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Caladium

Caladium is a genus of tuberous herbaceous perennial plants in the family Araceae, comprising 19 accepted species native to the tropical regions of Central and South America.^[1] These plants are renowned for their striking, heart- or arrowhead-shaped leaves, which feature vibrant multicolored patterns in shades of green, white, pink, red, and rose, often with prominent veins and spots, making them popular ornamentals grown primarily for their foliage rather than flowers.^[2]^[3] Native to humid forest understories, Caladium species thrive in warm, moist environments and are typically cultivated as summer annuals in temperate climates or as houseplants, with Caladium bicolor serving as the primary species for the thousands of named cultivars available today.^[4]^[1] The genus is characterized by its lack of above-ground stems, with leaves emerging directly from underground tubers on long petioles, reaching heights of 12 to 30 inches depending on the variety—such as the broader "fancy-leaved" types or narrower "strap-leaved" forms.^[2] Flowers, when produced, are inconspicuous arum-type inflorescences with greenish-white spathes, but they rarely appear in cultivation due to the emphasis on leaf display.^[3] Distribution spans from Costa Rica and Colombia southward to Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia, where the plants grow as geophytes in wet tropical biomes, often naturalized in other tropical areas through human introduction.^[1] In horticulture, Caladium requires partial shade, consistently moist but well-drained acidic soil, and temperatures above 70°F (21°C) for optimal growth, with tubers planted 1.5 to 2 inches deep in spring after the last frost.^[2]^[3] They are hardy only in USDA zones 9 to 10 but can be overwintered by digging and storing tubers in a dry, cool (above 45°F or 7°C) location.^[4] Common pests include aphids and spider mites, while diseases like tuber rot can occur from overwatering; regular fertilization supports their lush foliage.^[3] All parts of Caladium plants contain insoluble calcium oxalate crystals, rendering them toxic if ingested, causing oral irritation, swelling, nausea, and potential airway obstruction in severe cases for humans and pets.^[5]^[6] Handling may also irritate sensitive skin, so gloves are recommended during planting and care.^[2] Despite these risks, their aesthetic appeal has led to widespread use in landscapes, containers, and indoor settings, with over 1,000 cultivars bred for diverse leaf patterns and colors.^[3]

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Caladium derives from the Malay word keladi, referring to aroid plants (family Araceae) with edible corms or tubers, such as Colocasia esculenta.^[7]^[4] This term was Latinized to form the botanical name, reflecting the plant's tuberous nature and cultural significance in regions where such plants are staples.^[8] The name was first validly published in 1800 by Étienne Pierre Ventenat in the Magazin Encyclopédique.^[1] It is pronounced /kəˈleɪdiəm/.^[7] The genus shares common names like "elephant ear" with related Araceae genera due to similar large, broad leaves.^[4]

Accepted species

The genus Caladium comprises 19 accepted species according to Plants of the World Online (POWO), a database maintained by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, which integrates the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP).^[1] This count reflects recent taxonomic revisions and exceeds older estimates of around 7 species, though some authorities recognize fewer due to ongoing debates over species boundaries.^[9] All accepted species are tuberous geophytes native to tropical regions of Central and South America, typically featuring peltate or sagittate leaves with varying degrees of variegation. Representative accepted species include Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent., the type species of the genus, which is widespread from Central America to northern Argentina.^[10] It is characterized by heart-shaped to lanceolate peltate leaves reaching up to 30 cm in length and 20 cm wide, often displaying striking variegation with green blades accented by white, pink, or red veins, blotches, and margins.^[11] ^[12] Another key species is Caladium schomburgkii Schott, endemic to northern South America, including Guyana, Venezuela, and northern Brazil.^[13] It features dark green, lanceolate to sagittate leaves with prominent silvery-white veins forming an intricate, web-like pattern, distinguishing it from more boldly colored congeners.^[14] Caladium amazonicum E.G.Gonç. represents Amazonian endemics, restricted to the state of Pará in Brazil.^[15] This species has ovate peltate leaves with subtle green coloration and is adapted to wet tropical forest understories, highlighting the genus's diversity in leaf morphology within the Amazon basin.

Synonymy and former classifications

The genus Caladium was established by Étienne Pierre Ventenat in 1800, based on species from the Araceae family native to tropical America.^[1] Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the genus encompassed a broad array of aroid species, many of which were later reclassified due to refined morphological analyses and the advent of molecular phylogenetics. The first comprehensive family-wide molecular phylogeny of Araceae, published in 1995, highlighted the need for taxonomic revisions by revealing polyphyletic groupings within genera like Caladium, leading to the transfer of numerous species to more appropriate genera in the 1990s and beyond.^[16]^[17] Several species formerly placed in Caladium have been reclassified based on differences in inflorescence structure, pollen characteristics, and DNA sequence data. For example, Caladium colocasia Schott ex Wight is now accepted as Alocasia cucullata (Lour.) G.Don, reflecting its closer affinity to the Alocasia clade within Aroideae.^[18] Similarly, Caladium acuminatum F. Dietr. has been transferred to Xanthosoma belophyllum (Willd.) Kunth, distinguished by tetrad pollen grains and peltate leaves typical of Xanthosoma.^[18] Other notable transfers include Caladium auritum (L.) Vent. to Syngonium auritum (L.) Schott and Caladium esculentum (L.) Vent. to Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, driven by phylogenetic studies confirming their positions in distinct lineages.^[18] Within the currently accepted species, synonymy has also been revised over time. For the type species Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent., the basionym is Arum bicolor Aiton (1789), with additional synonyms including Caladiopsis bicolor (Aiton) Klotzsch and the cultivar group name Caladium × hortulanum Birdsey.^[19] Early 20th-century classifications lumped variants under C. bicolor, but Michael Madison's 1981 revision recognized six species while synonymizing others; subsequent work by Croat and Delannoy in 2019 resurrected C. picturatum K.Koch & C.D.Bouché and C. steudnerifolium Engl. from C. bicolor synonymy based on leaf venation and inflorescence morphology.^[9] These adjustments underscore the ongoing refinement of Caladium boundaries through integrated morphological and molecular evidence.^[9]

