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CDMA2000

CDMA2000 is a family of third-generation (3G) mobile telecommunications standards that employ direct-sequence code division multiple access (DS-CDMA) technology, developed by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2) as a backward-compatible evolution of the second-generation IS-95 (cdmaOne) standard.^[1] Approved by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as part of the IMT-2000 specifications under the CDMA Multi-Carrier mode, CDMA2000 supports both voice and data services with enhanced spectral efficiency through features like Walsh codes and multi-carrier modulation.^[1]^[2]^[3] The development of CDMA2000 originated from Qualcomm's pioneering work on CDMA in the 1980s, with the IS-95 standard finalized in 1993 and the first CDMA2000 release (1x) published by 3GPP2 in 1999, achieving commercial deployment in 2000.^[2]^[4] Key variants include CDMA2000 1x, which doubles the voice capacity of cdmaOne to up to 26 erlangs per sector while providing peak data rates of 153.6 kbps in the forward link and 153.6 kbps in the reverse link, and CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (Evolution Data Optimized), a data-centric extension introduced in 2000 that delivers downlink speeds exceeding 2 Mbps in Release 0 and up to 3.1 Mbps in Revision A through adaptive modulation and scheduling.^[2] These standards incorporate advanced techniques such as fast power control, rake receivers for multipath mitigation, and soft handoffs to ensure seamless mobility and compatibility across frequency bands.^[1]^[2] CDMA2000 was deployed by 143 operators across 67 countries by the end of 2005, particularly in the Americas, South Korea, and parts of Asia, powering early mobile internet, multimedia messaging, and video calling services.^[2]^[5] However, as fourth-generation (4G) LTE networks proliferated, most CDMA2000 operators began sunsetting their 3G infrastructure starting in the 2010s; by 2024, major carriers in the United States, such as Verizon, AT&T, and UScellular, had completed shutdowns to reallocate spectrum for LTE and 5G, with global networks largely phased out except in select legacy or niche applications.^[6]^[7] Despite its decline, CDMA2000's innovations in spread-spectrum access and multi-carrier operation influenced subsequent wireless standards and remain relevant in some private or international contexts.^[8]

Introduction

Overview

CDMA2000 is a family of third-generation (3G) mobile telecommunications standards developed by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2), designed as a backward-compatible evolution of the second-generation IS-95 CDMA (cdmaOne) standard. It employs code division multiple access (CDMA) technology to provide enhanced wireless services, including voice telephony, packet data, and multimedia applications, while maintaining full compatibility with existing IS-95 infrastructure to enable seamless handoffs and support for legacy mobile stations.^[1] The primary goals of CDMA2000 align with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) requirements for IMT-2000, aiming to deliver higher data rates—up to 2 Mbit/s in phase 1 for indoor and vehicular environments—along with improved spectral efficiency exceeding 1 bit/s/Hz and support for global roaming through standardized frequency bands and interoperability. This evolution focuses on increasing system capacity and spectrum utilization to accommodate growing demand for mobile data services while ensuring economical deployment in existing CDMA networks.^[9] In terms of basic capabilities, CDMA2000 supports both circuit-switched voice and packet-switched data transmission. The core variant, cdma2000 1x (also known as 1xRTT or Release 0), achieves peak data rates of 153.6 kbps on a 1.25 MHz carrier, enabling simultaneous voice and data. Later enhancements, such as 1xEV-DO (Evolution-Data Optimized) revisions, extend peak rates to 2.4 Mbps in Release 0 and up to 3.1 Mbps in Revision A for high-speed packet data, emphasizing the standard's phased structure for progressive interoperability with 2G CDMA systems.^[10]^[11]

Relation to Predecessor Standards

CDMA2000 was developed as a direct evolution of the IS-95 standard (also known as TIA/EIA-95-B or cdmaOne), ensuring full backward compatibility to facilitate a smooth transition for existing 2G CDMA networks. This compatibility allows cdma2000 infrastructure to support IS-95 mobile stations without interruption, while IS-95 systems can interoperate with cdma2000 networks, enabling dual-mode operation for handsets that switch seamlessly between 2G and 3G modes during handovers. Radio Configurations 1 and 2 in cdma2000 are specifically designed to mirror IS-95's modulation, coding, and spreading schemes for voice services, preserving the ability to handle legacy traffic.^[1]^[12] A key aspect of this evolutionary design is the retention of the 1.2288 Mcps chip rate from IS-95, which avoids the need for fundamental changes in timing or hardware synchronization, while introducing enhanced spreading techniques to support higher data rates. In IS-95, spreading primarily relies on 64-length Walsh codes, but cdma2000 extends this to 128- or 256-length Walsh codes in its 1x mode, effectively doubling the processing gain per channel without altering the chip rate or overall bandwidth. Additionally, cdma2000 incorporates both asynchronous operation—inherited directly from IS-95 for flexible deployment—and synchronous modes between base stations to improve timing accuracy and reduce interference in denser networks. These incremental changes build on IS-95's foundation to achieve 3G performance targets while maintaining interoperability.^[13]^[14] The spectrum allocation further simplifies the upgrade path, as cdma2000 1x employs the same 1.25 MHz carrier bandwidth as IS-95, allowing operators to reuse existing frequency allocations without regulatory hurdles or spectrum refarming. This compatibility extends to transition mechanisms, where base stations can be upgraded through software-defined modifications, such as inserting new channel cards and updating base station controllers (BSCs), often without full hardware replacement. Multi-mode handsets, supporting both IS-95 and cdma2000 protocols, enable users to experience continuous service during the rollout, with handovers managed via standardized layer 3 signaling that detects and switches between modes transparently.^[15]^[16]^[17]

