation, metastasis, and therapy resistance.^[4] Variant isoforms, particularly CD44v6, enhance epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), invasion, and angiogenesis by activating pathways such as Wnt/β-catenin, NF-κB, and STAT3, while also facilitating interactions with the tumor microenvironment including fibroblasts and immune cells.^[4] Elevated CD44 expression correlates with poor prognosis in cancers like breast, colorectal, and pancreatic, and soluble CD44 fragments in serum can serve as biomarkers for tumor burden.^[2] Beyond oncology, CD44 contributes to chronic inflammatory diseases like rheumatoid arthritis through sustained leukocyte recruitment and to fibrosis via excessive ECM deposition.^[3] Therapeutic targeting of CD44, including monoclonal antibodies and HA-based inhibitors, is under investigation in clinical trials to disrupt these oncogenic functions.^[4]

Gene and Structure

Gene Location and Organization

The CD44 gene is located on the short arm of human chromosome 11 at the p13 band (11p13), spanning approximately 93 kilobases (kb) of genomic DNA from positions 35,139,171 to 35,232,402 on the GRCh38 reference assembly.^[5] The gene consists of 20 exons separated by 19 introns, with the exon-intron boundaries following the GT-AG rule typical of eukaryotic genes. Exons 1 through 5 and 15 through 20 encode the conserved N-terminal and C-terminal domains, respectively, while exons 6 through 14 (v2–v10) are optionally included through alternative splicing and primarily encode the variable region of the extracellular domain.^[5]^[2] The CD44 gene is evolutionarily conserved across mammals, with orthologs identified in species such as Mus musculus, where the Cd44 gene resides on chromosome 2 (positions 102,641,486-102,732,010 on GRCm39). This conservation underscores its fundamental role in cellular processes across vertebrate species, though the precise exon count varies slightly between humans (20 exons) and mice (also 20 exons).^[5]^[6] Regulation of CD44 expression is governed by a proximal promoter region upstream of exon 1, which contains binding sites for transcription factors such as Sp1 and AP-1, along with distal enhancers that modulate basal and inducible expression in a tissue-specific manner. Epigenetic modifications, including histone acetylation at the promoter, further influence transcriptional activity.^[7]^[8]^[9]

Protein Structure and Domains

CD44 is a type I transmembrane glycoprotein with a molecular mass ranging from 85 to 200 kDa, influenced by isoform variations and post-translational modifications. The protein comprises an N-terminal extracellular domain of approximately 400-500 amino acids, a hydrophobic transmembrane helix spanning about 20 residues, and a short cytoplasmic tail of around 72 amino acids.^[2]^[10] The extracellular domain features a membrane-distal globular link module, a lectin-like structure spanning residues 21-163 that adopts a compact fold with two α-helices and two antiparallel β-sheets, forming a binding groove for hyaluronan. This is followed by a flexible stem or stalk region (residues 164- approximately 300), which contains sites for alternative splicing and serves as a spacer between the link module and the plasma membrane.^[11]80151-8) The cytoplasmic domain includes conserved motifs for anchoring to the actin cytoskeleton, particularly a juxtamembrane ezrin-binding site defined by two clusters of basic residues (RK and RRK) in the sequence RKRRK, enabling interactions with ERM (ezrin-radixin-moesin) proteins.^[12]^[13] CD44 undergoes extensive glycosylation, contributing significantly to its size and functional regulation. It possesses five conserved N-linked glycosylation sites in the extracellular domain, primarily within the first 120 residues, with Asn25 and Asn120 playing key roles in modulating ligand accessibility through steric hindrance. O-linked glycosylation occurs at over 100 potential sites, predominantly in the stem region via addition of N-acetylgalactosamine, while sialylation of both N- and O-glycans further influences molecular conformation and binding properties.^[14]^[15] Structural insights into the hyaluronan-binding interface derive from high-resolution crystal structures of the link module, such as PDB entry 4PZ3 (1.08 Å resolution), which depicts the domain's rigid β-sheet core and α-helical flanks enclosing a shallow groove lined by conserved arginine and tyrosine residues essential for ligand recognition. Additional NMR and crystallographic studies, including PDB 2I83, confirm conformational changes upon ligand engagement that stabilize the binding pocket without major domain rearrangements.^[16]^[17] Isoform variations alter domain composition mainly through insertions in the stem region, affecting glycosylation density but preserving the core link module and cytoplasmic motifs.^[2]

