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Cambisol

Cambisols are a major reference soil group in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), defined by the presence of a cambic horizon (Bw) starting within 100 cm of the mineral soil surface, which exhibits evidence of pedogenic alteration such as structural development, color changes, or partial weathering without significant accumulation of clay, organic matter, or other diagnostic materials.^[1] This horizon, typically yellowish-brown to reddish and at least 15 cm thick, indicates an early to moderate stage of soil formation from parent materials like loess, alluvium, or colluvium, and the soils lack more advanced features such as argillic or spodic horizons.^[1] Derived from the Latin cambiare meaning "to change," Cambisols represent soils in transition, often with an ABC profile sequence where the surface A horizon may be ochric, mollic, or umbric.^[2] These soils typically have a loamy to clayey texture, good aggregate structure, and moderate water-holding capacity, with pH ranging from acidic (4–6) to neutral or slightly alkaline (6–8) and base saturation varying widely, influencing their fertility.^[3] They contain weatherable minerals and free iron oxides from oxidative processes, but show only slight clay illuviation or carbonate removal, and may exhibit weak redoximorphic features in poorly drained variants.^[2] Qualifiers such as eutric (high base saturation), dystric (low base saturation), chromic (strong color), or gleyic (water saturation) further specify subtypes based on chemical, physical, or environmental properties, allowing for over 100 possible combinations in the WRB system.^[1] Globally, Cambisols cover approximately 1.5 billion hectares, accounting for about 12% of the world's ice-free land surface, and are particularly widespread in temperate and boreal regions, including post-glacial landscapes of Europe and North America, as well as mountain areas like the Alps, Andes, and Himalayas.^[2] They also occur in humid subtropical highlands, young alluvial plains (e.g., Ganges-Brahmaputra delta), and eroding terrains, though less commonly in arid or strongly weathered tropical lowlands.^[3] Agriculturally significant, eutric Cambisols support productive cropping and grazing due to their inherent fertility, while dystric variants require amendments for arable use; however, steep slopes pose erosion risks, often limiting them to forestry or pasture.^[2]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

Cambisols are defined within the World Reference Base (WRB) for Soil Resources as soils showing moderate pedogenesis, primarily identified by the presence of a cambic horizon that begins within 100 cm of the mineral soil surface and exhibits evidence of alteration relative to the underlying parent material. This cambic horizon, a subsurface layer at least 15 cm thick, displays weak brownish discoloration, structure development, or other signs of soil formation, such as color changes (e.g., higher chroma or redder hue in at least 90% of the exposed area) or an absolute increase in clay content of at least 4% compared to adjacent layers, without qualifying as a more developed diagnostic horizon like an argic or spodic. The horizon consists of mineral material that is sandy loam or finer in texture, with soil aggregate structure present in at least 50% of the fine-earth volume by volume.^[1] In addition to the cambic horizon, Cambisols may be characterized by a mollic horizon overlying a subsoil that has less than 50% base saturation (by 1 M NH₄OAc at pH 7) within 100 cm of the surface, provided no other overriding diagnostic features are present. These soils lack significant accumulations of illuviated clay, organic matter, soluble salts, or iron and aluminum oxides that would assign them to other reference soil groups, ensuring the cambic horizon remains the principal diagnostic attribute. Exclusions include properties such as vertic structure, gleyic color patterns within 50 cm of the surface, or salic, calcic, or gypsic horizons starting within specified depths.^[1] The typical profile of a Cambisol follows an ABC sequence, featuring an ochric, mollic, or umbric A-horizon over a yellowish-brown to red cambic B-horizon, with the C-horizon representing relatively unaltered parent material below. This configuration reflects transitional soil development, where the cambic horizon serves as a marker of moderate weathering and horizon differentiation without advanced profile complexity.^[1]

