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Aroideae

Aroideae is the largest and most diverse subfamily within the Araceae family of monocotyledonous flowering plants, comprising approximately 72 genera and 2,300 species primarily distributed across tropical regions of the world, with some extensions into temperate zones.^[1] These plants are predominantly herbaceous, exhibiting a wide array of growth forms including terrestrial, geophytic (with tubers or rhizomes), epiphytic, hemiepiphytic, and climbing habits, and are characterized by their distinctive inflorescences—a fleshy spadix bearing numerous small flowers, subtended by a single bract-like spathe—that often display unisexual flowers and berries as fruits. Tissues typically contain raphides (calcium oxalate crystals) and laticifers producing milky sap, contributing to their defensive chemistry against herbivores. In contemporary phylogenetic classifications, Aroideae has been expanded to include elements of the former Zamioculcadoideae as the tribe Zamioculcadeae, and includes the genus Calla as sister to most other members, alongside newly recognized tribes such as Aglaonemateae (with genera like Aglaonema) and Stylochaetoneae (monogeneric with Stylochaeton).^[2] The subfamily's morphological diversity is striking, ranging from small geophytes like Arisaema to large climbers such as Philodendron and massive tuberous species in Amorphophallus, with high variability in leaf shape, venation, and reproductive structures that reflect adaptive radiations in tropical forests. Aroideae holds substantial economic and ecological significance, with many species serving as staple food crops—such as taro (Colocasia esculenta) for its starchy corms rich in dietary fiber, and yautia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) as a vegetable—and as popular ornamentals including Anthurium, Alocasia, and Caladium bicolor valued for their colorful foliage. Some genera, like Arum and Symplocarpus, feature thermogenic spadices that generate heat to attract pollinators, underscoring the subfamily's evolutionary innovations in reproductive biology.

Description

Vegetative Features

Aroideae species are predominantly herbaceous perennials, with diverse forms including terrestrial, aquatic, and geophytic adaptations.^[3] Stems are typically short and subterranean, often developing as tuberous structures for nutrient storage in tribes such as Areae and Caladieae, or as rhizomes that facilitate horizontal spread in groups like Aglaonemateae and Spathicarpeae. These underground stems enable survival in seasonally dry or understory environments by storing starch and water.^[3] Leaves in Aroideae are usually basal or alternate along the stem, featuring petioles with sheathing bases and blades that display characteristic monocot parallel venation.^[3]^[4] Blade shapes vary widely, including sagittate, hastate, cordate, or peltate forms, which enhance light capture and structural support in shaded or humid habitats.^[3] Many tropical species possess elongated drip tips on leaf apices to facilitate water shedding and reduce fungal growth.^[5] Aroideae tissues commonly contain raphides, needle-like calcium oxalate crystals within specialized idioblasts, which deter herbivory by causing mechanical irritation and toxicity upon ingestion, and laticifers that produce milky sap.^[3]^[6]^[7] Root systems are adventitious and dimorphic, comprising fibrous roots for nutrient uptake and tuberous roots for storage, with some geophytic and aquatic species developing contractile roots that pull the plant deeper into the soil for anchorage and protection.^[8] Heterophylly is prevalent, where juvenile leaves differ markedly from adult ones in shape and size; for instance, in Colocasia, seedlings produce linear leaves that transition to broad peltate adults as the plant matures.^[9] This ontogenetic shift supports establishment in varying light conditions during early growth stages.

Reproductive Structures

The reproductive structures of Aroideae are highly specialized, featuring a characteristic inflorescence consisting of a spadix—a fleshy, spike-like axis bearing densely packed, often unisexual flowers—enclosed or subtended by a spathe, a colorful or modified bract that protects the developing inflorescence and aids in pollinator attraction.^[4] In monoecious species, which predominate in the subfamily, female flowers are typically positioned at the base of the spadix, followed by male flowers toward the apex, while dioecious species have separate male and female inflorescences on different plants.^[10] This arrangement supports sequential flowering phases, often exhibiting protogyny, where the female phase precedes the male phase to promote outcrossing and prevent self-pollination through temporal dichogamy.^[11] Flowers in Aroideae lack a well-developed perianth, with tepals either absent or reduced to minute scales, allowing direct exposure of reproductive organs. Male flowers consist of 4–6 stamens fused into synandria, each with extrorse, tetrasporangiate anthers that release pollen via longitudinal slits. Female flowers feature 1–3 carpels forming a syncarpous gynoecium with an unilocular or multilocular ovary containing few to many anatropous ovules, topped by a sessile or stipitate style and a papillate stigma. Pollen grains are typically psilate (smooth) or spinulose (finely spiny), lacking a robust sporopollenin ektexine layer, which renders them sticky and adapted for adhesion to insect pollinators rather than wind dispersal.^[12]^[13] Pollination in Aroideae is predominantly entomophilous, relying on beetles (e.g., Scarabaeidae) or flies (e.g., Psychodidae) attracted to the inflorescence's dung- or carrion-like odors produced by volatile compounds such as isovaleric acid. Many species employ a trap mechanism, where pollinators enter the spathe chamber during the female phase, contact stigmas, and become dusted with pollen before escaping during the subsequent male phase. Thermogenesis plays a key role in several genera, with the spadix generating heat up to 22°C above ambient temperature to volatilize scents and provide a warm microenvironment that sustains trapped insects; this is particularly pronounced in Arum, where appendix tissues reach peak temperatures of 26–34°C, and in Sauromatum, where alternative oxidase activity drives intense respiratory heat production.^[14]^[15]^[16] Following pollination, Aroideae produce berries as fruits, typically juicy and brightly colored (red, orange, or white) with 1–many seeds embedded in a fleshy pulp, though some are drier and leathery. In genera like Colocasia, the ovaries fuse into a syncarpic fruiting head, forming a dense cluster of berries that dehisce irregularly to release seeds. Seed dispersal occurs primarily via endozoochory by birds and mammals attracted to the nutritious pulp, with examples including avian frugivory in Amorphophallus and Alocasia species; hydrochory by water is common in semi-aquatic taxa, while some seeds feature elaiosomes for myrmecochory.^[7]^[17]^[18]