Isoforms and Expression

Isoform Variants

CD44 exhibits significant isoform diversity primarily through alternative splicing of its pre-mRNA, which allows for the inclusion or exclusion of variable exons in the extracellular stem region. The CD44 gene, located on chromosome 11p13, consists of 20 exons, with exons 6 through 15 designated as variable exons v1 through v10 that can be spliced in various combinations to produce distinct isoforms.^[18] The standard isoform, CD44s, lacks any variable exons and is encoded by exons 1–5, 16–18, and 20, resulting in a core structure comprising an N-terminal extracellular domain, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic tail, with a molecular mass typically ranging from 37 to 80 kDa due to glycosylation. CD44s is the predominant form generated by constitutive splicing and is widely expressed across vertebrate cells.^[19]^[18] Variant isoforms, collectively termed CD44v, incorporate one or more of the v1–v10 exons into the stem region between the globular extracellular domain and the transmembrane domain, leading to larger proteins with molecular masses from 81 kDa to over 250 kDa, influenced by the number of inserted exons and extensive post-translational modifications such as glycosylation. These insertions create structural diversity, for instance, in CD44v6, where exon v6 is included, altering potential binding sites in the extracellular domain; such variants arise from cell-type-specific alternative splicing patterns.^[19]^[18] In addition to splicing-generated diversity, soluble CD44 isoforms are produced through post-translational ectodomain shedding, where metalloproteases such as ADAM10 and ADAM17 cleave the extracellular domain at specific sites (e.g., near Gly192-Tyr or Ser249-Gln), releasing soluble fragments of approximately 25 kDa while leaving the transmembrane and cytoplasmic portions on the cell surface. These soluble forms can also emerge from alternative splicing that skips the transmembrane exon, yielding non-membrane-bound variants like CD44RC.^[18]^[19] Tissue-specific splicing patterns contribute to isoform variation, with CD44s being the primary form in hematopoietic cells, often as a smaller, less glycosylated version suited to their migratory roles, whereas epithelial cells preferentially generate CD44v isoforms, such as CD44v6 or CD44v8–10 (also known as CD44E), through inclusion of specific variable exons that extend the stem region.^[19]

Tissue and Cellular Distribution

CD44 exhibits a broad and ubiquitous expression pattern across various human and murine tissues, with particularly high levels observed in lymphoid organs such as the spleen and thymus, as well as in epithelial-rich structures like the esophagus, trachea, and intestine.^[20] In these tissues, CD44 is predominantly detected in the standard low-molecular-weight form (approximately 80-90 kDa), which constitutes 80-90% of the total CD44 in lymphoid tissues.^[20] Expression is also prominent in metabolic organs like the liver and pancreas, as well as in the central nervous system, lung, and skin, where it supports baseline cellular functions.^[21] At the cellular level, CD44 is highly expressed on leukocytes, including lymphocytes and monocytes, as well as on epithelial cells, fibroblasts, and activated endothelial cells, reflecting its role in diverse physiological processes.^[2]^[22] During embryonic development, CD44 expression is dynamically regulated, with upregulation occurring as early as the morula stage in chick embryos and intensifying during gastrulation and neural plate folding.^[23] Notably, intense CD44 immunoreactivity is observed in pre-migratory and migratory neural crest cells, particularly in cranial and trunk populations, facilitating their emigration and pathfinding to sites such as optic stalks, otic vesicles, and the gut.^[23] This developmental pattern persists into fetal stages, where CD44 is widely distributed in hematopoietic cells, epidermis, and other mesenchymally derived tissues in both human and mouse models.^[2] By embryonic day 9.5 in mice, CD44 is evident in adult-like patterns across multiple organs.^[21] Isoform-specific distribution further modulates CD44 localization, with the standard isoform (CD44s) predominating in hematopoietic cells, fibroblasts, smooth muscle, and most epithelia, while variant isoforms (CD44v) show more restricted expression in activated macrophages, keratinocytes, and epithelial cells of the stomach, bladder, and uterine cervix.^[21] In basal epithelia of the esophagus and trachea, both CD44s and higher-molecular-weight variants (130-160 kDa) are co-expressed, comprising about 50% of the total CD44 pool.^[20] CD44v isoforms appear earlier in development, detectable from embryonic day 6.5 in the egg cylinder, highlighting their specialized roles in early tissue maturation.^[21] These isoform variants influence overall expression levels by altering splicing patterns in response to developmental cues.^[2] Detection of CD44 distribution in human and mouse models commonly employs immunohistochemistry (IHC) on frozen or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues to visualize protein localization in specific cell types, such as basal epithelia or neural crest derivatives.^[24] Flow cytometry, using monoclonal antibodies like IM7 for mouse or G44-26 for human, quantifies surface expression on live cells, enabling assessment of expression intensity and percentage of positive populations in leukocytes or fibroblasts.^[25] These methods have confirmed consistent patterns across species, with IHC revealing cytoplasmic and membranous staining in epithelial tissues and flow cytometry detecting high surface levels on activated endothelial cells.^[26]