Description

Morphology

Caladium species are tuberous herbaceous perennials in the family Araceae, typically growing to heights of 15–60 cm, with a clumping habit that arises from underground tubers.^[9] The plants exhibit a deciduous growth pattern in response to seasonal drought, where aboveground vegetation dies back, leaving the persistent tuber for regrowth.^[9] The tubers are subterranean, rounded to depressed-globose structures, 1.5–4 cm in diameter, starchy, and serve as the primary storage organs for nutrients and water.^[9] They feature apical rooting and multiple buds that produce short, fleshy petioles, which are terete, 9.5–103 cm long, and often sheathed at the base with green to purple tinges.^[9] All plant parts contain a white or yellowish sap, and the tubers, leaves, and stems harbor calcium oxalate crystals, rendering them toxic upon ingestion.^[20]^[21] Leaves emerge directly from the tubers and are the most prominent feature, displaying peltate, sagittate, or broadly ovate-cordate shapes, measuring 9.5–57 cm long and 5–22 cm wide.^[9] Petioles are 3 or more times longer than the blades, supporting these large, heart- or arrowhead-shaped laminas that dry to grayish green or yellowish brown.^[22]^[9] Foliage coloration is highly variable across the genus, featuring patterns of green, white, pink, red, silver, or mottled combinations, with prominent veins, spots, and margins accented by anthocyanins for red and pink hues, chlorophyll for greens, and reduced pigments yielding whites.^[4]^[23] The inflorescence is rarely observed in cultivation, as plants are primarily valued for foliage, but consists of 1–3 peduncles per leaf axil, 6–48 cm long, bearing a spadix enclosed in a spathe.^[9] The spathe measures 5–14.5 cm, with a convolute green tube 2–5 cm long and a deciduous blade that is greenish white to white; the spadix, 4–11.5 cm, includes staminate flowers (cream to white), sterile sections, and pistillate portions with parietal placentation and multiple ovules.^[9]

Reproduction

Caladium primarily reproduces vegetatively through the division of its tubers, which serve as the main perennial organ. These tubers produce small offsets, or cormels, that develop buds and roots, allowing them to grow into new, genetically identical plants once separated from the parent.^[24] Sexual reproduction in Caladium occurs via monoecious inflorescences consisting of a spadix enclosed by a spathe. The spadix is organized with female flowers at the base, an intermediate zone of sterile flowers, and male flowers positioned above, facilitating cross-pollination.^[25] The spathe emits a strong sweet odor that attracts dynastine beetles, such as Cyclocephala celata, which serve as primary pollinators by transferring pollen between female and male flowers on the spadix.^[26] Seed production is uncommon in cultivation but takes place in natural habitats, where fertilized ovaries develop into berries containing seeds. These seeds are dispersed by water or through animal-mediated endozoochory in the wild, though their viability is generally low due to physiological dormancy and rapid deterioration during storage, often lasting only 1-2 years under optimal conditions.^[27] The life cycle of Caladium is characterized by seasonal above-ground growth during the wet season, when tubers sprout leaves and inflorescences, followed by dormancy in the dry season as foliage senesces and energy reserves return to the tubers. These tubers can survive for several years underground, enabling the plant to perennialize across multiple cycles.^[24]

Distribution and habitat

Native range

The genus Caladium is native to the tropical regions of Central and South America, with its primary distribution spanning Central America from Honduras to Panama and extending into northern South America, including Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, and the Amazon basin.^[1] This range encompasses wet tropical biomes where the plants thrive in shaded, humid understories.^[1] Among the 19 accepted species, C. bicolor exhibits the broadest distribution, occurring across much of the genus's range from Central America southward to northern Argentina, including widespread presence in the Amazon basin and surrounding areas.^[10] In contrast, C. schomburgkii is more restricted to northern South America, particularly Guyana, Suriname, and northern Brazil, while C. humboldtii is found in southern Venezuela and northern Brazil.^[13]^[28] Other species, such as C. praetermissum, are endemic to specific locales within Peru and Brazil, highlighting regional variations in endemism. Caladium species evolved within the tropical rainforests of the Americas as part of the ancient monocot family Araceae, which originated in West Gondwana during the Late Cretaceous, with modern diversification centered in the Neotropics and no evidence of pre-human dispersal outside the Americas.^[29] Most species are not currently assessed as threatened due to their relatively wide distributions, but Amazonian endemics face vulnerability from ongoing deforestation, which has resulted in nearly 9% forest loss in the basin from 2001 to 2020, though rates have declined significantly since 2012 and continued to decrease as of 2024.^[30]^[31]