Distribution and Ecology

Geographic Range

The subfamily Aroideae exhibits a pantropical distribution, with extensions into subtropical and temperate regions, encompassing about 2,300 species across approximately 72-75 genera. Its highest diversity is concentrated in Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia and Malaysia, where more than 1,500 species occur, and in South America, including the Amazon basin and Andean regions, which host significant endemism and species richness. This range also reaches temperate zones, such as Europe with genera like Arum (native from Denmark to northeast Turkey and the Mediterranean), North America via Peltandra (endemic to eastern wetlands from Quebec to Florida), and parts of Africa.^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22] Aroideae displays a pronounced Old World-New World biogeographic split, with patterns similar to the Araceae family showing greater generic diversity in Asia and Africa (e.g., many Aroideae genera like Alocasia and Schismatoglottis contributing to the 43 Araceae genera in Asia) and substantial representation in the Americas (e.g., large genera like Anthurium among Araceae there). Some taxa achieve cosmopolitan status, such as the free-floating aquatic Pistia, which spans stagnant waters from North Carolina to Argentina, Egypt to the Cape, India, and Southeast Asia. Endemism is notable in regions like Madagascar, where the tribe Arophyteae (e.g., Arophyton and Carlephyton, including the recently described Carlephyton sajoreciae in 2025) is restricted, alongside other Aroideae species contributing to the island's approximately 23 native Araceae. Human-mediated dispersal has further expanded ranges, as seen with Colocasia, cultivated worldwide from its Southeast Asian origins across the Pacific, Africa, Asia, the West Indies, and South America.^[20]^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27] Historically, Aroideae likely originated in Laurasia during the Late Cretaceous, with diversification into major lineages beginning around 87 million years ago, and subsequent dispersal to Gondwanan landmasses inferred from fossil records dating to the Late Cretaceous (~112-70 million years ago), including pollen and leaves from Patagonia and Portugal. This migration involved vicariance via continental drift and long-distance dispersal, leading to the current disjunct patterns between Laurasian-derived temperate lineages and tropical radiations in Asia and the Americas.^[19]^[28]

Habitat Adaptations

Aroideae species exhibit remarkable diversity in life forms, enabling occupation of varied habitats from humid forest understories to wetlands and seasonal dry environments. Many are terrestrial geophytes, characterized by underground tubers or rhizomes that facilitate dormancy and survival during drought periods, as seen in genera like Arisaema and Zantedeschia. Others, such as certain Anubias species, adopt semi-epiphytic or lithophytic habits, attaching to rocks or tree bases in riverine or shaded riparian zones, while aquatic or helophytic forms like those in Peltandra and Cryptocoryne thrive in submerged or emergent wetland conditions. This range of growth strategies reflects adaptations to both stable and fluctuating environments across tropical and subtropical regions.^[29]^[30]^[31] Physiological adaptations further enhance habitat versatility in Aroideae. Wetland species, such as Peltandra virginica, develop extensive aerenchyma tissue in roots and petioles, forming interconnected air spaces that transport oxygen from aerial parts to waterlogged rhizospheres, thereby mitigating hypoxia. Shade tolerance is prevalent among understory taxa, achieved through low light compensation points and efficient chlorophyll utilization, allowing sustained photosynthesis in dim conditions typical of tropical forests. Chemical defenses, including cyanogenic glycosides that release hydrogen cyanide upon tissue damage, deter herbivores in vulnerable genera like Arum and Philodendron, providing protection in nutrient-poor or disturbed soils. High phenotypic plasticity enables individuals to adjust leaf morphology, growth rates, and reproductive timing in response to environmental variability, such as seasonal flooding or light gradients.^[32]^[33] Ecologically, Aroideae contribute to habitat dynamics through mycorrhizal associations and specialized traits. Many species form arbuscular mycorrhizae with fungi, improving nutrient uptake—particularly phosphorus—in oligotrophic soils, as observed in climbing and understory genera like Philodendron. Certain taxa act as pioneers in disturbed areas, rapidly colonizing gaps via tuberous reserves and vegetative propagation. Thermogenic inflorescences in genera like Arum generate heat to volatilize attractants and maintain optimal temperatures for beetle pollinators, an adaptation that supports reproduction in cooler, temperate-adjacent climates. These roles underscore Aroideae's integration into ecosystems, from nutrient cycling in wetlands to biodiversity support in rainforests.^[34]^[29]^[35]

Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Historical Classification

The family Araceae, encompassing the subfamily Aroideae, was formally established by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in his Genera Plantarum of 1789, where he classified climbing aroids under Pothos and terrestrial forms under Arum or Dracontium.^[36] This marked the initial recognition of the family as a distinct group, building on earlier scattered descriptions from the 16th century.^[37] Heinrich Wilhelm Schott advanced Araceae taxonomy significantly with his Genera Aroidearum published in 1858, a monumental work spanning over 200 pages and illustrated with 98 plates, which treated nearly 100 genera and laid the groundwork for understanding aroid diversity through detailed morphological analysis.^[38] In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Adolf Engler developed the first phylogenetic classification of the family, culminating in his 1920 treatment in Das Pflanzenreich, where he divided Araceae into 10 subfamilies including Aroideae, emphasizing inflorescence structure, flower sexuality, and vegetative anatomy to delineate tribes within subfamilies.^[39] John Hutchinson's 1926 system in The Families of Flowering Plants introduced evolutionary principles, separating unisexual-flowered groups like those in Aroideae from bisexual ones, reflecting a shift toward phylogenetic considerations based on reproductive morphology.^[40] By the 1970s, Thomas B. Croat's revisions, informed by anatomical studies such as vascular patterns and floral structures, refined tribal boundaries and highlighted the need for broader subfamilial realignments, though major changes remained contentious.^[41] Early classifications often conflated subfamilies; for instance, Colocasioideae was subsumed under Aroideae until 1980s anatomical investigations, including stem vasculature analyses, confirmed their distinction.^[42]

Modern Phylogenetic Framework

The modern phylogenetic framework of Aroideae is grounded in molecular data, particularly phylogenomic analyses of chloroplast and nuclear sequences, which have clarified its position within the Araceae family. Aroideae forms part of the derived "unisexual flowers clade" alongside Zamioculcadoideae, characterized by unisexual flowers as a key synapomorphy that distinguishes it from earlier-diverging subfamilies such as Gymnostachydoideae and Orontioideae.^[43] The Araceae family as a whole diverged during the Early Cretaceous, with a stem age of approximately 135 million years ago (Ma) and a crown age of 122 Ma, placing Aroideae's origins in the context of early angiosperm diversification.^[19] Recent phylogenomic studies have resolved longstanding uncertainties in Aroideae's internal structure and boundaries. Nauheimer et al. (2012) utilized expanded taxon sampling and Bayesian divergence-time estimation to infer that major lineages of Aroideae emerged between 87 Ma and 62 Ma in the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene, with the crown group dated to approximately 62 Ma, linking its early evolution to the breakup of Gondwana.^[19] Building on this, Henriquez et al. (2014) employed whole-chloroplast genome data from 32 genera to confirm strongly supported relationships within Aroideae, including the basal placement of clades like Calla and Schismatoglottis, and resolved conflicts from prior morphological classifications through multi-locus analyses.^[43] For instance, the placement of Calla within Aroideae, rather than as a separate subfamily (Calloideae), was definitively confirmed by these multi-locus approaches, integrating it into the core unisexual clade.^[43] A significant update came in 2022, when Chartier et al. expanded Aroideae to incorporate Zamioculcadoideae based on target sequence data from 128 nuclear loci across 240 Araceae species, recognizing seven subfamilies in total and elevating Aroideae as a broader entity encompassing the Stylochaeton–Arum clade.^[2] This revision highlights Aroideae's high diversification, particularly in tropical lineages, driven by innovations like unisexual flowers and omniaperturate pollen. These dynamics underscore Aroideae's role in the Eocene radiation of tropical angiosperms around 50 Ma, when diversification accelerated in response to expanding humid forests.^[19]

