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Calla

Calla is a genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae, comprising the single species Calla palustris, a rhizomatous perennial herb known for its glossy, heart-shaped leaves and distinctive inflorescence featuring a white spathe enclosing a yellow-green spadix.^[1]^[2] Native to temperate wetlands across the Northern Hemisphere, including North America, Europe, and Asia, it typically grows in bogs, marshes, swamps, and shallow waters, forming dense patches from creeping rhizomes.^[1]^[3] The plant emerges in spring with basal leaves on long petioles, reaching heights of 6–12 inches, and blooms from late spring to summer, producing showy spathes 3–8 cm long that attract pollinators such as syrphid flies.^[4]^[1] In late summer, the infructescence develops into clusters of bright red, berry-like fruits containing cylindric seeds, which provide food for waterfowl and aquatic wildlife.^[5]^[1] C. palustris prefers acidic, humus-rich soils in partial shade and is hardy in USDA zones 2–6, making it suitable for bog gardens, rain gardens, and aquatic marginal plantings.^[4]^[5] However, it contains calcium oxalate crystals, rendering it toxic if ingested raw, though historical Native American uses included medicinal applications for snakebites and swelling after proper preparation.^[3]^[5] The genus name Calla, derived from the Greek kallos meaning "beauty," was first used by Pliny the Elder, while the specific epithet palustris refers to its marshy habitat.^[4]^[6] Taxonomically, Calla is the sole member of the tribe Calleae and is distinct from the ornamental "calla lilies" of the genus Zantedeschia (also in Araceae), which are tropical South African natives with larger spathes and are not true lilies.^[1]^[7] This confusion arises from common naming, but Zantedeschia species, such as Z. aethiopica, feature narrower spadices and greater stature compared to the more compact C. palustris.^[7]

Description

Morphology

Calla palustris is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial that typically grows to a height and width of about 0.3 m.^[8] It emerges from a horizontal, creeping rhizome that measures 1–3 cm in diameter and produces offsets through branching, allowing vegetative spread.^[8]^[9] The leaves are basal, arising directly from the rhizome, and are rounded to heart-shaped (cordate) with a lustrous green surface, measuring 4–14 cm long and 4–14 cm broad.^[8] They are borne on petioles 6–40 cm long, and in mild climates, the foliage can be semi-evergreen, persisting partially through winter.^[8]^[10] The flowering stem is an erect, leafless scape (peduncle) up to 30 cm tall and 0.8–1.2 cm wide.^[8] The inflorescence consists of a spadix, 1.5–3 cm long and 0.7–1.5 cm wide, that is greenish-yellow and densely covered in tiny, perfect flowers, each about 2–2.5 mm tall.^[8] This spadix is enclosed by a leaf-like, boat-shaped spathe that is white on the inner surface and green outside, measuring 3–8 cm long and 3–5 cm wide; the spathe's appearance bears superficial similarity to that of Zantedeschia species, which are commonly misnamed "calla lilies."^[8] Following pollination, the plant produces a globose cluster of red, pear-shaped berries, each 5–12 mm in diameter and containing multiple seeds, which ripen in late summer.^[8]^[11]

Reproduction

Calla palustris exhibits a reproductive strategy adapted to its wetland environments, combining sexual reproduction through seeds with asexual propagation via rhizomes. The plant is a perennial herb that persists through an extensive rhizomatous root system, allowing for both clonal expansion and sexual reproduction when conditions favor seed production.^[1]^[5] Flowering occurs from May to August, varying with latitude and local climate, typically producing one or two inflorescences per shoot during this period. The inflorescence consists of a central spadix surrounded by a protective and pollinator-attracting spathe; the spadix bears numerous small, spirally arranged bisexual flowers.^[12]^[13]^[14] Following pollination, the spadix develops into a cluster of berries that mature from green to bright red, enhancing visibility in shaded wetland habitats; each berry, measuring about 0.5 inches in diameter, contains 1 to several ellipsoid seeds embedded in gelatinous tissue. Sexual reproduction completes the life cycle through seed germination, which requires a period of wet cold stratification at around 4°C (typically 90–140 days) to overcome physiological dormancy, after which seeds germinate over a broad temperature range of 10–30°C under light exposure.^[5]^[15]^[16]^[17] Asexual reproduction occurs via division of the creeping rhizomes, which produce clonal offsets that establish new shoots, enabling rapid colony formation in suitable habitats without reliance on seed dispersal.^[4]^[11]