Key Properties

Cambisols exhibit a range of physical properties that reflect their moderately developed nature, with textures typically ranging from loamy to clayey, often including silty or sandy loam variants depending on parent material.^[1]^[2] The structure is generally favorable, featuring weak to moderate development with subangular blocky or granular peds in the subsurface horizon, where at least 50% of the fine earth volume shows aggregate formation due to incipient weathering.^[1] Colors vary from yellowish-brown to reddish hues, resulting from iron oxide formation and pedogenic changes, with the subsurface layer often displaying a chroma at least one unit higher or a hue at least 2.5 units yellower or redder compared to the underlying material when moist.^[1]^[2] These soils are usually deep to moderately deep, with the key subsurface horizon starting within 100 cm of the surface and extending at least 15 cm thick, and they lack impermeable layers within 100 cm, promoting well-drained to moderately well-drained conditions unless affected by parent material or topography.^[1] Chemically, Cambisols contain a high proportion of weatherable minerals with slight to moderate weathering, and no significant accumulation of illuviated clay or organic matter.^[1]^[2] Base saturation varies, classified as eutric when exceeding 50% or dystric when below 50% in the specified layers, while pH is typically neutral to slightly acidic, often around 6 in representative profiles.^[1] Organic matter content is moderate, concentrated in surface horizons with levels up to 1% or more in humic variants, supporting aggregate stability without dominant accumulation.^[1]^[2] For example, in a Silti-Chromic Cambisol from loess deposits in China (ISRIC reference soil CN 034), the profile features a reddish brown silt loam texture at 65 cm depth, overlying truncated soil material from slope wash, illustrating the typical loamy texture and color development in such soils.^[4]

Formation and Distribution

Soil Formation Processes

Cambisols develop through incipient pedogenic processes that mark an early to intermediate stage of soil evolution, characterized by the formation of a cambic horizon resulting from initial weathering and structural changes in the subsoil. This horizon emerges from the weak alteration of primary minerals, particularly ferromagnesian minerals like biotite and amphibole, through hydrolysis in oxidizing, weakly acidic conditions. The process releases iron, which oxidizes to form ferric oxides and hydroxides such as goethite and hematite; these coat soil particles, imparting yellowish-brown to reddish colors and promoting the aggregation into blocky or prismatic structures.^[3]^[2] As a transitional soil type, Cambisols often form on unconsolidated parent materials such as colluvium, alluvium, or glacial deposits, where ongoing erosion or depositional rejuvenation prevents further horizon development and maintains the soil in a relatively young state. In these settings, the limited depth and intensity of weathering reflect a balance between soil-forming processes and geomorphic instability, with erosion removing surface material and resetting pedogenesis.^[2]^[3] Key environmental factors influence Cambisol formation, including cool to temperate climates that slow mineral weathering due to lower temperatures and reduced biological activity, adequate drainage that facilitates oxidation and iron oxide precipitation, and vegetation cover that supplies organic matter to the surface horizons, enhancing initial structure formation. These soils typically develop over hundreds to thousands of years in environments where pedogenesis is constrained by young age, low temperatures, or resistant parent materials like loess or volcanic rocks.^[2]^[3] Unlike more advanced soils such as Luvisols or Podzols, Cambisols exhibit weak horizonation because insufficient time or energy limits processes like significant clay illuviation or organic matter translocation, resulting in only subtle subsurface modifications without pronounced layering.^[2]^[3]