Introduced and naturalized areas

Caladium species, primarily C. bicolor, have been introduced worldwide through the international ornamental plant trade, beginning in Europe during the mid-18th century when tubers were first imported from South America for cultivation in greenhouses. This trade facilitated their spread to tropical and subtropical regions, where escapes from gardens and discarded plant material have established feral and naturalized populations in humid, shaded environments. By the late 19th century, introductions reached North America, including the United States in 1893, leading to widespread horticultural use and occasional naturalization.^[32]^[33] Naturalized populations of C. bicolor occur across tropical Asia, including India, Bangladesh, and Malesia (such as the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia); parts of Africa, notably West Tropical Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Togo) and West-Central Tropical Africa (Central African Republic, Gabon, Gulf of Guinea Islands), as well as the Western Indian Ocean islands (Comoros, Seychelles); Pacific islands, including the Caroline Islands, Gilbert Islands, Cook Islands, Society Islands, Tuamotu Archipelago, Vanuatu, and Wallis-Futuna Islands; and regions in the Americas, such as Florida in the United States and various Caribbean islands (Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Leeward Islands, Puerto Rico, Trinidad-Tobago, Venezuelan Antilles, Windward Islands). In Florida, while primarily cultivated, introduced plants have established in wetland margins and disturbed areas, supported by commercial production that began in the early 1900s around Lake Placid, now accounting for over 90% of global tuber output.^[22]^[24] In introduced ranges, C. bicolor is generally non-invasive and confined to human-disturbed sites, though it can form dense stands in wetlands that outcompete native understory plants. It is listed as invasive in several Pacific locations, including Trinidad and Tobago, Guam, Micronesia, Palau, Hawaii (particularly Puna and South Hilo districts on Hawai'i Island, where it persists in deep, clay-rich soils along roadsides and streams), and the Philippines, potentially altering local ecosystems through vegetative spread. Current extent remains widespread in the tropics, with naturalized occurrences tied to ongoing ornamental cultivation and suitable moist habitats.^[11]^[34]

Ecology

Habitat preferences

Caladium species are primarily found in the shaded understory of tropical rainforests and swamps across South and Central America, where they occupy moist, low-elevation habitats with high organic content in the soil. These environments provide the dappled light and consistent moisture essential for their growth as tuberous geophytes in the wet tropical biome.^[11]^[35]^[36] In their natural habitats, Caladium plants require warm temperatures ranging from 20°C to 30°C and high humidity levels to support active growth during the wet season. Distinct wet-dry seasonal cycles are critical, as the onset of drier periods induces dormancy, allowing the plants to conserve resources until moisture returns.^[2]^[37]^[38] Caladium favors well-drained yet consistently moist, acidic soils rich in humus, which retain water and nutrients without becoming waterlogged. They thrive in partial shade or filtered sunlight to prevent leaf scorch from direct exposure, reflecting their adaptation to forest floor conditions. Key adaptations include tubers that store water and essential nutrients to survive extended dry spells, with leaves becoming deciduous during periods of drought to minimize water loss.^[37]^[39]^[2]

Pollination and dispersal

In Caladium, particularly the well-studied species C. bicolor, a specialized pollination system typical of the Araceae family involves scarab beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae, Rutelinae) such as Cyclocephala celata. These pollinators are attracted to the inflorescences by a strong, sweet odor emitted from the spathe and spadix, particularly during the evening anthesis phases, and by thermogenic heating that raises spadix temperatures up to 11°C above ambient air levels.^[26]^[40] The thermogenesis not only volatilizes floral scents but also provides metabolic warmth, enhancing beetle activity and retention within the floral chamber formed by the enclosing spathe. Beetles enter the chamber during the female phase, contact stigmas, and remain trapped overnight, feeding on sterile florets and mating; they are released the following evening during the male phase to carry pollen to other inflorescences.^[26] This trap mechanism ensures efficient cross-pollination in the humid, shaded understories where Caladium thrives, though detailed studies are limited for species beyond C. bicolor.^[40] The breeding system of Caladium is protogynous, with the female phase preceding the male phase on the spadix, promoting outcrossing to maintain genetic diversity. However, plants are self-compatible, allowing geitonogamous pollination if beetles transfer pollen from the same individual.^[41]^[42] In natural populations, seed set remains low due to sporadic pollinator visits, influenced by environmental cues such as seasonal rainfall and humidity that affect beetle abundance and inflorescence receptivity.^[26] All visited inflorescences typically develop fruits, underscoring pollinator limitation as a key constraint on sexual reproduction in the wild.^[26] Dispersal in Caladium combines sexual and vegetative strategies, adapted to the wet, tropical forest habitats. Seeds, borne in small berries (1–2 per fruit in some species like C. ternatum), are primarily dispersed by hydrochory, floating on floodwaters in riverine or floodplain environments, and secondarily by zoochory, as birds or small mammals consume the fleshy berries and excrete viable seeds.^[40] Vegetative spread occurs via rhizomes and detachable bulbils or small tubers produced from lateral buds, which detach and establish new plants up to 80 cm from the parent during soil disturbance or seasonal flooding.^[11]^[40] This clonal propagation predominates in stable understory populations, buffering against low sexual recruitment.^[11] In forest understories, Caladium inflorescences play an ecological role by providing sheltered mating and feeding sites for scarab beetles, supporting pollinator populations in low-light, humid microsites where few other resources are available.^[40] This mutualism enhances beetle reproduction while facilitating Caladium gene flow across fragmented habitats.^[26]