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Calla originates from the Latin term calla, which was used by the Roman author Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia (circa 77 AD) to refer to an arum-like plant, possibly derived from the Greek word kallos meaning "beauty," alluding to the attractive white spathe of the flower.^[18]^[19] The species epithet palustris is Latin for "of the marsh" or "swamp-dwelling," directly reflecting the plant's preference for wetland habitats.^[5] Calla palustris was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum in 1753, though the genus name itself predates this classification and traces back to ancient references to similar arum plants in classical texts.^[20] Common names for the plant include water arum, wild calla, and bog arum, which emphasize its aquatic environment.^[21] The term "calla" has often led to confusion with the unrelated genus Zantedeschia (commonly called calla lilies). The confusion arose because Linnaeus included the South African plant as Calla aethiopica in 1753, but it was later separated by botanist Kurt Sprengel, who created the genus Zantedeschia in 1826.^[22]

Classification and Species

Calla belongs to the family Araceae (aroids), within the order Alismatales and the monocot clade. It is placed in the subfamily Aroideae and tribe Calleae, of which Calla is the sole genus.^[23] The genus is monotypic, comprising only the species Calla palustris L. (1753), with no recognized subspecies.^[23] Phylogenetically, Calla holds a basal position within Araceae, having diverged early from other aroids as supported by molecular studies.^[24] DNA analyses have confirmed its distinct separation from Zantedeschia, to which certain species were historically assigned; these were reclassified into the genus Zantedeschia by Kurt Sprengel in 1826.^[22] Historically, the genus Calla originally encompassed multiple species, but taxonomic revisions in the 20th century, informed by morphological and later molecular data, restricted it to the single extant species C. palustris.^[25]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

Calla palustris exhibits a circumboreal distribution across the cool temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere, characteristic of many boreal species that underwent post-glacial migrations from refugia following the last Ice Age.^[26]^[23] In Europe, the species is native to northern and central regions, ranging from France and Belgium eastward through Germany, Poland, and the Baltic States to Norway, Finland, Sweden, and Russia, including Belarus and Ukraine; it is absent from southern Europe.^[23]^[27] In northern Asia, it occurs natively from Siberia (including regions like Altay, Amur, Buryatiya, Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk, Tuva, and Yakutiya) eastward to Japan, Korea, and the Russian Far East (Kamchatka, Khabarovsk, Primorye, Sakhalin, and Kuril Islands).^[23] In North America, the native range spans Alaska and much of Canada (from Yukon and British Columbia to Newfoundland and Labrador, including all provinces eastward), extending southward into the northeastern and north-central United States as far as Maryland, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, and North Dakota.^[23]^[1] The plant is particularly common in Fennoscandia and the Great Lakes region, where it thrives in suitable wetland environments.^[28]^[15] Beyond its native range, Calla palustris has been introduced and sporadically naturalized in Great Britain and Ireland, often as escapes from cultivation.^[23] It also appears as rare escapes or questionable records in other areas, such as parts of central Europe outside its core native distribution and isolated sites in California, though some reports may involve misidentification with related species.^[1] The species does not establish in warmer climates, limiting its introduced presence to cooler temperate zones.^[27]

Environmental Preferences

Calla palustris inhabits shallow water bodies including bogs, fens, marshes, pond margins, and slow-moving streams, where it occupies wet to submerged conditions.^[1]^[4]^[5] The species prefers acidic, humus-rich, muddy soils with a pH typically below 6.0, characteristic of peaty wetland substrates.^[5]^[15]^[29] Adapted to cool temperate climates across its northern distribution, C. palustris tolerates USDA hardiness zones 2–6 and demonstrates frost hardiness to approximately -40°C in zone 3 conditions, while requiring high humidity and consistent moisture without tolerance for drought.^[4]^[5]^[30] It flourishes in partial shade to medium shade, leaning toward deeper shade in southern parts of its range, though it can endure full sun farther north; ideal water depths range from 5–15 cm over the crown in oligotrophic to mesotrophic waters, with intolerance to nutrient pollution that could lead to eutrophication.^[15]^[4]^[31]^[32] Commonly associated with Sphagnum moss, sedges (Carex spp.), and aquatic plants such as Nymphaea spp., it contributes to the understory of these acidic wetland communities.^[15]^[33]^[34]