Subdivisions into Tribes

The subfamily Aroideae is subdivided into 26 tribes, a classification that captures its extensive morphological, ecological, and phylogenetic variation within the Araceae family.^[23] These tribes are primarily delimited by traits such as ovary locule number, synandrium structure in male flowers, spathe morphology, and inflorescence arrangement, with distributions spanning tropical to temperate regions worldwide. Tribe sizes differ markedly, from monotypic groups like the former Protarieae (now often included in Colocasieae), represented solely by Protarum sechellarum Engl. endemic to the Seychelles, to expansive tribes such as Arisaemateae, which encompasses over 200 species predominantly in the dioecious genus Arisaema.^[23]^[44] Key tribes illustrate this diversity through diagnostic reproductive and vegetative features. Arisaemateae includes dioecious perennial herbs with unisexual inflorescences, often featuring a hooded spathe and a long tail-like appendix on the spadix, as seen in Arisaema triphyllum (jack-in-the-pulpit).^[23] Colocasieae comprises robust, large-leaved herbs or geophytes with peltate or sagittate leaves and berries in vivid colors, exemplified by tuberous Colocasia esculenta (taro) and the ornamental Alocasia species.^[23] Zantedeschieae consists of African endemics, typically rhizomatous or tuberous perennials with funnel-shaped spathes and showy inflorescences, including the horticulturally important Zantedeschia aethiopica (calla lily).^[23] Other notable tribes highlight regional specializations and floral innovations. Areae features Arum-like herbs with short peduncles, a constricted spathe, and often foul-smelling inflorescences to attract pollinators, primarily distributed in the Mediterranean and adjacent areas (e.g., Arum maculatum).^[23] Spathicarpeae, a neotropical group, includes scandent or erect shrubs and herbs with elongated spadices and variable ovary positions, represented by genera like Taccarum.^[23] Zomicarpeae is distinguished by unisexual flowers arranged in distinct zones on the spadix and an elongated, tubular spathe, as in the small genera Zomicarpella and Zomicarpa, both confined to Central and South America.^[23] Recent phylogenetic studies have prompted revisions, such as the 2022 establishment of Aglaonemateae as a distinct tribe for Asian understory herbs with unilocular ovaries and compact inflorescences, encompassing Aglaonema and the newly described monotypic Boycea. This tribal framework, supported by molecular phylogenies, underscores the evolutionary radiation of Aroideae, with basal tribes often showing plesiomorphic traits like free stamens and advanced ones exhibiting fused synandria and specialized pollination mechanisms.^[45]

Genera and Diversity

Species and Genera Counts

The subfamily Aroideae encompasses 81 genera and approximately 2,300–2,500 species, accounting for about 65% of the total diversity within the Araceae family.^[46] These figures reflect ongoing taxonomic refinements, with the accepted species count reaching 2,462 as updated in Plants of the World Online in 2025.^[47] Among these, the genus Anthurium stands as the largest, comprising over 1,000 species primarily distributed in neotropical regions.^[48] Biodiversity hotspots for Aroideae are concentrated in the tropics, with an estimated 1,000 species in the Neotropics (Americas) and 800 in Asia, underscoring the subfamily's pantropical dominance.^[19] Regions like Borneo continue to yield new discoveries, with 5–10 species described annually from unexplored forest areas, contributing to the dynamic growth in known diversity.^[49] For instance, recent expeditions have revealed novel taxa such as Hayarum mirispathum in nearby Thai-Bornean border zones, highlighting persistent exploration needs in Southeast Asia.^[50] This expansion is particularly evident in tropical lineages, where high endemism rates emphasize the vulnerability of Aroideae to habitat loss in restricted ranges.^[51]