Biological Functions

Cell Adhesion and Migration

CD44 serves as a primary receptor for hyaluronic acid (HA), a key extracellular matrix (ECM) component, through its N-terminal link domain, which enables cells to adhere to and interact with the surrounding matrix. The link domain, comprising approximately 100 amino acids with two α-helices and two antiparallel β-sheets stabilized by disulfide bonds, features a binding site involving hydrophobic residues (e.g., Tyr-12, Tyr-59) and charged amino acids (e.g., Arg-81, Glu-86) that specifically recognize HA oligosaccharides of at least decasaccharide length. This interaction facilitates initial rolling adhesion of leukocytes on endothelial surfaces under shear flow, transitioning to firm adhesion that supports stable cell-matrix contacts essential for motility.^[27] Such HA-CD44 binding is critical for pericellular matrix assembly and turnover, promoting dynamic adhesion during cellular movement in various tissues.^[22] In leukocyte trafficking, CD44-HA interactions mediate extravasation by enabling activated T cells to roll along HA-presenting endothelium before firm arrest, a process enhanced upon T-cell receptor stimulation that increases CD44 avidity for HA through conformational changes. For instance, in murine models of inflammation, superantigen-activated Vβ8+ T cells exhibit sequential rolling in lymph nodes, recirculation in blood, and targeted extravasation into peritoneal sites, which is blocked by CD44 antibodies or hyaluronidase, confirming the HA-CD44 dependency.^[28] This mechanism also contributes to T-cell activation, as HA engagement by CD44 on activated lymphocytes supports their recruitment to inflammatory foci, with CD44 blockade reducing trans-endothelial migration in knockout models.^[29] Neutrophils similarly rely on CD44-HA for firm adhesion in specific vascular beds, such as liver sinusoids, underscoring its broad role in immune cell diapedesis without invoking downstream signaling details.^[29] CD44 participates in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and collective cell migration during tissue repair, where upregulated CD44 expression on epithelial cells facilitates HA-mediated remodeling of the ECM to enable coordinated movement. In wound healing models, such as scratch-induced injury in mesothelial cells, EMT triggered by wounding or growth factors like EGF induces CD44 upregulation alongside increased HA synthesis, promoting the formation of HA-rich filopodia and extracellular vesicles that drive leader cell formation and follower cell traction in migrating sheets. Recent studies (as of 2025) confirm CD44's involvement throughout the phases of skin wound healing, from hemostasis to remodeling.^[30]^[22]^[31] This collective migration is vital for re-epithelialization, with CD44-HA interactions providing adhesive cues that guide keratinocyte fronts across provisional matrices.^[22] The cytoplasmic tail of CD44 briefly anchors to the cytoskeleton via ezrin-radixin-moesin proteins, stabilizing adhesions during these reparative processes.^[22] Experimental evidence from CD44-deficient mice highlights its necessity for efficient wound healing and controlled inflammation. Epidermal-specific CD44 knockout (Cd44Δker) mice exhibit delayed closure of full-thickness excisional wounds, with significantly larger wound areas at day 8 post-injury and impaired keratinocyte migration fronts during re-epithelialization, attributed to reduced HA synthesis and pericellular coat formation by keratinocytes.^[32] These mice also show disrupted inflammatory responses, such as diminished epidermal thickening and proliferation upon mechanical stress like TPA application or hair plucking, evidenced by lower Ki67 staining and altered keratin expression.^[32] In contrast, germline CD44 knockouts display compensatory mechanisms, but tissue-specific ablation confirms CD44's direct role in adhesion-dependent repair and inflammation resolution.^[32]