Ecology

Pollination and Dispersal

Calla palustris displays protogynous dichogamy in its bisexual flowers, with the stigma receptive prior to anther dehiscence, which favors outcrossing while allowing for self-pollination if cross-pollinators are absent.^[11] Primary pollination is mediated by small dipteran insects, including fungus gnats (Sciaridae) and chironomid midges, which visit the inflorescence for presumed rewards or shelter; beetles (e.g., Chrysomelidae, Nitidulidae), syrphid flies, and snails may also contribute.^[35]^[36]^[37] Wind serves as a secondary pollination vector, particularly in sparse populations.^[38] Flowering within populations is often synchronous, enhancing pollinator visitation efficiency across multiple inflorescences.^[39] Seed dispersal in C. palustris occurs primarily through hydrochory, with buoyant berries floating on water surfaces for weeks to months, enabling local spread along wetlands and streams.^[40] Waterfowl and other birds consume the bright red berries, passing viable seeds through their digestive tracts via endozoochory, which facilitates longer-distance dispersal beyond immediate hydrological connections.^[41] Vegetative dispersal via rhizome fragments, detached by water flow or disturbance, further contributes to clonal expansion in suitable habitats.^[42] Seeds exhibit physiological dormancy, requiring cold, moist stratification over winter to break, after which germination is good under saturated, cool conditions mimicking boreal wetlands.^[43] Dispersal is typically local via hydrochory, with bird-mediated endozoochory enabling longer-distance transport. The open spathe and compact spadix briefly retain small pollinators, aiding pollen transfer without specialized trapping mechanisms.^[44]

Ecological Interactions

Calla palustris plays a key role in wetland food webs as both a primary producer and a food source for herbivores and omnivores. Its rhizomes and leaves are grazed by muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus), which consume the plant as part of their diet in aquatic habitats. Berries are eaten by waterfowl such as mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) and ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), aiding in seed dispersal while providing nutritional value during foraging. Seeds are subject to predation by insects, contributing to population regulation within the ecosystem.^[45]^[46]^[47] The plant may form symbiotic associations with mycorrhizal fungi, enhancing nutrient uptake in nutrient-poor, low-oxygen wetland soils where root hairs alone may be insufficient. These associations facilitate phosphorus and other mineral acquisition, supporting growth in anaerobic conditions typical of bogs and marshes.^[48] Additionally, Calla palustris provides habitat structure for aquatic invertebrates, including beetles like Ilybius spp. (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae), which lay eggs on or near its leaves and stems, thereby supporting invertebrate communities in shallow waters.^[49]^[50] As an indicator species, Calla palustris signals acidic, undisturbed wetlands with nutrient-poor conditions, thriving in pH ranges of 4.5–7.5 and saturated soils. It is sensitive to eutrophication from excess phosphorus and nitrogen inputs, which favor competitive invasives and reduce its abundance, and to drainage that alters hydrology and exposes roots to desiccation. Its presence or decline thus reflects wetland integrity and anthropogenic disturbance levels.^[51]^[52] In terms of competition, Calla palustris interacts with aggressive aquatic species like Phragmites australis, which can invade and dominate shared wetland spaces, potentially displacing it through shading and resource monopolization. However, it benefits from the acidic conditions created by Sphagnum mosses, which inhibit competitors and maintain suitable microhabitats in peatlands. Regarding broader biodiversity contributions, the plant stabilizes sediments with its extensive rhizome systems, preventing erosion in dynamic wetland environments, and oxygenates surrounding water and sediments via aerenchyma tissues in roots, promoting aerobic decomposition in anoxic zones. In peatland ecosystems, it aids carbon sequestration by contributing to organic matter accumulation and peat formation.^[53]^[54]^[55]

Cultivation and Uses

Growing Requirements

Calla palustris thrives in aquatic or boggy environments that mimic its natural wetland habitats, such as shallow ponds, bog gardens, or containers with standing water 5–15 cm deep.^[4]^[56] The ideal soil is acidic (pH 5–6), humus-rich in organic matter, and lime-free to maintain suitable conditions.^[5]^[57] This plant is hardy in USDA zones 2–6, tolerating cold winters but requiring protection from extreme heat above 30°C, which can cause sunburn or stress.^[4]^[57] In colder areas within its range, apply a light mulch over the crowns in late fall to insulate against frost.^[29] Partial shade, providing 2–6 hours of direct sunlight daily, supports healthy growth, while constant moisture is essential—ensure the soil or water never dries out.^[5]^[4] Fertilize sparingly in spring with a low-nitrogen aquatic formula to avoid promoting algal growth or root issues.^[58] For soil preparation, combine equal parts peat moss for acidity, sand for texture, and loam for nutrient retention, planting rhizomes just below the surface in baskets or directly in mud.^[5]^[57] Avoid adding lime or alkaline amendments, as they can disrupt the plant's preference for acidic conditions. Common pests include slugs and aphids, which can be managed with organic barriers or insecticidal soap, while over-fertilization may lead to root rot from excess nutrients in wet conditions.^[56]^[58] Overall, Calla palustris experiences few serious diseases in properly maintained sites.^[5]^[4]