Technical Foundations

Air Interface and Multiple Access

The CDMA2000 air interface is built on Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) technology, where data symbols are spread over a wider bandwidth using pseudo-noise (PN) sequences to achieve processing gain and interference resistance. This DSSS approach enables Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) as the core multiple access scheme, allowing multiple users to share the same frequency band simultaneously by assigning unique orthogonal codes—such as Walsh functions on the forward link and long PN codes on the reverse link—for channelization and user separation. The system maintains backward compatibility with earlier CDMA systems through these foundational techniques, supporting efficient spectrum utilization in a multi-user environment.^[3] The carrier structure in CDMA2000 is designed around a nominal bandwidth of 1.25 MHz for the baseline Spreading Rate 1 configuration, with a chip rate of 1.2288 Mcps to align with legacy systems. Higher-rate variants use Spreading Rate 3 at 3.6864 Mcps and approximately 3.75 MHz bandwidth, but the core 1x mode retains the 1.25 MHz envelope for voice and basic data services. On the forward link (base station to mobile), the carrier includes a continuous pilot channel for timing and phase reference using all-zero Walsh code (W0^64), a synchronization channel at 1200 bps for initial acquisition (W32^64), and traffic channels comprising forward fundamental, supplemental, and dedicated control channels to carry user data and signaling at rates up to 614.4 kbps. The reverse link (mobile to base station) features an access channel for initial communication, a reverse pilot channel for coherent demodulation, and reverse traffic channels supporting variable data rates from 9.6 kbps, with enhanced access channels in later revisions for improved probing. These channel configurations ensure robust signal acquisition and data transmission while minimizing interference through orthogonal spreading.^[3] Power control is a critical component of the CDMA2000 air interface to combat the near-far problem, where stronger signals from nearby users can overpower weaker ones from distant users. The system employs an open-loop mechanism for initial power estimation, where the mobile measures the base station's forward link power and adjusts its reverse link transmission accordingly using the nominal power (NOM_PWR) parameter. This is complemented by closed-loop power control, in which the base station sends power control bits every 1.25 ms (at an 800 Hz update rate) to incrementally adjust the mobile's transmit power in 1 dB steps, either increasing or decreasing based on received signal quality. An outer-loop process further refines this by setting a target frame error rate (FER), typically around 1%, and adjusting thresholds dynamically. These mechanisms operate independently on forward and reverse links, achieving rapid adaptation to fading channels.^[3] Handoff procedures in CDMA2000 are adapted from the IS-95 standard to support seamless mobility while preserving backward compatibility. Soft handoff occurs when the mobile maintains simultaneous connections to multiple base stations on the same frequency, using pilot signal strength measurements (e.g., Ec/Io) against add/drop thresholds (T_ADD, T_DROP) to add or drop links for diversity gain without interruption. Softer handoff is a variant within the same base station but across different sectors, leveraging non-orthogonal codes for intra-cell transitions. Hard handoff is used for inter-frequency or inter-system changes, involving a break-before-make switch based on pilot probes. These procedures rely on the pilot channels for signal quality assessment and are managed through layer 3 signaling to minimize call drops during movement.^[18]^[3]

Modulation, Coding, and Spreading

CDMA2000 employs distinct modulation schemes on its forward and reverse links to balance spectral efficiency and power control. The forward link utilizes quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulation, where each symbol carries two bits of data, enabling robust transmission over the downlink from base station to mobile station.^[10] On the reverse link, binary phase shift keying (BPSK) is applied for lower data rates and certain radio configurations (e.g., RC1-6), while QPSK is used for higher rates (e.g., RC7), allowing adaptive modulation based on channel conditions and power constraints.^[10] Orthogonal Walsh codes facilitate channelization within these modulation schemes, separating multiple data streams or control channels on the same physical channel; these codes have lengths that are powers of 2 (e.g., 64 or 256 chips) to maintain orthogonality and minimize interference.^[10] Spreading in CDMA2000 distinguishes users and provides processing gain against interference using long pseudo-noise (PN) sequences. The forward link applies short PN sequences of length $2^{15} chips generated at the chip rate of 1.2288 Mcps for quadrature scrambling, with sector-specific offsets ensuring unique identification across sectors and cells.^[10] For the reverse link, long PN sequences generated using a 42-bit LFSR are employed for user separation and scrambling, with enhanced access channels in later revisions utilizing these for improved performance.^[10] The spreading factor (SF), which determines the number of chips per data symbol, is defined as SF = 2^{\log_2 N}, where N represents the chips per symbol; this formulation ensures SF aligns with Walsh code lengths as powers of 2 (e.g., SF = 128 or 256), providing a processing gain of SF in decibels.^[10] Channel coding in CDMA2000 enhances error resilience through convolutional and turbo codes, combined with interleaving and puncturing. In Release 0, convolutional coding with a rate of 1/2 and constraint length K=9 is standard, using generator polynomials to encode data bits into redundant symbols for forward error correction on traffic and control channels.^[10] Later releases introduce turbo coding at a rate of 1/5 for higher-rate channels, employing parallel concatenated convolutional codes with iterative decoding to achieve near-Shannon-limit performance.^[10] Block interleaving rearranges encoded symbols (e.g., over 576 symbols) to combat burst errors from fading, while puncturing selectively removes bits to increase the effective code rate (e.g., from 1/2 to 3/4) without altering the underlying encoder structure.^[10] Spectral efficiency in CDMA2000's physical layer can be approximated using the formula \eta = \frac{\text{data rate}}{\text{bandwidth}} \times (1 - \text{overhead}), where overhead accounts for coding, signaling, and guard bands. For a 9.6 kbps voice service over a 1.25 MHz carrier, this yields an efficiency of approximately 7.68 bps/Hz before overhead, dropping to around 5-6 bps/Hz after typical signaling deductions, supporting up to 21-27 users per cell under nominal conditions.^[19]