Chemical defenses and toxicity

Caladium species produce calcium oxalate crystals, known as raphides, as their primary toxic compounds, distributed throughout all plant parts including leaves, stems, petioles, and tubers. These needle-like crystals are housed in specialized idioblast cells and are released upon mechanical damage, such as chewing by herbivores, penetrating soft tissues and causing immediate mechanical irritation along with chemical reactions that lead to intense oral pain, swelling of the mouth and throat, excessive salivation, and gastrointestinal distress if ingested.^[43]^[44]^[45] In addition to raphides, Caladium tissues contain other defensive chemicals, including cyanogenic glycosides concentrated in roots and bulbs, which hydrolyze to release hydrogen cyanide upon tissue disruption, further inhibiting herbivore feeding. Protease inhibitors, present in the Araceae family to which Caladium belongs, work synergistically with raphides; the crystals create entry points in herbivore mouthparts or digestive linings, allowing these proteins to access and disrupt enzymatic digestion, amplifying the plant's defensive efficacy against insects and mammals. This combination exemplifies a multifaceted chemical strategy, where raphides provide physical deterrence while biochemical agents like cyanogenic glycosides and protease inhibitors target physiological processes.^[46]^[47] Ecologically, these compounds deter a range of herbivores, including mammals and insects, by inflicting rapid tissue damage and metabolic interference that discourages further consumption; for instance, the "needle effect" of raphides facilitates deeper penetration of toxins, leading to higher mortality rates in feeding larvae compared to either mechanism alone. All Caladium species are poisonous to humans, with ingestion causing the aforementioned symptoms and skin contact with the sap provoking contact dermatitis characterized by redness, itching, and blistering due to the irritant crystals. Over a thousand cultivars of Caladium bicolor, derived from wild South American stock, universally retain this toxicity profile despite selective breeding for ornamental traits.^[47]^[12]^[2]

Cultivation and uses

History of cultivation

Caladium species, native to the tropical forests of South and Central America, including the Amazon River basin, were first introduced to cultivation in Europe during the late 1700s, where they were prized for their dramatic foliage as an "old-fashioned" ornamental plant.^[2] European horticulturists began breeding efforts in the mid-1800s, with early milestones including the description of varieties by French horticulturist Antoine Chantin in 1858, who received tubers from South American travelers and contributed to the initial diversification of forms.^[41] These developments built on explorations that documented the plants as early as the late 18th century, marking the transition from wild collection to structured hybridization.^[48] Commercial varieties emerged from the Amazon region in the 1800s, spreading through European greenhouses before reaching the Americas, where private breeding gained momentum in Florida during the 1920s.^[24] In Florida, horticulturists like Henry Nehrling initiated hybridization at his Gotha gardens near Orlando, producing thousands of selections that laid the foundation for the modern industry.^[41] The University of Florida launched a public breeding program in 1976, releasing 49 cultivars as of 2025 to enhance traits like color and disease resistance, contributing to the over 1,000 named cultivars of Caladium bicolor available today.^[2]^[49] This proliferation reflects ongoing efforts to adapt the plant for ornamental use, with thousands of varieties documented historically.^[41] By the early 20th century, Lake Placid in central Florida emerged as a key hub, with caladiums first cultivated there in the 1940s and expanding rapidly post-World War II; today, the region accounts for over 90% of global production, including nearly all U.S. bulbs.^[48] The plant's global spread occurred through trade networks, leading to naturalization in tropical and subtropical areas such as parts of Africa, India, and other regions beyond its South American origins.^[11] During the Victorian era, caladiums aligned with the period's plant craze, adorning greenhouses and gardens for their foliage contrast, as seen in 1880s European estates where they transitioned from exotic imports to landscape staples.^[50]