Propagation and Ornamental Value

Calla palustris is primarily propagated through division of its rhizomes or by seed sowing, with division being the more reliable method for established plants. Rhizome division is best performed in late spring, when each section should include one to three lateral buds to ensure successful rooting; this approach allows for quicker establishment compared to seeds, and divisions can be replanted in moist, acidic muck or aquatic soil mixes just below the surface.^[4]^[58] Seed propagation requires an initial warm period at 20–22°C for 2–4 weeks in muddy compost, followed by cold moist stratification for 4–6 weeks at 0–5°C to break dormancy, then sowing on a surface of fine grit or muddy compost at 15–20°C, where germination typically occurs within 4–6 weeks under bright, indirect light; however, seedlings are slow to establish, often taking 3–4 years to reach flowering maturity.^[59]^[5]^[58] As an ornamental plant, Calla palustris is valued for its elegant white spathes that emerge from May to July, providing a striking contrast against its glossy, heart-shaped green foliage and the vibrant red berries that follow in late summer to fall. It is particularly suited for planting in water features such as ponds, bog gardens, rain gardens, and stream margins, where it can be naturalized to create a naturalistic, low-growing border that enhances wetland aesthetics without requiring ongoing intervention once established. It can form dense patches via rhizomes in suitable wetland conditions.^[5]^[6]^[4] The species has no named cultivars, with the wild form preferred for its authentic appearance and adaptation to native wetland conditions, though rare natural variants like those with multiple spathes per inflorescence have been noted but not commercially developed.^[1]^[5] Historical records indicate that Calla palustris has been incorporated into European water gardens since at least the early 20th century, building on its native presence across the continent for ornamental plantings in bog and marginal aquatic settings, where its low-maintenance nature—requiring only consistent moisture and partial shade—makes it enduringly popular. Despite these benefits, challenges include the plant's slow establishment from seed, which can delay integration into landscapes.^[1]^[4]^[5]

Toxicity and Conservation

Toxicity

All parts of Calla palustris, including the leaves, stems, rhizomes, spathe, and berries, contain calcium oxalate crystals known as raphides, which are particularly concentrated in the rhizomes and spathe.^[60]^[6]^[61] These needle-like crystals are bundled in specialized cells called idioblasts and serve as a defense mechanism against herbivores.^[60] Ingestion of any plant part by humans causes immediate oral irritation due to the mechanical action of the raphides piercing soft tissues, leading to burning sensations, swelling of the lips, mouth, tongue, and throat, excessive salivation, and vomiting.^[6]^[62] In severe cases involving large quantities, symptoms may progress to difficulty swallowing or speaking from throat constriction and, rarely, oxalate-induced kidney damage through nephrosis.^[63] Skin contact with the plant's sap can result in irritant dermatitis, characterized by redness, itching, or blistering, especially upon exposure to sunlight.^[64]^[65] The plant is poisonous to livestock such as cattle, which typically avoid it due to its acrid taste, and to pets including dogs and cats, producing similar gastrointestinal irritation and oral discomfort upon ingestion.^[5]^[61] The berries attract waterfowl and aquatic wildlife.^[5] There is no specific antidote for C. palustris poisoning; treatment involves rinsing the mouth thoroughly with water or milk to remove crystals, administering symptomatic care such as anti-inflammatory medications or fluids for dehydration, and seeking immediate medical or veterinary attention in severe cases.^[66]^[67]