Signaling Pathways

Upon ligation with hyaluronic acid (HA), CD44 associates with Src family kinases, such as Lck and Fyn, which bind to its cytoplasmic tail and initiate downstream signaling cascades. This interaction promotes the activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway, leading to enhanced cell survival and proliferation by inhibiting apoptosis and upregulating anti-apoptotic proteins. For instance, in activated leukocytes, HA-CD44-mediated PI3K/Akt activation supports survival during immune responses.^[4] CD44 also interacts with Rho GTPases, including RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42, facilitating cytoskeletal remodeling essential for cellular dynamics. HA binding to CD44 recruits guanine nucleotide exchange factors like p115RhoGEF and LARG, activating RhoA and downstream Rho-kinase (ROK), which phosphorylates cytoskeletal components such as myosin light chain and ankyrin to drive actomyosin contractility and membrane protrusion.^[33] Concurrently, CD44 engagement triggers MAPK/ERK pathway activation, often via Rac1 or Cdc42 effectors like Vav2 and IQGAP1, resulting in phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and subsequent changes in gene expression that promote proliferation and invasion. In fibroblasts, this CD44-Rho-MAPK axis supports motility during tissue remodeling.^[34]^[33] CD44 exhibits cross-talk with receptor tyrosine kinases, notably EGFR, amplifying growth factor responses. Physical association between CD44 and EGFR in epithelial cells enhances EGFR phosphorylation and sustains downstream signaling for proliferation and migration.^[35] CD44 variants, such as CD44v6, further potentiate EGFR activation in activated epithelial cells during repair processes.^[34] Negative regulation of CD44 signaling occurs through proteolytic cleavage, which releases inhibitory fragments that attenuate receptor function. Metalloproteinase-mediated ectodomain shedding produces a soluble CD44 fragment that acts as a competitive inhibitor of HA binding to cell-surface CD44, thereby reducing adhesion and signaling initiation.^[4] Additionally, γ-secretase cleavage generates an intracellular domain (CD44-ICD) that translocates to the cytoplasm and competes with full-length CD44 for ankyrin-3 binding, disrupting cytoskeletal anchoring and diminishing HA-mediated signaling in chondrocytes.^[36] This dominant-negative effect limits excessive CD44 activation, maintaining signaling homeostasis.^[36]