Growing conditions and care

Caladium plants thrive in warm, humid environments that mimic their tropical origins, requiring careful attention to light, temperature, and moisture to ensure vigorous growth and vibrant foliage. They perform best in partial shade, receiving no more than 2 to 4 hours of direct sunlight per day, as excessive exposure can scorch leaves and fade colors; however, some modern cultivars tolerate limited full sun exposure.^[24]^[51] Ideal daytime temperatures range from 70°F to 85°F (21°C to 29°C), with nighttime temperatures remaining above 60°F (16°C) to prevent stress; they are hardy in USDA zones 9 to 11 but are typically grown as annuals or potted plants in cooler regions.^[2]^[3] For optimal development, Caladiums demand moist, well-drained soil rich in organic matter, with a slightly acidic pH of 6.0 to 6.5 to support nutrient uptake and prevent root issues. Amend heavy soils with compost or pine bark mulch to a depth of 2 to 3 inches for improved aeration and drainage, ensuring the planting medium never becomes waterlogged. Water consistently to maintain even soil moisture, allowing the top inch to dry slightly between waterings, as drought stress leads to wilting while overwatering promotes tuber rot; aim for thorough soaking followed by natural drainage.^[51]^[2] Fertilize monthly during the active growing season with a balanced, slow-release NPK formula (such as 8-8-8 or 5-10-10) at low rates to avoid lush green foliage at the expense of color, applying 1 to 2 pounds per 100 square feet or following package directions for containers.^[24]^[3] As temperatures cool in fall, Caladium foliage naturally dies back into dormancy, a period lasting 3 to 4 months where energy is conserved in the tubers; reduce watering as leaves yellow and withhold fertilizer to encourage this rest phase. For overwintering in zones below 9, dig tubers after foliage wilts, allow them to dry for 7 to 14 days in a shaded area, then store in a dry medium like vermiculite or sphagnum moss at 50°F to 60°F (10°C to 16°C) in a well-ventilated space to inhibit rot.^[51]^[2] High humidity levels above 50% are essential, particularly indoors, where misting or pebble trays can prevent tip burn; avoid drafts and sudden temperature fluctuations, which exacerbate issues like leaf drooping often caused by low humidity or inconsistent watering. Outdoors, mulch around plants to retain soil moisture and suppress weeds, while indoors, place in bright, indirect light near east-facing windows for sustained health.^[24]^[3] When handling, wear gloves due to the plant's mild toxicity from insoluble calcium oxalate crystals, which can irritate skin.^[2]

Propagation

Caladium plants are most commonly propagated vegetatively through division of their tubers, a method that ensures the retention of desirable hybrid traits and high reliability in cultivation. This process is typically performed in late winter or early spring, immediately following the plant's dormancy period, when tubers have been stored and new growth buds, known as "eyes," begin to emerge. The tuber is divided using a sterile, sharp knife into sections, each containing at least one prominent eye; larger tubers may yield multiple viable pieces, while smaller offsets can be separated directly from the parent. Cut surfaces are dusted with a fungicide to prevent infection and allowed to callus over for 2-3 days in a dry environment. The sections are then planted bud-up in a loose, well-draining medium such as a peat-perlite mix, at a depth of 2-3 cm (about 1 inch), and maintained at soil temperatures above 21°C (70°F) to promote sprouting. This timing post-dormancy maximizes vigor, with the method yielding uniform plants that emerge within 4-8 weeks under optimal conditions.^[2]^[52]^[53] Seed propagation, while possible, is rarely practiced in cultivation due to its challenges and the fact that most commercial Caladium varieties are hybrids that do not produce offspring true to the parent plant. Seeds, contained within white berries that ripen 5-6 weeks after pollination, must be harvested fresh and sown immediately in a sterile, moist medium like peat moss to avoid viability loss. Sowing occurs at surface level or lightly covered, under high humidity and temperatures of 24-29°C (75-85°F), with germination typically occurring in 8-14 days, though full establishment may take 2-4 weeks. Success is generally low compared to vegetative methods, often below 50% due to seed dormancy, small size, and susceptibility to fungal issues, limiting its use primarily to breeding programs for developing new cultivars.^[54]^[2] For large-scale commercial production, tissue culture offers an efficient alternative, particularly for generating virus-free stock plants free from pathogens that can spread via tubers. Micropropagation begins with excising small meristem explants from young shoots, which are surface-sterilized and cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium augmented with cytokinins like 1 mg/L benzylaminopurine (BAP) for shoot induction and multiplication, often combined with auxins such as 0.25 mg/L naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) to enhance rooting. Shoots proliferate rapidly, yielding up to 30-40 per explant over 4-6 weeks, with near-100% rooting success on media containing 2 mg/L indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and 1 mg/L NAA. Acclimatized plantlets are transferred to a soil-sand-peat mix under high humidity (95%), achieving survival rates exceeding 90% upon hardening. This technique, though more costly, enables the mass production of pathogen-free liners for tuber forcing, contrasting with natural seed-based reproduction by providing clonal uniformity.^[55]^[53]