Global Distribution

Cambisols cover an estimated 1.5 billion hectares worldwide, representing a significant portion of the Earth's continental land area.^[2] They are particularly prevalent in temperate and boreal zones, including post-glacial landscapes across Europe and North America, as well as mountain regions throughout the world such as the Alps, Carpathians, Appalachians, Andes, and highlands in China and New Zealand.^[3] Additionally, Cambisols occur on young alluvial plains and terraces, notably in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta and various European river valleys.^[2] These soils are commonly associated with humid to subhumid temperate climates, where moderate weathering rates allow for their development without rapid evolution into more advanced soil types.^[3] They are less frequent in the tropics and subtropics, owing to accelerated soil formation processes that typically lead to more differentiated profiles, and are rare in arid regions or polar extremes due to limited moisture and extreme temperatures.^[2] Topographically, Cambisols favor erosion-prone slopes, foothills, and areas with resistant parent materials such as sandstone or granite, which contribute to their relatively young and underdeveloped nature.^[3] Notable examples include their widespread presence on the Russian Plain, in the Appalachian Mountains, and across the Andean highlands.^[3] In China, a Silti-Chromic Cambisol serves as a key reference soil, illustrating typical characteristics in loess-derived landscapes.^[4]

Classification

WRB Classification

Cambisols are one of the 32 reference soil groups (RSGs) in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), an international soil classification system developed by the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS).^[5] They encompass soils with little or no profile differentiation, and are characterized primarily by the presence of a cambic horizon—a subsurface horizon showing evidence of alteration through pedogenic processes such as structure development, color change, or removal of carbonates, but without advanced features like significant clay accumulation.^[5] The cambic horizon must start within 100 cm of the soil surface, have a thickness of at least 15 cm, and consist of mineral material with sandy loam or finer texture, excluding materials like claric drift.^[5] In the WRB hierarchical structure, Cambisols are defined at the RSG level as soils that do not qualify for other groups due to the absence of more developed diagnostic horizons or properties.^[5] They exclude soils with argic (clay accumulation), spodic (organic matter and Fe/Al oxides), histic (organic), or other advanced horizons starting within 100 cm of the surface, as these indicate greater pedogenic development and precedence in classification.^[5] Diagnostic requirements specify no overlying or underlying layers with accumulated clay, humus, salts, or Fe/Al oxides that would qualify for other RSGs; subsurface horizons must meet specific texture (e.g., ≥50% fine earth with aggregate structure) and thickness criteria to confirm the cambic nature.^[5] Cambisols in the WRB correspond closely to Inceptisols in the USDA Soil Taxonomy, both representing soils with incipient horizon development.^[3] In the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World legend, they align with the Cambisols group, including subtypes such as Calcaric or Calcic Cambisols based on properties like carbonate content.^[6] The WRB classification for Cambisols was first established in the 1998 edition, released at the 16th World Congress of Soil Science in Montpellier, providing a standardized framework for global soil correlation.^[7] Subsequent updates in 2014 refined depth requirements for diagnostic horizons and incorporated additional pedogenic features, while the 2022 fourth edition maintained core criteria with minor adjustments to inclusions like tsitelic horizons, enhancing precision without altering the fundamental exclusions.^[7]^[5]