Molecular Interactions

Ligand Binding

CD44 primarily binds hyaluronic acid (HA), a major component of the extracellular matrix, through its N-terminal extracellular link module domain.^[1] This interaction is crucial for cell-matrix adhesion and is characterized by a binding site involving conserved hydrophobic and basic residues within the link module that recognize the repeating disaccharide units of HA.^[1] The affinity of this binding is significantly modulated by the molecular weight and chain length of HA, with high-molecular-weight HA (>100 kDa) exhibiting stronger avidity due to multivalent interactions with multiple CD44 molecules, whereas shorter oligosaccharides bind with lower affinity. In addition to HA, CD44 interacts with several other ligands, including osteopontin, serglycin, and chondroitin sulfate. Osteopontin binds to the extracellular domain of CD44, facilitating processes such as cell migration in various tissues.^[34] Serglycin, a proteoglycan rich in chondroitin sulfate chains, associates with CD44 primarily through these glycosaminoglycan moieties, with binding often occurring in the stem/proximal extracellular region, particularly in variant isoforms containing inserted exons.^[37] Chondroitin sulfate itself can directly engage CD44, with variant-specific sites in the stem region enhancing these interactions in certain cellular contexts.^[34] Chondroitin sulfate exerts allosteric regulation on CD44's HA-binding affinity by modifying the sulfation levels on CD44-attached glycosaminoglycans; reduced sulfation, as induced by inflammatory stimuli, increases HA affinity, while enhanced sulfation decreases it, thereby fine-tuning receptor activity.^[38] Biophysical analyses using surface plasmon resonance have quantified these interactions, revealing dissociation constants (Kd) for short-chain HA binding to CD44 in the range of approximately 10-100 μM, reflecting low monovalent affinity under physiological conditions with higher avidity achieved through multivalency.^[39]

Protein-Protein Interactions

CD44 engages in several key protein-protein interactions primarily through its cytoplasmic domain, facilitating connections to the cytoskeleton and other signaling components at the plasma membrane. These interactions are crucial for organizing membrane dynamics and adhesion structures. The cytoplasmic tail of CD44 directly binds to ankyrin and the ezrin-radixin-moesin (ERM) family of proteins, which serve as adaptors linking CD44 to the actin cytoskeleton. This association allows CD44 to anchor the extracellular matrix to the cortical actin network, influencing cell shape and motility. Specifically, ERM proteins bind to a juxtamembrane motif in the CD44 tail, undergoing conformational activation to bridge membrane proteins and F-actin. Ankyrin, on the other hand, interacts via a distinct site, potentially competing with ERM binding to modulate cytoskeletal linkage.^[40]^[41] CD44 also associates with the Merlin tumor suppressor protein (encoded by NF2), binding via its cytoplasmic domain to regulate contact inhibition of cell proliferation. This interaction recruits Merlin to the plasma membrane, where it inhibits pro-growth signaling; disruptions in this binding are implicated in tumorigenesis. Furthermore, the CD44-Merlin complex modulates the Hippo pathway by facilitating the recruitment and activation of LATS kinases, thereby suppressing YAP/TAZ activity and promoting growth arrest under confluent conditions.^[42]^[43] In adhesion complexes, CD44 forms associations with integrins, such as α4β1, enhancing the avidity of cell-matrix interactions. These complexes stabilize focal adhesions and promote cooperative binding to extracellular ligands, as demonstrated in hematopoietic progenitor cells where CD44 potentiates α4β1-mediated adhesion. The transmembrane domain of CD44 contributes to this by enabling lateral clustering with integrin heterodimers in the membrane.^[44]^[45] Co-immunoprecipitation studies have confirmed direct interactions between CD44 and CD74, another transmembrane protein involved in antigen presentation and signaling. This heterotypic association occurs at the cell surface and may influence receptor trafficking and complex stability in immune and cancer cells.^[46]^[47]