Core Variants

cdma2000 1x (1xRTT)

cdma2000 1x, commonly referred to as 1xRTT, serves as Phase 1 (Release 0) of the CDMA2000 3G standard, evolving from IS-95 to enable integrated voice and low-speed packet data transmission within a 1.25 MHz bandwidth carrier. This baseline variant maintains backward compatibility with 2G CDMA systems while introducing key enhancements, such as variable-rate vocoders and power control improvements, to support simultaneous circuit-switched voice and data services on a single carrier.^[3] The air interface employs dedicated forward and reverse channels to facilitate these services, with the forward fundamental channel (FCH) primarily handling voice at a fixed rate of 9.6 kbps and low-rate data, while supplemental channels (SCH) are dynamically allocated to boost data throughput up to a peak of 153.6 kbps on the downlink and 153.6 kbps on the uplink under radio configuration 3. This configuration allows for the addition of up to two SCHs per user, enabling concurrent voice and data without requiring separate carriers. The system also accommodates short message service (SMS) via paging or control channels and circuit-switched data connections at rates up to 153.6 kbps.^[3] In terms of performance, cdma2000 1x achieves a spectral efficiency of approximately 0.2–0.4 bits/s/Hz for data, representing a doubling of capacity over IS-95 for voice services while providing modest packet data support suitable for early mobile internet and email applications. However, its circuit-oriented architecture and fixed channel allocations limit efficiency for high-speed packet data, as resources are not optimally shared among bursty traffic, which ultimately drove the creation of specialized packet-optimized extensions like 1xEV-DO.^[20]^[21]

cdma2000 1xEV-DO

cdma2000 1xEV-DO, also known as Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), is a data-centric evolution of the CDMA2000 family, designed to deliver high-speed packet data services over a dedicated 1.25 MHz carrier. It employs a time-division multiple access (TDMA) overlay on the CDMA framework, where the forward link dedicates all available power to a single access terminal during time slots, enabling bursty downlink transmissions without the need for simultaneous voice channels. This approach uses 2048-chip slots subdivided into half-slots and grouped into 16-slot frames, supporting modulation schemes such as QPSK, 8-PSK, and 16-QAM to achieve peak downlink rates of up to 2.4576 Mbps in Revision 0.^[22]^[23] The reverse link in Revision 0 operates at peak rates of 153.6 kbps, focusing on efficient uplink feedback for channel quality and acknowledgments.^[24] At the MAC layer, cdma2000 1xEV-DO introduces scheduling-based resource allocation using a proportional fair algorithm, which maximizes sector throughput by prioritizing access terminals experiencing favorable channel conditions (up-fades) while maintaining fairness for others. This scheduler operates on the forward link by evaluating the ratio of instantaneous channel quality to average throughput, dynamically assigning time slots and data rates via the Data Rate Control (DRC) channel. Revision 0 provides an average user throughput of 300-600 kbps, optimized for asymmetric, downlink-heavy traffic. The system lacks native support for circuit-switched voice, relying instead on concurrent operation with cdma2000 1x for voice services if needed.^[22]^[25]^[26] Subsequent revisions enhance performance and capabilities. Revision A improves downlink peaks to 3.1 Mbps and introduces reverse link enhancements for up to 1.8 Mbps uplink, incorporating hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ), quality of service (QoS) profiles, and multi-flow support to reduce latency for interactive applications. It also enables low-latency modes (as low as 50 ms) suitable for real-time services, though still data-focused. Revision B adds multi-carrier aggregation, combining up to three 1.25 MHz carriers for downlink peaks of 14.7 Mbps and improved uplink symmetry, leveraging higher per-carrier rates of 4.9 Mbps while maintaining backward compatibility.^[27]^[28]^[29] Primarily optimized for internet access and streaming media, cdma2000 1xEV-DO supports applications like web browsing, file downloads, and video streaming by exploiting multi-user diversity in fading channels, delivering efficient packet-switched data without integrated voice capabilities. This design prioritizes bursty, high-throughput scenarios, enabling mobile broadband experiences comparable to early fixed-line alternatives in deployed networks.^[26]^[22]