Pests, diseases, and common problems

Caladium plants encounter relatively few serious pest issues in cultivation, particularly in temperate regions, though certain pests can affect foliage and tubers under suboptimal conditions.^[2] Common pests include mealybugs, which appear as white, cottony masses on leaves and stems; slugs and snails, which chew irregular holes in foliage; and caterpillars or grasshoppers that cause similar feeding damage.^[52] Mites, such as spider mites, may infest leaf undersides, leading to stippling and webbing, while aphids, thrips, and mealybugs can suck sap and distort new growth.^[52] These soft-bodied pests are typically managed with applications of insecticidal soap or neem oil, applied thoroughly to undersides of leaves for effective contact control. Slugs and snails are controlled using barriers, beer traps, or iron phosphate baits to avoid broad-spectrum chemical use.^[3] A more significant threat in commercial production, especially in sandy soils of regions like Florida, is root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp., including M. javanica, M. arenaria, and M. incognita), which invade roots and tubers, causing galls, stunting, wilting, yellowing, and leaf dieback.^[56] Sting (Belonolaimus longicaudatus) and stubby root (Trichodorus spp.) nematodes also occur but are less damaging. Management involves site selection on nematode-free soil, cleaning equipment to prevent spread, hot water treatment of tubers at 50°C for 30–45 minutes to reduce infestation, and pre-plant soil fumigation with metam sodium or 1,3-dichloropropene; no fully resistant cultivars exist, though 'Pink Beauty' and 'Red Flash' show moderate tolerance.^[56] Diseases primarily affect tubers and roots, with fungal pathogens thriving in overly wet or cool conditions. Pythium root rot, caused by Pythium myriotylum, results in soft, blackened roots and tuber decay, often following overwatering or planting in soil below 60–70°F.^[56] Fusarium tuber rot similarly leads to internal discoloration and collapse of tubers.^[57] Leaf spots, manifesting as tan to brown lesions on lower leaves, arise from fungal infections like Colletotrichum caladii (anthracnose) or bacterial pathogens, exacerbated by poor air circulation and overhead watering.^[58]^[3] Control includes drench applications of fungicides such as Subdue (metalaxyl) for Pythium and Medallion (fludioxonil) for Fusarium and leaf spot fungi, initiated 1–2 weeks after planting; affected leaves should be removed and discarded to limit spread. Non-pathogenic problems often stem from environmental stress. Leaf drooping or wilting occurs with excess water, high heat, or underwatering, while yellowing may indicate nutrient deficiencies (e.g., iron or nitrogen) or exposure to cold temperatures below 55°F, which also predispose plants to rot.^[24]^[2] The plant's fragile, heart-shaped leaves are prone to tearing from strong winds or hail, resulting in ragged edges without infection.^[12] Prevention focuses on cultural practices to minimize risks: ensure good airflow around plants to reduce humidity, water at the base to keep soil evenly moist but not saturated, and quarantine new tubers or plants for inspection before integration.^[3] Storing tubers in a dry, warm environment (50–60°F) during dormancy prevents fungal rots.^[52]

Ornamental and public display uses

Caladiums are prized as ornamental foliage plants, particularly in shaded landscapes where their vibrant, heart-shaped leaves provide striking color and texture. They are commonly used in shade gardens, borders, and containers to create lush, tropical effects, often planted en masse or as accents to contrast with flowering companions like coral bells or impatiens.^[59]^[24] With over 1,000 cultivars available, offering a wide array of colors from white and pink to red and multicolored patterns, caladiums allow for diverse design possibilities in these settings.^[60] As indoor houseplants, caladiums thrive when potted in bright, indirect light, such as near north- or east-facing windows, where they deliver a bold tropical ambiance without requiring direct sun. Their popularity stems from the ability to maintain vivid foliage year-round in controlled environments, making them a favored choice for adding drama to living spaces. In 2025, the National Garden Bureau recognized caladium as the Bulb of the Year, underscoring its enduring appeal in horticulture.^[61]^[24]^[62] In public displays, caladiums feature prominently in annual events that highlight their ornamental value, including the Lake Placid Caladium Festival held each July in Florida, which includes farm tours, exhibits, and vendor sales celebrating the plant's role in local culture.^[63] The Florida Caladium Showcase, an annual indoor exhibition at the Gaylord Palms Resort in Kissimmee since 2003, showcases elaborate arrangements of thousands of plants, drawing visitors to experience their dramatic visual impact.^[64] Large-scale plantings also appear in public parks and gardens, such as the caladium trail at Bok Tower Gardens, where they enhance pathways and open areas with colorful, textured borders.^[65] Commercially, Florida dominates global caladium production, with over 1,200 acres dedicated to tuber cultivation, primarily in Highlands County, supplying tubers for ornamental and event uses worldwide. This bulk production supports the creation of eye-catching displays at festivals, resorts, and public venues, where caladiums are arranged in expansive beds or containers for seasonal spectacles.^[24]^[66]