Notable Genera

Arisaema is a diverse genus comprising approximately 200 species of tuberous perennial herbs primarily native to temperate and subtropical regions of Asia, with extensions into Africa and North America.^[44] Many species exhibit dioecious sexual systems, where individual plants produce either male or female inflorescences, often with environmental cues influencing sex expression.^[52] A notable reproductive strategy involves brood-site mimicry, particularly resembling fungi like mushrooms, which attracts fungus gnat pollinators into the spathe trap of the inflorescence; for instance, Arisaema triphyllum (jack-in-the-pulpit) uses this deception to ensure pollination while potentially trapping and killing some visitors.^[53] Colocasia, encompassing over 20 species of herbaceous perennials, is characterized by large, peltate leaves that emerge from underground corms, adapted to wetland environments across Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent.^[54] These plants thrive in moist to aquatic habitats, with leaves often held horizontally to capture light in shaded, humid understories.^[55] The genus includes Colocasia esculenta (taro), featuring sagittate to peltate blades up to 1 meter long and inflorescences with a prominent spathe and spadix for wind or insect pollination.^[56] Amorphophallus consists of around 200 species of tuberous geophytes endemic to tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia, Africa, and Australia, renowned for their massive, thermogenic inflorescences that can exceed 2 meters in height.^[57] Thermogenesis in the spadix generates heat up to 40°C, volatilizing foul odors to attract carrion beetle pollinators; this metabolic process occurs in distinct phases during anthesis.^[58] Exemplars include Amorphophallus titanum (corpse flower), with its enormous purple spathe, and Amorphophallus konjac, noted for edible tubers and similar heat-producing blooms.^[59] Zantedeschia includes eight species of rhizomatous perennials native to southern Africa, distinguished by their funnel-shaped spathes surrounding a spadix, often in vibrant white, yellow, or pink hues.^[60] Leaves are typically sagittate or hastate, emerging from the rhizome in clumps suited to marshy or streamside habitats.^[61] Zantedeschia aethiopica (calla lily) exemplifies the genus with its pure white spathe up to 25 cm long and arrow-shaped leaves, pollinated by flies drawn to the enclosed flowers.^[61] Dieffenbachia comprises about 50 species of evergreen perennials from Central and South America, featuring upright stems with large, ovate to lanceolate leaves often variegated in green and white or yellow patterns.^[62] A key defensive trait is the presence of raphides—needle-like calcium oxalate crystals—that are ejected upon tissue damage, causing irritation and swelling in herbivores and humans.^[63] Dieffenbachia seguine (dumb cane) illustrates this with its 30-40 cm long leaves and inflorescences rarely produced in cultivation, relying on vegetative propagation.^[64] Anthurium, the largest genus in Aroideae with over 1,000 species, consists of epiphytic or terrestrial herbs native to neotropical rainforests, characterized by persistent, colorful spathes and pendent spadices that persist long after anthesis.^[23] Leaves vary from cordate to sagittate, often glossy and veined prominently. Anthurium andraeanum (flamingo flower) features heart-shaped red spathes and is pollinated by beetles attracted to its resinous rewards.^[23] Arum includes about 40 species of tuberous or rhizomatous perennials mainly from the Mediterranean and Europe, with arrow-shaped leaves and inflorescences featuring a hooded spathe that traps pollinators overnight.^[65] The spadix produces heat and scents mimicking carrion or dung. Arum maculatum (lords-and-ladies) has spotted leaves and a green-purple spathe, with bright red berries following pollination by fungus gnats.^[65] Caladium encompasses around 15 species of tuberous perennials from South American rainforests, prized for their multicolored, heart- or arrow-shaped leaves with intricate vein patterns in shades of green, white, pink, and red.^[56] Inflorescences are small and axillary, with white spathes. Caladium bicolor displays striking variegation and is adapted to shaded, humid forest floors.^[23] Xanthosoma features approximately 200 species of arborescent or herbaceous plants from Central and South America, with large, peltate leaves borne on long petioles, often forming stem-like structures from clustered corms.^[66] They inhabit wet, tropical lowlands. Xanthosoma sagittifolium has sagittate blades up to 1.5 meters and produces edible corms, with inflorescences pollinated by beetles.^[55] Spathiphyllum consists of around 40 species of evergreen rhizomatous perennials from Central and South America, known for white spathes subtending a creamy spadix, thriving in shaded, moist habitats.^[23] Leaves are elliptic to lanceolate. Spathiphyllum wallisii (peace lily) exemplifies the genus with its arching spathe and tolerance for low light, attracting fly pollinators.^[23]

Uses and Conservation

Human Utilization

Aroideae plants have significant culinary value, particularly in tropical regions. Colocasia esculenta, commonly known as taro, serves as a staple food in many Pacific Island and Asian cultures, where its corms are boiled, baked, or fermented into dishes like poi in Hawaii or used in stews and puddings across Southeast Asia.^[67]^[68] The corms contain calcium oxalate crystals that must be removed through processing methods such as soaking, boiling, or fermentation to prevent irritation and ensure edibility.^[69] Similarly, Alocasia macrorrhizos, or giant taro, is consumed in parts of India, Bangladesh, and the Pacific, with its stem tubers peeled and cooked into curries or vegetables after detoxification.^[70] In horticulture and floristry, several Aroideae genera are prized for their aesthetic appeal. Zantedeschia aethiopica, the calla lily, is widely used as a cut flower in the floral industry due to its elegant white spathes, often featured in bouquets and arrangements for its striking form.^[71] Dieffenbachia species are popular houseplants for their variegated foliage, adding tropical flair to indoor spaces, though their sap contains toxic calcium oxalates that can cause oral irritation if ingested.^[72]^[73] Medicinal applications of Aroideae are rooted in traditional practices, particularly in Asia. Species of Arisaema, such as A. erubescens, are employed in traditional Chinese medicine as an antidote for snakebites, applied externally to reduce venom effects, and for treating carbuncles and respiratory issues.^[74]^[75] Sauromatum venosum (also known as S. guttatum) is used traditionally for its anti-inflammatory properties, with tuber extracts applied to wounds, asthma, and spasms in South Asian ethnomedicine.^[76]^[77] Beyond these primary uses, Aroideae contribute to ethnomedicinal and cultural practices. In South America, Xanthosoma species, such as X. riedelianum, provide rhizomes rich in anthocyanins extracted as natural pigments for dyes in indigenous applications.^[78] Culturally, Amorphophallus titanum, the corpse flower, is notable for its carrion-like odor and holds symbolic significance in some Indonesian traditions. The global trade in ornamental Aroideae, including popular genera like Zantedeschia and Dieffenbachia, contributes significantly to the broader floriculture sector.