cdma2000 1xEV-DV

cdma2000 1xEV-DV, part of Release C of the cdma2000 standard developed by 3GPP2, serves as an evolutionary step designed to integrate high-speed packet data services with circuit-switched voice on a single 1.25 MHz carrier, enabling simultaneous support for both without requiring additional spectrum allocation. This variant prioritizes spectrum efficiency by allowing voice and data to share resources dynamically, contrasting with data-only approaches and building on the foundational multiple access scheme of earlier cdma2000 releases.^[30] It achieves peak downlink data rates of 3.1 Mbps while maintaining voice capacity, utilizing adaptive modulation and coding (AMC) schemes such as QPSK, 8-PSK, and 16-QAM to adjust to channel conditions and user requirements.^[31] The channel structure introduces the Forward Packet Data Channel (F-PDCH), a dedicated packet data channel that employs time-division multiplexing (TDM) combined with code-division multiplexing (CDM) to allocate resources efficiently among users.^[32] The F-PDCH supports variable packet sizes (e.g., 408 to 3864 bits) and durations (1.25 to 5 ms), with up to 28 Walsh subchannels per sector for flexibility under varying loads.^[32] Hybrid Automatic Repeat reQuest (H-ARQ) is integrated at the physical layer, enabling fast retransmissions with Chase combining or incremental redundancy across up to four channels, which reduces latency compared to higher-layer protocols in prior systems.^[31] This structure enhances overall efficiency, allowing up to 70% channel loading for mixed voice and data traffic, compared to approximately 40% in cdma2000 1x under similar voice-dominated scenarios, thereby improving sector throughput to around 1 Mbps on average.^[32] Key features include differentiated Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms that prioritize voice traffic through flexible scheduling and resource allocation, ensuring low-latency circuit-switched services coexist with best-effort packet data.^[31] Proportional fair scheduling, adapted from data-centric designs, further optimizes resource distribution among users.^[32] On the uplink, enhancements reuse existing cdma2000 1x channels but introduce higher-order modulation and improved power control, supporting peak rates up to 1.1 Mbps for symmetric data applications.^[33] Despite these advancements, cdma2000 1xEV-DV saw limited commercial deployment, as operators favored the simpler cdma2000 1xEV-DO for dedicated high-speed data due to its easier implementation and faster rollout potential.^[16] The added complexity of integrating voice and data multiplexing, along with the need for software upgrades in existing infrastructure, contributed to its lower adoption, with development efforts largely ceasing by the mid-2000s in favor of data-optimized paths.^[34]

Enhancements and Evolution

cdma2000 1x Advanced

cdma2000 1x Advanced, standardized as Revision E by 3GPP2, serves as an evolutionary enhancement to the baseline cdma2000 1x (1xRTT) standard, primarily aimed at boosting network capacity and coverage for voice and circuit-switched data services in existing 3G CDMA deployments. This upgrade leverages interference mitigation and radio link optimizations to deliver up to four times the voice capacity compared to legacy 1x systems, while also providing approximately three times the data capacity in scenarios where dedicated data overlays like EV-DO are not available. By focusing on incremental improvements, 1x Advanced enables operators to extend the utility of mature infrastructure without major overhauls, supporting higher user densities in 1.25 MHz channels.^[35]^[36] Central to these gains are advanced antenna techniques, including mobile receive diversity (MRD) that employs dual receive antennas at the user equipment to enhance signal reception and double voice capacity independently of other features. Base station beamforming further contributes by focusing transmit power toward specific users, yielding up to a 40% additional capacity increase in multi-user environments. Support for multi-carrier configurations allows aggregation across channels to improve overall throughput, particularly for data services. These elements, combined with forward and reverse link interference cancellation (FLIC and RLIC), quasi-orthogonal loading interference cancellation (QLIC), and enhanced power control mechanisms like early frame termination and smart blanking, optimize resource utilization in dense networks.^[35]^[36] Efficiency enhancements in 1x Advanced emphasize spectral improvements through these interference management tools, enabling up to 70% greater coverage per cell and freeing spectrum for complementary data technologies. The standard ensures full backward compatibility with 1xRTT devices via software and channel card upgrades at base stations, facilitating gradual rollout. Enhanced reverse link performance supports simultaneous voice and data via SVDO (simultaneous voice and data operation), maintaining service continuity in legacy environments while prioritizing voice quality with codecs like EVRC-B. Peak data rates reach 307.2 kbps on both downlink and uplink, representing a doubling over baseline 1x capabilities for circuit-switched services.^[35]^[36]^[37]

Attempted 4G Extensions (UMB)

Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB) represented the 3GPP2 standardization body's effort to evolve CDMA2000 into a 4G technology, utilizing an orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) air interface to support scalable bandwidths from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz. This design aimed to deliver peak downlink data rates of up to 288 Mbps and uplink rates of 75 Mbps in a 20 MHz configuration, enabling high-speed mobile broadband while accommodating diverse spectrum allocations.^[38]^[39] Key features of UMB included support for multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) configurations up to 4x4, which enhanced spectral efficiency and capacity without additional power or bandwidth requirements, alongside space-division multiple access (SDMA) for improved interference management. The architecture was fully IP-based, incorporating scalable flat or hierarchical structures with advanced quality-of-service (QoS) mechanisms to minimize latency and support diverse applications. Additionally, UMB incorporated backward compatibility modes, including provisions for seamless handovers to legacy 3G CDMA2000 networks, ensuring smooth transitions during deployment.^[40]^[41]^[42]^[40] Development of UMB progressed rapidly, with the initial specification approved by 3GPP2 in September 2007 as an OFDMA-based evolution beyond 3G CDMA2000 technologies. However, by November 2008, Qualcomm—the primary sponsor—halted further development and withdrew support, leading to the official cancellation of the standard by 3GPP2. This decision was driven by the growing market dominance of 3GPP's Long-Term Evolution (LTE), which gained broader industry momentum and carrier commitments, such as Verizon's shift to LTE and Sprint's adoption of WiMAX, rendering UMB's more complex ecosystem untenable without widespread adoption.^[38]^[43]^[44] Despite its cancellation, UMB's innovations influenced subsequent enhancements to the CDMA2000 family, particularly incorporating OFDMA elements and advanced antenna techniques into EV-DO Revision C (also known as DO Advanced), which achieved multi-carrier operation for improved efficiency. However, UMB itself saw no commercial deployments, contributing to the broader decline of 3GPP2 efforts in favor of unified global 4G standards like LTE.^[45]^[46]

Network Implementation

Radio Access Network Components

The Radio Access Network (RAN) in CDMA2000 systems comprises key components that facilitate wireless communication between mobile stations and the core network, leveraging code-division multiple access principles for efficient spectrum utilization. The Base Transceiver Station (BTS) serves as the primary radio interface element, responsible for handling radio frequency (RF) transmission and reception, including modulation, demodulation, and amplification of signals over the air interface. It also implements power control mechanisms to maintain signal quality by adjusting transmit power in real-time, mitigating the near-far effect inherent in CDMA environments. Additionally, BTS supports sectorization, typically using three 120-degree directional antennas per cell to divide coverage into sectors, enhancing capacity and reducing interference within each sector.^[47] The Base Station Controller (BSC) oversees multiple BTS units, providing centralized control functions such as resource allocation, handoff management between sectors or cells, and load balancing to optimize network performance. It interfaces with the BTS via vendor-specific interfaces, often analogous to the Abis interface, for voice and signaling, and handles soft handoffs to ensure seamless mobility. For packet data services, the BSC interfaces with the Packet Control Function (PCF), which may be co-located within the BSC, to route IP packets and manage radio-packet sessions.^[48] CDMA2000 radio networks employ a frequency reuse factor of 1, allowing all cells to operate on the same 1.25 MHz bandwidth, which maximizes spectral efficiency but requires robust interference management through orthogonal spreading codes, precise power control, and soft handoff procedures to suppress inter-cell and intra-cell interference. The architecture supports both macro cells for wide-area coverage and micro cells for high-density urban deployments, enabling hierarchical cell structures to accommodate varying traffic loads and improve overall capacity.^[49]^[50]^[51] Security in the CDMA2000 RAN incorporates authentication and encryption features adapted from IS-95 standards, utilizing the Cellular Authentication and Voice Encryption (CAVE) algorithm to generate shared secrets for challenge-response authentication and voice/data encryption, ensuring protection against unauthorized access over the radio link.^[52]

Core Network Architecture

The core network architecture of CDMA2000 networks adopts a hybrid model that separates circuit-switched and packet-switched domains to support both voice and data services efficiently. The circuit-switched domain is based on the evolved IS-41 (ANSI-41) standard, which provides backward compatibility with 2G CDMA (IS-95) systems and handles traditional telephony services. Key components include the Mobile Switching Center (MSC), which manages call routing, connection setup, and supplementary services such as call forwarding and conferencing, and the Visitor Location Register (VLR), a dynamic database that stores temporary subscriber information for roaming users within the MSC's jurisdiction. The Home Location Register (HLR) and Authentication Center (AuC) complement these by maintaining permanent subscriber profiles and handling authentication across networks. This IS-41-based structure relies on SS7 signaling for inter-MSC communication and ensures seamless interoperability with 2G networks through Gateway MSCs (G-MSCs), which facilitate handoffs and location updates between generations.^[53]^[54] In contrast, the packet-switched domain employs an IP-based architecture centered on the Packet Data Serving Node (PDSN), which serves as the gateway between the radio access network and external IP networks. The PDSN terminates Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) sessions from mobile stations, assigns IP addresses (supporting both IPv4 and IPv6), and enables data connectivity via Simple IP for basic sessions or Mobile IP for seamless mobility with persistent addressing. It interfaces with the Packet Control Function (PCF) in the access network over the R-P interface (using A10 for user data and A11 for signaling), merging radio-specific parameters into airlink records for accounting and billing purposes. Authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) functions are integrated via RADIUS protocols, allowing the PDSN to interact with external servers for user validation.^[55]^[56] Mobility management in the core network bridges the hybrid domains, with IS-41 handling circuit-switched handoffs (intra-MSC or inter-MSC) and the PDSN supporting packet-switched mobility through PCF-to-PCF and PDSN-to-PDSN handoffs via the P-P interface, often using GRE tunnels for fast packet forwarding to minimize latency. For CDMA2000 1xEV-DO, Quality of Service (QoS) is enforced at the PDSN using mechanisms like RSVP (Resource Reservation Protocol) to reserve bandwidth and prioritize traffic, ensuring differentiated treatment for real-time applications such as VoIP alongside best-effort data. This supports concurrent voice and packet services in hybrid mode, where circuit-switched voice coexists with IP data flows.^[55] Later evolutions, particularly in CDMA2000 1xEV-DO, introduce partial all-IP architectures that bypass the traditional IS-41 core for data services, relying instead on IP transport between the Access Network (AN), PDSN, and AAA server via interfaces like A12/A13 for authentication and handoff signaling. However, SS7 signaling is retained in the circuit domain for voice interoperability, preventing a full transition to all-IP until subsequent standards like UMB (which was ultimately abandoned). This hybrid persistence allows operators to upgrade incrementally while maintaining legacy support.^[23]^[57]