Subtypes and Qualifiers

Cambisols are subdivided using prefix and suffix qualifiers in the World Reference Base (WRB) system to denote specific diagnostic properties or intergrades that refine their classification. Prefix qualifiers, placed before the reference soil group name, primarily indicate the presence of particular horizons or materials influencing soil development. For instance, the Andic qualifier applies to Cambisols with a layer ≥15 cm thick exhibiting andic properties—such as low bulk density (≤0.90 kg dm⁻³ air-dried), high pyrophosphate-extractable Al + ½Fe (≥2.0%), and phosphate absorption (≥85%)—typically derived from volcanic ash, starting within 100 cm of the surface.^[1] Similarly, the Vertic qualifier denotes soils with vertic properties, including a clay content ≥30%, evidence of shrink-swell dynamics like cracks or slickensides, and a prismatic or angular blocky structure in a horizon ≥25 cm thick starting between 25 and 100 cm depth.^[1] The Vitric qualifier specifies Cambisols influenced by volcanic glass, featuring a ≥15 cm layer with ≥5% volcanic glass shards by volume within 100 cm, often with andic-like properties but lower Al/Fe contents.^[1] Other notable prefix qualifiers include Petroplinthic, which indicates indurated plinthite (petroplinthite) occupying >50% of the volume within 50-100 cm depth, and Salic, signifying secondary salt accumulation with an electrical conductivity >15 dS m⁻¹ in a salic horizon starting between 50 and 100 cm.^[1] Suffix qualifiers, appended after the reference soil group, describe chemical, color, or organic characteristics of the cambic horizon or upper profile. The Eutric suffix is used for Cambisols with base saturation ≥50% (by NH₄OAc pH 7) in the cambic horizon or the major part of the upper 100 cm, indicating higher fertility due to greater exchangeable base cations.^[1] In contrast, the Dystric suffix applies to those with base saturation <50% in the same layers, often reflecting acidic conditions and lower nutrient availability from leaching of bases.^[1] The Calcic qualifier denotes the presence of secondary carbonates (>15% CaCO₃ equivalent by weight or >5% by volume) in a calcic horizon within 100 cm, enhancing soil alkalinity.^[1] Chromic specifies a cambic horizon with high chroma (≥4 when moist) due to iron oxides, typically redder than 7.5YR hue, signaling oxidation in well-aerated conditions.^[1] The Humic suffix indicates elevated organic carbon (≥1%) and dark colors (Munsell value ≤4 and chroma ≤3 when moist) in the upper 25 cm or cambic horizon, promoting fertility in humid environments.^[1] Depth-based qualifiers further specify the positioning of these features relative to the surface. For example, andic, vertic, and vitric properties must occur in horizons starting between 25 and 100 cm depth to qualify, avoiding superficial influences that might reclassify the soil.^[1] Plinthic and salic qualifiers require the respective horizons to initiate between 50 and 100 cm, distinguishing them from more developed soils like Plinthosols or Solonchaks.^[1] Representative examples illustrate these qualifiers' applications. Eutric Cambisols, with their higher base saturation, support intensive agriculture in fertile alluvial plains, while Dystric Cambisols, being more acidic, often require liming for crop production in humid regions.^[3] A specific case is the Silti-Chromic Cambisol (Eutric) found in China (ISRIC reference soil CN 034), characterized by silty textures, reddish chromic B horizon, and eutric fertility, occurring in temperate loess plateaus suitable for wheat and maize cultivation.^[4] These qualifiers serve to tailor the broad Cambisol category to local pedogenic and environmental variations, facilitating precise soil mapping, fertility assessments, and targeted land management strategies.^[1]

Uses and Management

Agricultural Applications

Cambisols are widely utilized in agriculture due to their moderate development and structural stability, which facilitate root penetration and water retention. Eutric Cambisols, characterized by higher base saturation and nutrient availability, rank among the most productive soils globally, particularly in temperate zones, supporting intensive cultivation of cereals, vegetables, and pastures.^[2]^[8] These soils exhibit good fertility from inherent mineral reserves, enabling yields comparable to more mature soil types without excessive inputs.^[2] Common agricultural applications include cropland in temperate regions, such as wheat production on eutric and dystric subtypes across European plains, where long-term experiments demonstrate sustainable yields with balanced fertilization.^[9] In mountainous areas, dystric Cambisols support grazing for livestock, leveraging their depth for forage grasses, while in boreal zones, they underpin forestry operations alongside limited pasture use.^[2] Vertic and calcaric subtypes in irrigated dry zones are employed for food and oil crops, including annual and perennial varieties.^[2] Despite their versatility, limitations affect productivity; dystric subtypes often suffer from acidity and aluminum toxicity, necessitating liming to raise pH and enhance nutrient uptake, as evidenced by studies showing improved phosphorus availability and reduced exchangeable aluminum post-application.^[2]^[10] In erosion-prone locations, such as sloped terrains, conservation tillage is essential to minimize soil loss and maintain structure, with research on calcic Cambisols confirming reduced erosion rates under no-till practices.^[2]^[11] Representative examples highlight their economic role: intensive rice-wheat farming on young alluvial Cambisols in the Indo-Gangetic Plain sustains high productivity for millions, contributing to regional food security.^[2] Viticulture thrives on chromic Cambisols in Mediterranean hills, where their well-drained profiles support grape quality in areas like Mallorca.^[2]^[12] Overall, Cambisols underpin global food production, especially in developing regions with young, fertile profiles covering about 1.5 billion hectares, bolstering agriculture in temperate and subtropical areas.^[2]