Conservation Status

The biodiversity of Aroideae, a subfamily within the Araceae family, faces significant threats primarily from habitat destruction due to deforestation, particularly in tropical regions like Southeast Asia where many species occur. In Sumatra, Indonesia, for instance, the iconic Amorphophallus titanum is endangered largely because of rainforest clearance for agriculture and logging, which has reduced its natural habitat. Overcollection for ornamental trade exacerbates these pressures, as popular genera such as Alocasia and Cryptocoryne are harvested unsustainably from wild populations to meet demand in the horticulture industry. Climate change poses additional risks to temperate genera like Arum, potentially altering suitable habitats through shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns, though some species may exhibit adaptive traits such as drought tolerance. Additionally, some Aroideae species, such as taro (Colocasia esculenta), have become invasive in non-native regions, posing threats to local biodiversity.^[79] Assessments by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) indicate that only a small fraction of Aroideae species have been evaluated for the Red List, although only about 20% of the world's known plant species (around 76,800 out of approximately 390,000 described species) have been assessed for the IUCN Red List, highlighting a critical gap in data for this subfamily. Among evaluated taxa, over 80% in regions like Veracruz, Mexico, are categorized as threatened, while in Southeast Asia, field studies propose vulnerable status for several wild species due to ongoing habitat degradation. Hotspots of concern include Indonesia and Madagascar, where endemics such as certain Amorphophallus species face elevated extinction risks; for example, A. titanum is listed as Endangered, with its population decline linked to habitat loss exceeding 50% in recent decades. Conservation efforts for Aroideae emphasize a combination of in situ and ex situ strategies to mitigate these threats. Protected areas, such as Gunung Leuser National Park in Sumatra, safeguard diverse habitats that support Aroideae species including Arisaema, helping to curb deforestation and poaching. Ex situ conservation through botanic gardens is vital, with collections like those at the Bogor Botanic Gardens in Indonesia and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, preserving over 300 Aroideae taxa for research and propagation. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) regulates trade in threatened Araceae, including some Alocasia species, to prevent overexploitation. Restoration initiatives, particularly for cultivated relatives like taro (Colocasia esculenta), involve genetic resource conservation and sustainable farming projects in regions such as Papua New Guinea and Hawaii to bolster resilience against environmental pressures. Prioritizing comprehensive IUCN Red List assessments for the estimated 500+ unevaluated Aroideae species remains essential to guide targeted protection.