Clinical Significance

Role in Inflammation and Immunity

CD44 plays a critical role in facilitating lymphocyte homing to secondary lymphoid organs, particularly through its specialized glycoform known as the hematopoietic cell E- and L-selectin ligand (HCELL). HCELL, a sialylated and fucosylated variant of CD44, binds L-selectin on lymphocytes, enabling their tethering and rolling on high endothelial venules in lymph nodes, which is essential for immune surveillance and response initiation.^[48] In inflammatory contexts, such as synovial inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis, CD44 expression on synovial fibroblasts and immune cells promotes leukocyte recruitment and activation, exacerbating joint pathology by enhancing adhesion to hyaluronic acid (HA)-rich extracellular matrices.^[49] CD44 also mediates macrophage activation during inflammation by binding low-molecular-weight HA fragments, which act as endogenous danger signals released from damaged tissues. These HA fragments ligate CD44 on alveolar and tissue macrophages, triggering intracellular signaling that upregulates chemokine and cytokine production, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), thereby amplifying the inflammatory cascade and promoting immune cell infiltration.^[50] This mechanism underscores CD44's function in host defense, where HA-CD44 interactions alert macrophages to tissue injury and coordinate the resolution or progression of inflammation.^[51] In autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, CD44 contributes to chronic inflammation through upregulated expression on synovial cells and elevated levels of soluble CD44 isoforms in serum, which correlate with disease activity and serve as potential biomarkers for monitoring progression.^[52] Soluble CD44 variant 5 (sCD44v5), in particular, is markedly increased in rheumatoid arthritis patients and associates with erosive disease and high inflammatory markers.^[53] Therapeutic targeting of CD44 has shown promise in preclinical models of inflammation; for instance, administration of anti-CD44 variant 7 (anti-CD44v7) antibodies inhibits T-cell extravasation into the intestinal mucosa, effectively reducing colonic inflammation and curing established experimental colitis in mice.^[54] These findings highlight CD44's pro-inflammatory role in immune cell trafficking and suggest antibody-based interventions as viable strategies for modulating immunity in non-malignant inflammatory disorders.^[55]

CD44 in Cancer Progression

CD44 variant isoforms, particularly CD44v6, are frequently overexpressed in various solid tumors, including breast, colorectal, and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), where this upregulation correlates with advanced disease stages and unfavorable clinical outcomes.^[4] In breast cancer, elevated CD44v6 expression is associated with higher histological grades, lymph node metastasis, and reduced overall survival, as demonstrated in meta-analyses of patient cohorts.^[56] Similarly, in colorectal cancer, CD44v6 overexpression predicts poor prognosis and increased tumor aggressiveness, with higher levels linked to metastatic potential in primary lesions.^[57] In HNSCC, CD44v6 is highly expressed in malignant tissues compared to normal epithelium, serving as a marker of tumor progression and correlating with lymph node involvement and recurrence risk.^[58] These patterns underscore CD44v's role as a prognostic biomarker across these malignancies, with studies consistently showing that patients with high CD44v expression exhibit shorter disease-free survival intervals.^[4] CD44 contributes to cancer metastasis by interacting with hyaluronic acid (HA) in the tumor microenvironment, which facilitates tumor cell invasion, migration, and resistance to anoikis—the programmed cell death triggered by detachment from the extracellular matrix.^[4] In HA-rich stromal environments common to metastatic sites, CD44-HA binding activates downstream signaling that promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), enhancing cellular motility and extracellular matrix remodeling to support intravasation and extravasation. This interaction is particularly critical in breast and colorectal cancers, where CD44 engagement with HA shields detached tumor cells from anoikis, thereby increasing survival during circulation and seeding at distant organs.^[59] Experimental models have shown that disrupting CD44-HA binding reduces metastatic burden, highlighting its mechanistic importance in tumor dissemination.^[4] As a prominent marker of cancer stem cells (CSCs), CD44 identifies subpopulations within tumors that possess self-renewal capacity, multilineage differentiation, and resistance to chemotherapy.^[60] CD44-positive cells in breast, colorectal, and other cancers demonstrate enhanced sphere-forming ability in vitro and tumor-initiating potential in vivo, driven by CD44-mediated activation of pathways like Wnt/β-catenin that sustain stemness. These CD44+ CSCs exhibit upregulated drug efflux pumps and anti-apoptotic proteins, contributing to chemoresistance observed in relapsed tumors; for instance, in gastric and breast cancer models, CD44 knockdown sensitizes cells to agents like doxorubicin and paclitaxel.^[61] Targeting CD44+ CSCs has thus emerged as a strategy to overcome therapy resistance and prevent recurrence.^[60] Therapeutic approaches targeting CD44 in cancer have focused on monoclonal antibodies, with bivatuzumab—an anti-CD44v6 antibody—evaluated in phase I and II clinical trials for HNSCC and other solid tumors. In phase I studies, bivatuzumab mertansine (a conjugate linking the antibody to the cytotoxic agent mertansine) showed preliminary antitumor activity and acceptable pharmacokinetics in patients with advanced HNSCC, achieving partial responses in a subset of cases. However, phase II trials were halted due to severe skin toxicity, attributed to CD44v6 expression on keratinocytes, leading to dose-limiting adverse events despite evidence of tumor targeting.^[62] Ongoing research explores safer alternatives, such as engineered anti-CD44 antibodies or antibody-drug conjugates with refined specificity, to mitigate off-target effects while preserving efficacy against metastatic and CSC populations.^[63]