References

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Caladium bicolor, commonly called caladiums or angel wings, are arum family members that are grown exclusively for their bold and colorful foliage.
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Caladium poisoning occurs from eating parts of the plant, causing symptoms like burning in the mouth, eye damage, and nausea. All parts are poisonous if large ...
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... Caladium. Scientific Name: Caladium hortulanum. Family: Araceae. Toxicity: Toxic to Dogs, Toxic to Cats, Toxic to Horses. Toxic Principles: Insoluble calcium ...Missing: uses | Show results with:uses
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Etymology. New Latin, from Malay keladi (“caladium, arroid”). Proper noun. Caladium n. A taxonomic genus within the family Araceae – tuberous plants with ...
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[10]
Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent. | Plants of the World Online
It is used to treat unspecified medicinal disorders, has environmental uses and social uses, as a poison and a medicine and for food.
[11]
Caladium bicolor (heart of Jesus) | CABI Compendium
C. bicolor is a glabrous, erect acaulescent herb with a fleshy corm at base. Leaves 1-2; blades pointing downward, 30 × 20 cm, chartaceous ...
[12]
Caladium bicolor - North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox
Acaulescent plant with elongate, erect petioles · Leaves sagittate, peltate, variable variegation · Popular selections are white leaves with green/red.
[13]
Caladium schomburgkii Schott | Plants of the World Online
The native range of this species is N. South America to N. Brazil. It is a tuberous geophyte and grows primarily in the wet tropical biome.
[14]
Caladium schomburgkii (Spider web caladium) - Chlorobase
Unlike its colorful cousins, this rare beauty showcases elegant dark green leaves with striking silvery-white veins that create an intricate spider web ...
[15]
Caladium amazonicum E.G.Gonç. | Plants of the World Online
The native range of this species is Brazil (Pará). It is a tuberous geophyte and grows primarily in the wet tropical biome. Taxonomy · General information.
[16]
Comparison of morphological patterns with molecular phylogenies
Apr 1, 2011 · The first family-wide molecular phylogeny of the Araceae, a family of about 3800 published species in 120 genera, became available in 1995.
[17]
Phylogenomics of the plant family Araceae - ResearchGate
Aug 5, 2025 · Calla and Schismatoglottis form a clade at the base of one of two major clades in Aroideae based on complete chloroplast sequences.
[18]
Caladium Ventenat, 1800-1801 - IRMNG
Species Caladium lowii Lem. accepted as Alocasia longiloba Miq. Species Caladium luridum Kunth accepted as Asterostigma lividum (Lodd.) Engl.
[19]
Taxon: Caladium bicolor - USDA
Taxonomic Classification Level. Kingdom: Phylum: Class: Order: Plantae; Tracheophyta; Magnoliopsida; Alismatales. Family: Genus: Species: Sub-Species: Variety ...
[20]
Caladium plant poisoning: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
Jul 1, 2023 · Poisonous Ingredient The poisonous ingredients are: Calcium oxalate crystals. Asparagine, a protein building block (amino acid) found in the ...
[21]
Angel Wings Caladium Elephant's Ear
Caladiums are tropical plants with heart-shaped, 6 to 12 inch leaves. Within the genus Caladium, there are more than 1000 cultivars that offer foliage colors.Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
[22]
Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent. - World Flora Online
Caladium bicolor var. rubellum (K.Koch & Fintelm.) Engl. Caladium bicolor var. rubicundum Engl. Caladium bicolor var. rubrivenium Engl. Caladium bicolor ...Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
[23]
Pigment Diversity in Leaves of Caladium × hortulanum Birdsey ... - NIH
Jan 3, 2024 · Caladium varieties display different leaf colors, such as white, red, pink, yellow, purple, and purple-black [14]. However, the genetic ...
[24]
Caladiums - UF/IFAS Gardening Solutions
Caladiums are tropical foliage plants; they catch the eye with their multicolored leaves. You can add them to your landscape in hanging baskets or containers.Missing: amazonicum | Show results with:amazonicum
[25]
NOTEAspects of floral development in Caladium bicolor (Araceae)
Aug 7, 2025 · In the spadix of Caladium, there is a clearly recognizable intermediate zone consisting of sterile male flowers. The transition between the ...
[26]
Caladium bicolor (Araceae) and Cyclocephala celata (Coleoptera ...
Aug 7, 2025 · An intense sweet odour was volatized on both evenings. Beetles of a single species, Cyclocephala celata, were attracted to odoriferous ...
[27]
[PDF] "Light and Temperature Govern Germination and Storage of ...
Research objectives were to determine light and temperature effects on caladium seed germination and the influence of temperature and relative humidity levels ...Missing: production dormancy
[28]
Caladium humboldtii (Raf.) Schott | Plants of the World Online
The native range of this species is S. Venezuela to N. Brazil. It is a tuberous geophyte and grows primarily in the wet tropical biome.
[29]
Global history of the ancient monocot family Araceae inferred with ...
Jul 5, 2012 · The family Araceae (3790 species, 117 genera) has one of the oldest fossil records among angiosperms. Ecologically, members of this family range from free- ...
[30]
Interspecific Genome Size and Chromosome Number Variation ...
Caladium is a member of the family Araceae, belonging to the tribe Caladieae in the subfamily Aroideae (Mayo et al., 1997). The genus is indigenous to the New ...Missing: synonymy | Show results with:synonymy
[31]
https://www.sustainabilitybynumbers.com/p/amazon-2024
[32]
[PDF] Caladium bicolor naturalized on the island of Hawai'i
Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent. (Araceae) is a neotropical species. According to Madison. (1981), the species is found from coastal Brazil to the Andes ...
[33]
Research: Manual de Plantas de Costa Rica: Draft Treatments - MBG
Caladium humboldtii Schott, which differs from C. bicolor in its smaller ... color unknown. Wet (often swamp) forests, 0-100(-600) m; entire Atl. slope ...
[34]
Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent. | Colombian Plants made accessible
The native range of this species is Central America to Argentina (Salta). It is a tuberous geophyte and grows primarily in the wet tropical biome.
[35]
Caladium bicolor - Useful Tropical Plants
### Summary of Caladium bicolor Natural Habitat and Ecology
[36]
How to care for Caladium (Angel Wings): Expert Tips - PLNTS.com
One of the easiest ways to propagate Caladiums is by dividing their tubers. Just be careful and wear gloves while propagating Caladium, as its sap can irritate ...
[37]
Caladium bicolor: info from PIER (PIER species info)
Habitat/ecology: "Fertile, moist, but well-drained soils in partially or fully shaded places are preferred" (Whistler, 2000; p. 98). Propagation: Seed, locally ...Missing: wild | Show results with:wild
[38]
https://plnts.com/en/care/houseplants-family/caladium
[39]
[PDF] Caladium Genetics and Breeding: Recent Advances
ABSTRACT. Caladiums are important ornamental aroids; they are valued for their colourful and variably-shaped leaves. Numerous advances have been.
[40]
(PDF) Technique for In Vitro Pollen Germination and Short-term ...
Aug 5, 2025 · cross-breeding in caladiums. Each caladium bloom is an inﬂorescence ... contains self-compatible and self-incompatible genotypes. In the ...
[41]
[PDF] Garden Student Handout - College of Veterinary Medicine
Caladium:Calcadium bicolor. Toxic Compound- insoluble calcium oxalate crystals, raphides shoot out of crystals that will penetrate mucosa causing damage ...
[42]
Toxicity of House Plants to Pet Animals - PMC - PubMed Central
May 19, 2023 · These plants contain oxalate crystals (oxalates, mainly calcium salts), usually in the form of raphides (needles grooved at both ends) in the ...
[43]
Families - Plants Poisonous to Livestock and Pets - Herbarium
Poisonous principle: Calcium oxalate crystals (raphides: needle-shaped, slender crystals in bundles in the cells that cause a mechanical irritation to the ...
[44]
[PDF] Hytochemical Composition of Caladium Species
The results revealed the presence of glycosides, cyanogenic glycosides, flavonoid, saponins, tannins, steroids, oxalates and phytates. The result suggests ...
[45]
Synergistic Defensive Function of Raphides and Protease ... - NIH
Mar 12, 2014 · Raphides, needle-shaped calcium oxalate crystals in tissues of many plants, have been thought to play defensive roles against herbivores ...
[46]
Year of the Caladium - Your Guide to Lush, Vibrant Foliage
Caladiums are native to the tropical forests of South and Central America where they thrive in high heat and humidity. · In 1893, caladiums made an appearance at ...
[47]
2013_May17 - Victoria County Master Gardener Association
May 17, 2013 · Lance (Strap) leaf caladiums tend to have arrowhead or even thinner strap-shaped leaves. They are more sun/cold tolerant, have more but ...Missing: global | Show results with:global
[48]
Caladiums for the Home Landscape | NC State Extension Publications
For best growth, plant caladiums in well-drained soil with a pH between 6.0 and 6.5. A 2- to 3-inch layer of pine bark mulch or compost should be incorporated ...
[49]
FPS83/FP083: Caladium x hortulanum Caladium - UF/IFAS EDIS
Caladium is tolerant of full sun conditions when provided with rich soil and sufficient moisture. Tubers should be set 3 to 5inchesdeep in loose soil.Introduction · General Information · Description
[50]
[PDF] Greenhouse Production of Caladiums
Caladiums are greenhouse crops, mainly for spring, easy to grow, and propagated mostly from tubers. They are used for pots, bedding, and cut greens. Most ...
[51]
[PDF] SEED PROPAGATION OF CALADIUM AND DIEFFENBACHIA
propagated commercially almost exclusively by vegetative means rather than by seed. Various nematodes, bacteria and fungi infest avoid nursery plantings in ...Missing: sexual | Show results with:sexual
[52]
(PDF) An in vitro study on Micropropagation of Caladium bicolor
Aug 7, 2025 · Caladium bicolor is a member of Araceae family (arum family) and commonly known as angel wings, heart of Jesus and fancy-leaved caladium ...
[53]
ENY-2065/IN1325: Root-Knot Nematode Management in Caladium
Sep 13, 2021 · They are native to the tropical regions of South and Central America. Florida has been leading the commercial production of caladium tubers in ...
[54]
Zhanao Deng, Ph.D. - UFRF Professors - University of Florida
In the last five years, he has discovered numerous sources of resistance to Fusarium tuber rot and Pythium root rot in caladiums. He's also finding resistance ...
[55]
Colletotrichum caladii sp. nov. Causing Anthracnose Leaf Spot of ...
Sep 19, 2024 · A new species of Colletotrichum causing a leaf spot disease of caladium was described as C. caladii, based on morphological and molecular characteristics.
[56]
Top 19 Caladium Companion Plants | Proven Winners
Coral bells thrive in shade gardens or pots, making them a flexible companion for caladiums. Some varieties even tolerate sunny locations, adding to their ...
[57]
View of Caladium Cultivars Developed at the University of Florida/IFAS
The University of Florida's Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) initiated a caladium breeding program in 1976 at the Gulf Coast Research and ...
[58]
https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/PDIS-08-22-1781-RE
[59]
Home | The Caladium Festival, Lake Placid, FL
35th Annual CALADIUM FESTIVAL & Annual Car & Bike Show July 24, 25, & 26, 2026. Friday & Saturday 9 AM - 4 PM Sunday 10 AM - 3 PM · Our Annual Caladium Festival ...Plan Your TripVendorsHome | The Caladium Festival ...Bus ToursEvent FAQ
[60]
FLORIDA CALADIUMS ADD COLOR TO RESORT ATRIUMS
Aug 15, 2003 · After the caladium showcase ends Aug. 31, McColgan said the caladiums will remain in the conservatory until mid-November, when they will be ...
[61]
Caladium Festival at Bok Tower Gardens - Visit Central Florida
Explore the heart of Bok Tower Gardens with a special caladium trail that meaders from the Visitor Center to Pinewood Estate August 1 through 31.<|control11|><|separator|>
[62]
Growing Caladiums in the Landscape - UF/IFAS Extension Volusia ...
May 22, 2019 · Macadamias can self-pollinate, although varieties vary from being totally self-compatible to being almost self-sterile. Bees are major ...