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[PDF] The Philodendron Family (Araceae) - Missouri Botanical Garden
Apr 27, 2018 · Africa 3 genera. • Most species in Americas (2/3 of all species). (41 genera – averaging 3 times larger than those in Asia). • Most aroids in ...Missing: count | Show results with:count
[21]
Biogeography of the Pistia Clade (Araceae): Based on Chloroplast ...
Pistia occurs in stagnant or slow-moving fresh water bodies in the Americas (North Carolina to Argentina), Africa (Egypt to the Cape), India, and Southeast Asia ...Missing: cosmopolitan | Show results with:cosmopolitan
[22]
(PDF) Araceae - ResearchGate
Globally widespread and showing greater diversity in tropical areas, Araceae is represented in Madagascar by approximately 23 native and endemic species that ...
[23]
Taro (Colocasia esculenta) Transformed with a Wheat Oxalate ...
Taro is a tropical root crop that is grown widely throughout the Pacific, Africa, Asia, the West Indies, and South America (Plucknett et al., 1970). It was the ...
[24]
Fossil Araceae from the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia, Argentina ...
In South America, the Araceae fossil record is based mostly on pollen but also on leaves from Late Cretaceous and Paleocene sediments of Brazil and Colombia.
[25]
Distribution of Araceae and the Diversity of Life Forms
Nov 12, 2020 · Vegetative growth of stems of Araceae is usually extremely well developed so that even without reproduction plants may form large stands in the ...
[26]
Phylogenetic relationships of aroids and duckweeds (Araceae ...
Monoge- neric Anubiadeae ( Anubias) and Callopsideae ( Callopsis) di- verge successively. Callopsis is weakly supported as sister to the rest of Aroideae by ...
[27]
Untitled
Among Araceae, rhizomatous and tuberous geophytes are known. Subfamily Aroideae is composed almost entirely of members of the latter group with the exception of ...
[28]
Methane flux in <i>Peltandra virginica</i> (Araceae) wetlands
Aerenchyma permits the internal air space of the roots to be in continuous, or nearly continuous, gaseous connection with the atmosphere. Simple diffusion along ...
[29]
Araceae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Araceae refers to a family of flowering plants known for their diverse structures and adaptations, including the storage of glucomannans in their pseudobulbs, ...
[30]
[PDF] Mycorrhizal abundance in aerial versus terrestrial roots among the ...
May 5, 2007 · This report confirms the presence of mycorrhizae in two species of tropical climbing aroids, and suggests that aerial roots of an individual ...Missing: Aroideae | Show results with:Aroideae
[31]
Regulation of thermogenesis in flowering Araceae: The role of the ...
The inflorescences of several members of the Arum lily family warm up during flowering and are able to maintain their temperature at a constant level, ...
[32]
Details - Antonii Laurentii de Jussieu Genera plantarum
The Biodiversity Heritage Library works collaboratively to make biodiversity literature openly available to the world as part of a global biodiversity ...Missing: Aroideae Brown 1819 Schott 1859
[33]
Phylogenomics of the plant family Araceae - ScienceDirect.com
Araceae, or the Arum family, is a large and ancient monocot plant family most notable for its impressive morphological diversity, including the smallest ...
[34]
Details - Genera Aroidearum exposita - Biodiversity Heritage Library
Mar 16, 2010 · Title. Genera Aroidearum exposita. By. Schott, H. W. (Heinrich Wilhelm), 1794-1865. Type. Book. Material. Published material ...Missing: 1859 count
[35]
None
Summary of each segment:
[36]
Phylogenetic System of Plant Classification | Botany
The following principles were adopted by Hutchinson to classify the flowering plants: ... Plants with unisexual flowers are evolved from bisexual floral ...
[37]
[PDF] History and Current Status of Systematic Research With Araceae
The history of systematic work with Ar- aceae has been previously covered by Nic- olson (1987b), and was the subject of a chapter in the Genera of Araceae ...
[38]
SUBFAMILIES COLOCASIOIDEAE, AROIDEAE AND PISTIOIDEAE
ABSTRACT. The stem vasculature of ten genera of Colocasioideae and three genera of Aroideae was analyzed by films of series of cross sections.
[39]
Phylogenomics of the plant family Araceae - ScienceDirect.com
We present the first phylogeny of Araceae using whole chloroplast data. New strongly-supported relationships inferred in subfamily Aroideae.
[40]
Target sequence data shed new light on the infrafamilial ...
Dec 8, 2022 · The genus Calla is included in subfamily Aroideae, which has also been expanded to include Zamioculcadoideae. The tribe Aglaonemateae is newly ...
[41]
The Genus Arisaema - International Aroid Society
Arisaema is a large and diverse genus of the Araceae family, comprising about 212 species of tuberous perennials native to Asia, Africa, and North America.Missing: Madagascar | Show results with:Madagascar
[42]
[PDF] Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution - Missouri Botanical Garden
Mar 1, 2014 · Detailed classification of Araceae, established as a family in. 1789 ... phological and anatomical characters (Engler, 1920, Mayo et al.,.<|separator|>
[43]
Araceae | Aroids, Flowers, Description, Taxonomy, Characteristics ...
The inflorescence, commonly called the flower, consists of a colourful shiny leathery spathe surrounding or subtending a central rodlike spadix that bears ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
https://www.aroid.org/genera/arisaema
[45]
(PDF) Boyce, P. C. & Croat, T. B. (2011 onwards).The Überlist of ...
Jun 5, 2025 · The Überlist of Araceae, Totals for Published and Estimated Number of Species in Aroid Genera. http://www.aroid.org/genera/180211uberlist.pdf.
[46]
Hayarum mirispathum (Araceae —Aroideae): A new genus and ...
Jan 16, 2025 · Hayarum mirispathum (Araceae —Aroideae): A new genus and species from Thailand ... new genus and species from Kalimantan Barat, Indonesian Borneo.
[47]
(PDF) Hayarum mirispathum (Araceae -Aroideae): A new genus and ...
Jan 17, 2025 · ... geophytes—Arisaema Mart., a. widespread genus with approximately 200 species. distributed from Northeast Africa to the tropical,. subtropical ...
[48]
Araceae, a Family with Great Potential