Deployment and Usage

Global Operators and Coverage

CDMA2000 achieved its most extensive adoption in North America, where major operators like Verizon Wireless and Sprint Corporation historically deployed nationwide networks. Verizon launched its CDMA2000 1X network in 2002, achieving 100% coverage across its service area by mid-2003, while Sprint followed with similar deployments to support voice and early data services.^[58] In Asia, the technology saw rapid uptake, with SK Telecom pioneering the world's first commercial CDMA2000 1X service in South Korea in October 2000, followed by expansions by China Unicom and China Telecom, the latter becoming the largest CDMA2000 operator globally by subscriber count.^[4]^[58] Latin American deployment remained limited, with early adopters like Telesp Celular in Brazil launching 3G CDMA2000 services in 2002, though overall regional penetration lagged behind North America and Asia due to preferences for other standards.^[58]^[59] At its peak around 2010, CDMA2000 served over 577 million subscribers worldwide, reflecting robust growth in voice and data usage across deployed regions.^[4] Verizon's EV-DO Revision A network, an advanced variant, covered approximately 267 million population equivalents (pops) by 2008, enabling high-speed mobile broadband in urban and suburban areas.^[60] CDMA2000 networks primarily operated in the 800 MHz and 1.9 GHz bands for cellular and personal communications services, respectively, with international variants utilizing the 450 MHz band in regions like parts of Europe and Asia to leverage existing infrastructure.^[61] A notable case study is Sprint's network evolution, where post-4G LTE rollout plans included shutting down CDMA2000 infrastructure starting in 2022 under T-Mobile's ownership, yet portions were retained to support legacy Internet of Things (IoT) devices reliant on 1xRTT for low-bandwidth applications like metering and tracking.^[62]^[63]

Current Status and Phase-Out

By 2025, CDMA2000 networks have largely declined in prominence due to the widespread adoption of 4G LTE and 5G technologies, with most major operators completing shutdowns between 2020 and 2022 to reallocate resources. In the United States, Verizon decommissioned its 3G CDMA network by December 31, 2022, following the earlier shutdown of its 2G CDMA service at the end of 2020. AT&T completed its 3G network phase-out by February 2022, including the prior decommissioning of its CDMA-based Cricket service in September 2015. T-Mobile finalized the shutdown of Sprint's 3G CDMA network by March 31, 2022, as part of post-merger integration. Globally, numerous operators have followed suit, with shutdowns accelerating in 2025; for instance, Inland Cellular announced the sunsetting of its legacy CDMA network in September 2025, while countries like Myanmar and Uzbekistan have planned CDMA2000 phase-outs during 2025. Despite these closures, CDMA2000 retains niche applications in 2025, primarily for legacy machine-to-machine (M2M) and Internet of Things (IoT) deployments in rural or remote areas where its interference resistance and wide coverage provide stable, low-power connectivity. Active networks persist in limited capacities, such as MPT in Myanmar and Perfectum Mobile in Uzbekistan for basic services and legacy devices, though transitions to newer technologies are ongoing. In the U.S. and Canada, cdma2000 continues to support monitoring of oil pipelines and wells in sparsely populated regions, enabling low-speed data transmission for industrial sensors. Some carriers maintain limited 1xRTT support for emergency services, such as E911 location reporting on feature phones, to ensure compliance with regulatory requirements for legacy devices. Feature phones relying on CDMA2000 voice services persist in developing markets or for basic connectivity needs, though their usage is minimal. Spectrum refarming has been a key driver of CDMA2000's decline, with operators reallocating frequencies previously used for 3G CDMA to enhance LTE and 5G capacity. For example, in the MENA region, GCC countries have phased out 3G networks, including CDMA2000 variants, to refarm low- and mid-band spectrum for 5G deployments, improving overall network efficiency. By 2025, CDMA2000 represents a negligible portion of global mobile traffic, as advanced networks handle the vast majority of data and voice services. This reallocation supports the growing demand for high-speed connectivity, with refarmed bands enabling dynamic spectrum sharing between 4G and 5G. Looking ahead, CDMA2000 is projected for full global phase-out by 2030, as operators prioritize 5G expansions and sunset remaining legacy infrastructure through software upgrades that facilitate 4G fallback for voice and basic data. While certain remote IoT applications may extend its lifespan in isolated niches, the technology's relevance continues to diminish amid the transition to next-generation networks.