Soil Management Practices

Cambisols, particularly those on slopes, are susceptible to erosion, which can rejuvenate soil profiles by removing upper horizons; effective control measures include contour farming, terracing, and planting cover crops to reduce runoff and sediment loss.^[13] Contour farming aligns crop rows with landscape contours to slow water flow, while terracing creates level benches on inclines to intercept runoff, both proven to minimize soil displacement in sloping Cambisols.^[14] Cover crops, such as legumes or grasses, provide vegetative barriers that stabilize soil and suppress erosion rates by up to 38% in managed systems.^[13] Fertility management in Cambisols varies by subtype; for dystric variants with low base saturation, lime application mitigates acidity, raises pH, and enhances nutrient availability like phosphorus and calcium.^[2] Organic amendments, including compost and manure, are essential for maintaining organic matter levels, improving soil structure and microbial activity in Cambisols under intensive use.^[15] In eutric subtypes with higher initial fertility, balanced mineral fertilizers—combining nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium at moderate doses (e.g., 80 kg ha⁻¹ each)—sustain productivity without excessive acidification.^[16] Sustainable practices for Cambisols emphasize long-term soil health; no-till farming preserves aggregate structure and reduces erosion losses to as low as 0.82 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ compared to conventional tillage.^[17] Crop rotation integrates diverse species to prevent nutrient depletion and enhance soil organic matter cycling.^[17] In semi-arid Cambisols, supplemental irrigation with integrated nutrient strategies, such as mulch and hedges, minimizes water stress while curbing nutrient leaching.^[18] Cambisols contribute to environmental goals through their moderate organic content, which supports carbon sequestration when augmented by organic amendments, potentially increasing soil organic carbon stocks by 50-110% over a decade in reclaimed variants.^[19] In forested Cambisols, management practices that limit disturbance protect belowground biodiversity, including mycorrhizal networks and soil fauna essential for nutrient cycling.^[20] Challenges in Cambisol management include intensified erosion from climate change-driven extreme rainfall, which may significantly increase sediment yields in vulnerable areas.^[21] Recent modeling as of 2025 projects erosion increases up to 237% under certain climate scenarios in regions with Cambisols, underscoring the need for enhanced adaptation measures like improved tillage and cover cropping.^[21] Irrigated semi-arid variants require vigilant monitoring for salinization, as poor water management can elevate salt accumulation in root zones, threatening long-term viability.^[22] For calcic qualifiers, drainage improvements may be needed to address waterlogging risks.