Conservation Status

Calla palustris is ranked as Secure (G5) by NatureServe, reflecting abundant occurrences and broad habitat availability in wetlands and bogs across its circumboreal distribution, with the global status last reviewed on July 12, 2024.^[26] In North America, it is ranked Secure (N5) in Canada and most U.S. states.^[26] Regionally, the species faces greater threats in parts of Europe, where it is classified as Vulnerable in Slovakia owing to habitat fragmentation and drainage in peatlands.^[68] In the United Kingdom, non-native populations are limited and susceptible to decline from similar pressures. Overall, threats include wetland drainage, water pollution, and competition with invasive species. Population trends are stable at a global scale, supported by resilient occurrences in remote northern habitats, but local extirpations have occurred due to habitat loss from activities such as peat extraction.^[26] Monitoring efforts in protected Ramsar wetland sites help track these dynamics, particularly in areas prone to hydrological changes. The species receives protection through national listings and benefits from broader wetland conservation frameworks like the EU Habitats Directive. Management strategies include restoration projects involving reintroduction into degraded bogs, as demonstrated by successful population recoveries in France's Vosges Mountains.^[69] Ongoing research examines climate change impacts, including potential northward range shifts in response to warming temperatures and altered precipitation patterns.^[26]

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Calla palustris|water arum/RHS Gardening
How to grow. Cultivation. Grow in humus-rich, lime free soil in planting baskets in mud or in still or slow moving water no deeper than 25 cm, in full sun.Missing: distribution | Show results with:distribution
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Calla palustris Water Arum PFAF Plant Database
### Growing Requirements for Calla palustris
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Calla palustris - Shoot Gardening
Calla palustris (Water arum) Plant in loam (lime-free) soil (ideally in planting baskets) in water up to 25cm deep, in full sun.Missing: preference | Show results with:preference
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[PDF] ESRM 412 - Draft Plant Propagation Protocol
May 25, 2022 · PROPAGATION DETAILS (rhizome division) Target Specifications Calla palustris is slow growing, but mature plants can be up to 16 inches tall ( ...Missing: asexual reproduction
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Seed Germination Database - Perennials - A to C
... seed - do not cover. Calla palustris , Sow at 22ºC (72ºF) in muddy compost for 2-4 wks, move to 0ºC (32ºF) for 4-6 wks, after which temperature should be ...Missing: stratification | Show results with:stratification
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Water Arum - PEI Untamed
Aug 13, 2025 · In late winter and early spring, its rhizomes can be seen on the surface of water-logged soils, putting down new roots at each node to help it ...Missing: reproduction inflorescence life asexual
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Water Arum, Water Dragon, Wild Calla - Eat the Weeds
This is removed from the root by long-term drying, dry heat, or (if like the others) careful use of a microwave and drying. In Scandinavia the roots were dried, ...
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Calla palustris (Calla Lily, Water Arum) | A Fascinating Green World
Apr 11, 2014 · Depth: Shallow water, the crown (where the roots and stem meet) won't be damaged with 4-5 centimeters (2 inches) of water above it.Missing: habitat | Show results with:habitat
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Plants Causing Kidney Failure - Ivis.org
In chronic oxalate poisoning, insoluble calcium oxalate filtered by the kidneys causes severe damage to the kidney tubules (oxalate nephrosis). ... Calla ...
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10 Plants with Irritant Sap | BBC Gardeners World Magazine
Jan 30, 2020 · Contact with the sap can cause skin rashes, burns and blurred vision. Other plants with irritant sap: Anthurium; Arisaema; Arum; Calla palustris ...
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Araceae - Botanical Dermatology Database
The acrid juice may cause dermatitis (North 1967) and also swelling of the tongue on contact, the dried plant being somewhat less irritant than the fresh ...
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Poisonous Plants in Alaska - National Park Service
Dec 12, 2023 · Skin contact with juice from the plant followed by exposure to sunlight can cause dermatitis, which can range from a mild, red rash to ...
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Wild Calla Poisoning in Dogs - Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis ...
Since most cases of wild calla poisoning are relatively mild, the prognosis for a full recovery is excellent. Once the oxalate crystals are rinsed from your ...
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Toxicology of plants (Proceedings) - DVM360
Gastrointestinal protectants (sucralfate or kaolin-pectin) should be used as needed. Exposed animals should be closely monitored for at least 24 hours, and ...
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Calla palustris - CYSIP: Botany
Plant contains crystals of calcium oxalate especially in the rhizome. This makes it dangerous to ingest. Plant fleashy with acrid watery juice. Life Cycle ...
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Distribution, ecology and vegetation affinity of bog arum (Calla ...
May 5, 2021 · Calla palustris is considered vulnerable in Slovakia (Eliáš et al. 2015). ... Most current localities of C. palustris are legally protected at ...Missing: conservation | Show results with:conservation
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Recovery success of the nationally threatened and protected ...
Calla palustris L. is a circumboreal plant species which is rather continental in Europe. It reaches its south-western limit in the north-eastern part of France ...Northern Vosges · Southern Vosges · DiscussionMissing: range | Show results with:range