Development History

Standardization Process

The 3GPP2 (Third Generation Partnership Project 2) was established in December 1998 as a collaborative standardization body focused on evolving CDMA-based technologies toward third-generation (3G) mobile systems, acting as a counterpart to the 3GPP for GSM/UMTS paths.^[64] It was formed by four initial organizational partners: the Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB) and Telecommunication Technology Committee (TTC) from Japan, the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) from the United States, and the Telecommunications Technology Association (TTA) from South Korea.^[12] The China Communications Standards Association (CCSA) later joined as a fifth partner in 2006, broadening regional representation. This structure enabled coordinated development of specifications to support global CDMA2000 deployment while ensuring compatibility with existing cdmaOne (IS-95) networks. The 3GPP2 standardization process is organized into three sequential stages to produce comprehensive, implementable specifications. Stage 1 defines high-level service requirements from a user perspective, often captured in documents like the System Requirements Document (SRD).^[12] Stage 2 outlines the overall system architecture, including functional entities and interfaces. Stage 3 details the protocol specifications, including signaling procedures and performance parameters. These stages are applied iteratively across releases, beginning with Release 0 (R0) for baseline cdma2000 functionality in 1999, followed by Release A (RA) in 2000 for enhanced data capabilities, Release B (RB) in 2001 for higher peak rates, and Release C (RC) in 2002 for advanced multimedia support.^[65] Working groups under Technical Specification Groups (TSGs)—such as TSG-A for access network interfaces, TSG-C for core networks, and TSG-S for services—collaborate to refine these elements, with input from industry stakeholders ensuring practical viability. Central to CDMA2000 standards are key documents like the IS-2000 series (TIA/EIA-2000), which specify the multicarrier air interface for cdma2000 1x, supporting simultaneous voice and circuit-switched data up to 153.6 kbps.^[1] For packet data evolution, IS-856 defines the High Rate Packet Data (HRPD) air interface for EV-DO, enabling peak downloads up to 2.4 Mbps in Release 0.^[3] These specifications were aligned with the ITU's IMT-2000 framework, with cdma2000 1x approved as an IMT-2000 radio transmission technology (RTT) in May 2001, fulfilling global 3G interoperability and spectrum efficiency criteria.^[66] Interoperability is a core focus, achieved through conformance profiles that outline mandatory features and optional capabilities for equipment compliance. 3GPP2 develops test specifications, including radio conformance tests (e.g., C.S0055 series) and protocol conformance tests, to verify multi-vendor equipment against release-specific baselines.^[67] These profiles facilitate plug-and-play integration in networks, with events like multi-vendor interoperability demonstrations validating end-to-end performance across base stations, mobile devices, and core elements from different manufacturers.^[68]

Key Milestones and Timeline

The foundations of CDMA2000 were laid in the 1990s with the development of the IS-95 standard, initially approved by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) in July 1993 as a digital cellular technology based on code division multiple access (CDMA).^[69] This was followed by the publication of IS-95A in May 1995, which enabled the first commercial deployments of CDMA-based systems and served as the core foundation for subsequent evolutions.^[70] In June 1998, the cdma2000 technology was formally proposed to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) by the U.S. TIA as a 3G solution under the IMT-2000 framework, marking a pivotal step toward global standardization.^[71] CDMA2000 entered commercial service in 2000, with SK Telecom launching the world's first 1xRTT network on October 1, delivering enhanced voice capacity and initial data speeds up to 153.6 kbps.^[72] This was quickly followed by advancements in data capabilities, including the first commercial 1xEV-DO deployment by SK Telecom in January 2002, which introduced packet data rates up to 2.4 Mbps on the forward link.^[4] In the mid-2000s, further refinements enhanced performance and efficiency. CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Revision A was commercially launched in October 2006 by Sprint Nextel in the United States, offering improved upload speeds up to 1.8 Mbps and better support for multimedia applications.^[4] CDMA2000 1x Advanced (Revision E) was introduced in 2007, providing up to four times the voice capacity of prior 1x systems through advanced interference management techniques.^[73] Concurrently, in 2007, 3GPP2 proposed Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB) as a 4G evolution of CDMA2000 using OFDMA, but the project was canceled in November 2008 amid a strategic shift toward LTE.^[74] During the 2010s, CDMA2000 reached its peak deployment with over 522 million subscribers worldwide by the end of 2009, particularly in regions like North America, Asia, and Latin America.^[75] However, adoption began to decline as operators migrated to LTE for higher speeds and broader ecosystem support. The last major update, 1xEV-DO Revision C, was published by 3GPP2 in 2007, enabling multicarrier operation and improved coexistence with LTE networks to facilitate hybrid deployments during the transition period.^[74]^[76] 3GPP2's active standardization efforts concluded around 2013, after which the organization became dormant, with its website taken offline in 2023 as CDMA2000 networks were largely phased out globally. By the mid-2010s, phase-outs accelerated, with many networks shut down or refarmed for 4G/5G use.