References

[1]
[PDF] WRB 2022 (PDF)
Dec 18, 2022 · International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. 4th edition. International Union of Soil Sciences.
[2]
Summary description of Cambisols
Cambisols cover an estimated 1.5 billion hectares worldwide. This Reference Soil Group is particularly well represented in temperate and boreal regions.Missing: global coverage
[3]
[PDF] WRB Documentation Centre Cambisols Lecture Notes
Defined as having within 150 cm of the mineral soil surface a layer that has sideralic properties; and not having a ferralic horizon starting within 150 cm from ...
[4]
Cambisols - ISRIC
Cambisols occur mainly in the temperate and boreal regions of the world, where the soil's parent material is still young or where low temperatures slow down ...Missing: example | Show results with:example
[5]
[PDF] IUSS Working Group WRB. 2022. World Reference Base for Soil
Dec 18, 2022 · Eutric Stagnic Leptic Cambisol (Loamic, Humic) codominant ... The “soils” to be classified in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources.
[6]
[PDF] FAO-UNESCO soil map of the world, 1:5000000 vol. 1. Legend
This is the first volume of the FAO-UNESCO soil map of the world, at a scale of 1:5,000,000, with a legend, and the first attempt to prepare a soil map of the ...
[7]
[PDF] Historical Review of the classification of Cambisols in ... - KU Leuven
(a) Higher clay content implied more than 4% clay compared to the underlying horizon ... requirement for colour differences was introduced: a cambic horizon.
[8]
Soil fertility, crop biodiversity, and farmers' revenues - PubMed Central
Sep 17, 2016 · Cambisols in a temperate climate are among the most productive soils on Earth, being intensely used for agriculture.<|control11|><|separator|>
[9]
Results from a long-term fertilizer and crop rotation experiment - ADS
The long-term sustainability of winter wheat production on low productive sandy-loamy Cambisols can be achieved only by adequate application of N, P and K ...
[10]
Effect of lime rates and method of application on soil properties of ...
Results revealed that liming significantly increased soil pH, available phosphorus, and exchangeable bases but markedly reduced exchangeable Al3+ contents. The ...
[11]
Comprehensive benefit evaluation of conservation tillage based on ...
Compared impacts of 5 tillage systems on Calcic Cambisol erosion in Loess Plateau. •. Measured soil physicochemistry, microbial diversity, and soybean yield ...
[12]
[PDF] Soil typologies in the wine-growing areas of Mallorca, with special ...
Cambisols are the most predominant soil typology followed by Cambisols, Regosols and Luvisols. The water classification of the soils has been made according ...
[13]
Best management practices to reduce soil erosion and change ...
The most effective in reducing soil erosion was crop rotation and cover crop (sediment yield, SY, reduction of 38.4 for NW, and 28.8% for SW).
[14]
Effects of Terracing Methods on Conserving Physicochemical ...
Mar 27, 2025 · Terracing practices minimize soil loss through erosion in hilly and steeply sloped terrain and improve soil nutrients.
[15]
(PDF) Improvement of Soil Physical Properties of Cambisol Using ...
Aug 9, 2025 · lower price, locally available, and renewable. Cow manure and compost are classified as organic amendments which have capacity to improve soil.
[16]
Changes in Eutric Cambisol due to long-term mineral fertilisation
The paper presents the results of a 50-year fertilisation experiment on Eutric Cambisol with increasing doses of nitrogen and constant doses of phosphorus ...
[17]
Water Erosion in a Long-Term Soil Management Experiment with a ...
Soil Use and Management · Soil and Water Management and Conservation. Water Erosion in a Long-Term Soil Management Experiment with a Humic Cambisol.
[18]
Effect of Integrated Water-Nutrient Management Strategies on Soil ...
Jul 31, 2015 · Site II is characterised by a steep slope (37%) and a sandy loamy Cambisol ... soil management, as long as the pigeon-pea hedges are well ...
[19]
Ten-year long-term organic fertilization enhances carbon ...
Dec 1, 2019 · We hypothesized that 10-year long-term organic fertilization in a reclaimed Cambisol could improve soil aggregation and SOC sequestration by ...
[20]
Case Study on Ecosystem Biodiversity Conservation Using the ...
May 17, 2023 · Case Study on Ecosystem Biodiversity Conservation Using the Solutions Adopted by a Forest Management ... cambisols with two subtypes ...
[21]
Impacts of climate change adaptation options on soil functions
Adaptation options may reduce soil erosion and increase organic carbon, improving food production and storage, but compaction may increase in some areas.
[22]
Soil salinization after long‐term mulched drip irrigation poses a ...
Oct 5, 2018 · Long-term practice of MDI causes salts to accumulate in the root zone and on the bare soil surface between mulches, which leads to unsustainable crop yields.