References

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Two cytoskeletal adaptors, ERM proteins and ankyrin, are known to bind to the CD44 cytoplasmic domain (14). To determine whether these interactions regulate ...Missing: Merlin CD74
[39]
New Bioinformatic Insight into CD44: Classification of Human ... - MDPI
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) experiments revealed that OPN requires immobilization or the addition of heparin for strong ligation to CD44. Heparin binding ...
[40]
The NF2 tumor suppressor gene product, merlin, mediates contact ...
Merlin's growth-inhibitory activity depends on specific interaction with the cytoplasmic tail of CD44, a transmembrane HA receptor.
[41]
High-Molecular-Weight Hyaluronan Is a Hippo Pathway Ligand ...
CD44-Merlin interaction recruits LATS to stimulate Hippo signaling that promotes contact inhibition (Yin et al., 2013). As cell density decreases, PAK (p21- ...
[42]
Article Adhesion of Committed Human Hematopoietic Progenitors to ...
Finally, we show that CD44 and α4β1 may cooperate in establishing progenitor adhesion, because anti-CD44 antibodies potentiated the adhesion-inhibitory effects ...
[43]
CD44-mediated activation of α5β1-integrin, cortactin and paxillin ...
Here we characterize the biochemical and functional importance of a CD44-induced regulation of β1-integrin receptor expression and activation in BLBC cells, ...
[44]
CD74 interacts with CD44 and enhances tumorigenesis and ...
CD74 is thought to promote breast cancer metastasis, but the molecular mechanism remains elusive. In the present study, our results showed that CD74 was more ...
[45]
Measurements of heterotypic associations between cluster of ...
Here we demonstrate clear heterotypic interaction between CD74 and CD44, which might act in synergy and hence contribute to breast cancer progression.Missing: yeast hybrid
[46]
The Biology of CD44 and HCELL in Hematopoiesis: The “Step ... - NIH
Conspicuously, human HSPCs uniquely display a specialized glycoform of CD44 known as Hematopoietic Cell E-/L-selectin Ligand (HCELL), which is the most potent ...
[47]
Crosslinking of CD44 on rheumatoid synovial cells augment ...
These results indicate that the adhesion of RA synovial cells to matrices such as hyaluronic acid through CD44 could activate transcription factor, resulting ...
[48]
Hyaluronan (HA) fragments induce chemokine gene expression in ...
These data support the hypothesis that HA fragments generated during inflammation induce the expression of macrophage genes which are important in the ...
[49]
CD44 and its role in inflammation and inflammatory diseases
These studies also revealed a role for CD44 in limiting the inflammatory response and resolving inflammation in models of lung injury and hepatitis.
[50]
Soluble CD44 isoform variant-5 (sCD44v5): a new serum ... - PubMed
Soluble CD44 isoform variant-5 (sCD44v5): a new serum marker in rheumatoid arthritis? J Rheumatol. 1998 Jul;25(7):1442-4. Authors. G Haberhauer, E M Kittl.
[51]
Is soluble CD44 variant isoform 5 useful as a predicting factor and a ...
Is soluble CD44 variant isoform 5 useful as a predicting factor and a parameter for long term observation in rheumatoid arthritis?
[52]
Short-term treatment with anti-CD44v7 antibody, but not CD44v4 ...
Short-term treatment with anti-CD44v7 antibody blocks T cell extravasation and recruitment to the intestinal mucosa and cures established experimental colitis.
[53]
A crucial role for CD44 in inflammation - PubMed - NIH
The mechanisms of action of CD44-HA interactions in inflammation might provide potential targets for therapy.