Intellectual Property

Patent Portfolio

Qualcomm holds a dominant position in the intellectual property landscape for CDMA2000, owning a substantial portfolio of over 2,300 issued and pending U.S. patents related to CDMA technologies as of the early 2000s, many of which cover core aspects such as spreading codes, power control, and handoff procedures essential to the standard's operation.^[77] These patents form the foundation of CDMA2000's direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) modulation and multiple access techniques, enabling efficient spectrum sharing among users. A seminal example is U.S. Patent 5,103,459, issued to Qualcomm in 1992, which describes a system and method for generating signal waveforms in a CDMA cellular telephone system using PN sequences for spreading and despreading, directly underpinning the fundamental signal processing in CDMA2000.^[78]^[79] Essential intellectual property rights (IPR) for CDMA2000 have been declared to standards bodies including 3GPP2 and ETSI, with Qualcomm declaring numerous patents necessary for compliance, particularly those related to DSSS for wideband transmission and turbo coding for forward error correction to achieve high data rates and reliability.^[80] Turbo coding, adopted in CDMA2000 for enhanced performance in fading channels, draws from foundational patents licensed from France Telecom, integrated into Qualcomm's implementations for 3G chipsets.^[81] As of early 2004, a total of 924 patents and patent applications had been declared essential to CDMA2000 by various contributors to 3GPP2.^[80] Contributions to the patent pool extend beyond Qualcomm, with companies like Nokia and Motorola declaring essential patents on channel coding techniques that support CDMA2000's multiplexing and error correction schemes, forming a collective pool where the top four holders—Qualcomm, Nokia, Motorola, and NTT DoCoMo—dominate, and twelve companies account for over 90% of declarations, with Qualcomm holding the majority.^[80] These shared IPR ensure interoperability while addressing specific enhancements like convolutional and turbo codes for varying data rates. The 3GPP2 IPR policy requires members to declare potentially essential patents and commit to licensing them on reasonable and non-discriminatory (RAND) terms to promote widespread adoption of the standard.

Licensing Framework

Qualcomm has served as the primary licensor for CDMA2000 technology, providing a one-stop licensing solution through its extensive patent portfolio that covers essential aspects of the standard, enabling manufacturers to obtain comprehensive rights without negotiating with multiple patent holders.^[82] In the 2000s, Qualcomm's royalty structure typically required payments of approximately 3-5% of the wholesale price of handsets incorporating CDMA2000, reflecting the company's dominant position in essential patents for the technology.^[83]^[84] Significant licensing disputes in the 2000s involved major players challenging Qualcomm's terms, leading to high-profile lawsuits and settlements that helped establish global royalty benchmarks. For instance, Qualcomm and Nokia engaged in protracted litigation starting in 2006 over patent royalties for CDMA technologies, culminating in a 2008 settlement that included a 15-year cross-license agreement with Nokia paying ongoing royalties to Qualcomm, thereby resolving all pending disputes and influencing industry-wide rate expectations.^[85]^[86] Similarly, Qualcomm's conflict with Broadcom, centered on patents related to CDMA EV-DO enhancements, ended in a 2009 settlement where Qualcomm agreed to pay Broadcom $891 million over four years in exchange for a multi-year patent cross-license, further clarifying licensing boundaries for broadband extensions in CDMA2000.^[87]^[88] Post-2010, Qualcomm's licensing model evolved toward per-unit fees with price caps on the royalty base to address criticisms of percentage-based structures inflating costs for premium devices, a shift prompted by regulatory scrutiny and settlements like the 2019 Apple agreement, which included a multi-year licensing deal with undisclosed terms influenced by prior proposals capping the base at around $400 for handsets.^[89] EV-DO, as a key evolution of CDMA2000, has been incorporated into modern patent pools such as Avanci's IoT program, which offers one-stop licensing for 2G, 3G, and 4G cellular technologies used in connected devices like EV chargers, simplifying compliance for low-volume IoT implementations.^[90] As of November 2025, with nearly all CDMA2000 networks decommissioned globally, CDMA2000 licensing persists primarily for legacy devices in regions with ongoing support, though its relevance has diminished amid 5G deployments and 3G shutdowns by major carriers, with Qualcomm continuing to enforce royalties on remaining compliant hardware while prioritizing newer standards.^[91]^[92]

References

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None
### Objectives of IMT-2000
[7]
None
Below is a merged summary of the spreading factor and spectral efficiency information from the 3GPP2 C.S0002-D v2.0 document, consolidating all details from the provided segments into a concise yet comprehensive response. To maximize density and clarity, key information is presented in tables where applicable, followed by narrative summaries for additional context. The response retains all details mentioned across the segments, including definitions, equations, sections/pages, and URLs.
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None
### Summary of Spectral Efficiency and Specs for CDMA2000 1x (1xRTT)
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[33]
None
### Summary of cdma2000 1X Advanced Features
[34]
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### Summary of CDMA2000 1X Advanced Specifications
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The IS-95A revision was published in May 1995 and is the basis for many of the commercial 2G CDMA systems around the world.<|control11|><|separator|>
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