Feb 27, 2019 · This paper highlights the most unique characteristics of Araceae: their high species diversity, high habit diversity, high rates of endemism, and high rates of ...Missing: Aroideae | Show results with:Aroideae
[49]
Arisaema - FNA - Flora of North America
Nov 5, 2020 · Herbs, terrestrial or wetland. Corms [rhizomes] nearly globose. Leaves usually appearing with flowers, 1–2(–3), erect; petiole longer than blade.
[50]
Arisaema: Pollination by lethal attraction - New Phytologist Foundation
Mar 28, 2022 · Mushroom mimicry has historically been considered an important pollination strategy for the genus, since most reported pollinators of Arisaema ...Abstract · INTRODUCTION · INFLORESCENCES AS...
[51]
The Genus Colocasia - International Aroid Society
Discover Colocasia, tropical Araceae with iconic elephant-ear leaves and edible corms, prized as ornamentals and staple food in Asia and beyond.Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[52]
Elephant Ears (Colocasia, Alocasia, and Xanthosoma)
“Elephant ears” is the common name for a group of tropical perennial plants grown for their large, heart-shaped leaves. Most of these herbaceous species in the ...
[53]
Complete chloroplast genome sequences of three aroideae species ...
Most of these herbaceous species in the Aroideae family (Araceae) that are used as foods and/or ornamentals belong to the genera Colocasia, Caladium, Xanthosoma ...
[54]
The Genus Amorphophallus - International Aroid Society
Explore Amorphophallus, a genus of over 200 tuberous tropical Aroids known for its giant corpse-flower blooms and diverse edible tubers.Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[55]
Amazing Amorphophallus - Kew Gardens
Amorphophallus flowers are very small, but grouped in large flowering structures called inflorescences. The inflorescence of every Amorphophallus species and ...
[56]
A hot topic: thermogenesis in Amorphophallus - Wiley Online Library
Aug 22, 2023 · The Araceae, also known as the Arum family, has a high number of known thermogenic genera and species, with thermogenesis occurring during ...
[57]
The Genus Zantedeschia - International Aroid Society
Zantedeschia is a genus of eight herbaceous perennial flowering plants from southern Africa, known for funnel-shaped spathes and vibrant foliage.Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[58]
Zantedeschia aethiopica - Plant Finder - Missouri Botanical Garden
Zantedeschia aethiopica, or calla lily, is a herbaceous perennial from Southern Africa, growing 2-3 feet tall with arrowhead leaves and a white spathe with ...
[59]
The Genus Dieffenbachia - International Aroid Society
Dieffenbachia is a genus of around 30 species of tropical perennial herbs in the Araceae family, native to Central and South America. Renowned for their ...Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[60]
Dieffenbachia - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
All parts of Dieffenbachia contain irritant toxins including calcium oxalate needles (raphides) and oxalic acid and possibly saponins, glycosides, alkaloids ...
[61]
Dieffenbachia seguine - Plant Finder - Missouri Botanical Garden
This is a clustered perennial that features ovate-oblong to oblong pointed shiny leaves (to 12” long).
[62]
Flora Emslandia, Araceae, subfamily Aroideae
Aroideae: The Araceae in the strict sense are named after the genus Arum. They constitute the largest subfamily of Araceae and are divided into 26 tribes.<|control11|><|separator|>
[63]
Taro (Colocasia esculenta): Zero wastage orphan food crop for food ...
Taro is a staple food crop grown for its underground corms and cormels, leaves, petiole/stem (Ahmed et al., 2020; Matthews and Ghanem, 2020), and inflorescence ...
[64]
Real Food Encyclopedia | Taro - FoodPrint
Though taro (Colocasia esculenta) is a fairly common ingredient in many parts of the world, it has a special place in the Pacific Islands.
[65]
Oxalate content of cormels of Japanese taro (Colocasia esculenta (L ...
Aug 5, 2025 · The raw tissue of the four cultivars contained a mean of 60.6% soluble oxalates; boiling reduced the level of soluble oxalate in the cooked ...
[66]
a review on giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G.Don)
Jul 6, 2023 · In India and Bangladesh, the stem tuber is peeled, cut into pieces and eaten as a vegetable after cooking, usually in curries or stews (Manner ...
[67]
Zantedeschia aethiopica (African Lily, Altar Lily, Arum Lily, Brosimun ...
Zantedeschia aethiopica, also known as African Lily, is a rhizomatous perennial with large white flowers, growing 2-3 feet tall, and is poisonous.
[68]
https://foodprint.org/real-food/taro/
[69]
Dieffenbachia and Philodendron: Popular but Poisonous
The raphides in Dieffenbachia plants also release proteolytic enzymes which increase the severity of symptoms, causing swelling and respiratory distress.
[70]
Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity of ...
Feb 24, 2021 · The genus Arisaema (Areaceae), popularly known as cobra lilies and jack in pulpit is mainly found in temperate to tropical areas of all ...
[71]
Botanical, Traditional Use, Phytochemical, and Toxicological of ...
Nov 30, 2021 · Its external use can be used to treat carbuncle, snakebite, and other diseases. “The classic of Materia Medica” [8] record: “AR is mainly ...
[72]
Sauromatum venosum - Uses, Benefits & Common Names
It is also used in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory and antiseptic properties. Flower, Seeds and Seedlings. Sauromatum venosum has small, yellow- ...
[73]
Phytochemical Screening of Sauromatum venosum (Ait.) Schott ...
Aug 14, 2024 · The tubers have been traditionally used in traditional medicine for their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties.
[74]
Potential of New Plant Sources as Raw Materials for Obtaining ...
This study aims to review plants with potential applications as natural dyes and pigments, highlighting their potential applications, benefits, and prospects.Missing: ethnomedicinal | Show results with:ethnomedicinal
[75]
The Fascinating Language and Symbolism of the Corpse Flower
May 31, 2024 · Moreover, its pungent odor has earned it a place in various cultural mythologies, often being associated with concepts of death and rebirth. For ...
[76]
Flower and Ornamental Plants Market Trends | Report [2033]
Oct 20, 2025 · Global Flower and Ornamental Plants market size is forecasted to be worth USD 60726.03 million in 2024, expected to achieve USD 104659.13 ...