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Capillary number

The Capillary number (Ca) is a dimensionless quantity in fluid mechanics that quantifies the ratio of viscous forces to interfacial tension (or capillary) forces acting on an interface between two immiscible fluids.^[1] It is defined by the formula \mathrm{Ca} = \frac{\mu [v](/page/V.)}{[\sigma](/page/Sigma)}, where \mu is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, v is the characteristic velocity of the flow, and \sigma is the interfacial tension between the fluids.^[1] This parameter, first introduced as a correlating group in multiphase flow studies in 1927 and further developed by researchers like Leverett in the late 1930s and early 1940s, helps predict the behavior of fluid interfaces under dynamic conditions.^[1] In practical applications, the Capillary number is particularly significant in two-phase flows through porous media, where low values (typically \mathrm{Ca} \approx 10^{-6} to $10^{-5} during conventional waterflooding) indicate dominance of capillary forces, leading to trapping of residual oil saturation.^[2] Increasing Ca to around $10^{-4} or higher—often through enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques like surfactant flooding that reduce \sigma from ~30 mN/m to as low as $10^{-3} mN/m—mobilizes trapped non-wetting phases by shifting the force balance toward viscous effects.^[1] Beyond petroleum engineering, Ca governs phenomena such as droplet deformation in microfluidic devices, imbibition in porous materials, and the dynamic contact angle in capillary flows, with over 40 variant definitions existing to account for microscopic, macroscopic, or mixed scales depending on the context.^[1] When Ca ≪ 1, surface tension stabilizes interfaces, while Ca ≫ 1 signifies viscous dominance, enabling stripping or deformation mechanisms.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition

The capillary number, denoted as Ca, is a dimensionless quantity in fluid mechanics that characterizes the ratio of viscous forces to interfacial tension (or surface tension) forces acting across a fluid interface during flow.^[3] Viscous forces arise from shear stress within the fluid, which resists relative motion between fluid layers, while surface tension represents the interfacial energy per unit area that minimizes the surface area of the interface.^[1] This ratio provides a measure of the relative importance of these competing forces in processes involving fluid interfaces, such as those in multiphase flows.^[4] The concept of the capillary number originates from dimensional analysis techniques in capillarity studies, formalized through the Buckingham π theorem introduced by Edgar Buckingham in 1914, which identifies key dimensionless groups governing physical phenomena like capillary action.^[5] Although the specific term "capillary number" gained prominence later in the context of petroleum engineering and multiphase flow research, it builds directly on these foundational methods for scaling fluid behaviors involving viscosity and surface tension.^[1] Physically, a low capillary number (Ca ≪ 1) indicates dominance of surface tension forces, leading to minimal deformation of fluid interfaces, such as the formation and maintenance of nearly spherical droplets or bubbles.^[6] Conversely, a high capillary number (Ca ≫ 1) signifies that viscous forces prevail, causing significant elongation or deformation of interfaces, as seen when droplets stretch under shear in flowing systems.^[7] This transition highlights the capillary number's role in predicting interface stability and flow regimes without requiring detailed geometric specifications.

Single-Fluid Formulation

The single-fluid formulation of the capillary number arises from a force balance between viscous forces driving the flow and surface tension forces resisting deformation at the fluid interface. In this context, the viscous force scales as F_v \sim \mu v L, where the shear stress \mu v / L acts over a characteristic area L^2, while the surface tension force scales as F_c \sim \sigma L, representing the energy required to extend the interface over a length L. The ratio of these forces yields the capillary number \mathrm{Ca} = \frac{\mu v}{\sigma}, as the characteristic length L cancels out, providing a dimensionless measure of viscous dominance over interfacial tension.^[8]^[9] This formulation can also be obtained through dimensional analysis using the Buckingham π theorem, which identifies dimensionless groups from the relevant physical variables: dynamic viscosity \mu, characteristic velocity v, and interfacial tension \sigma. With three variables and two fundamental dimensions (mass and time), the theorem predicts one dimensionless π-group, which takes the form \mathrm{Ca} = \frac{\mu v}{\sigma}.^[10]^[9] In the formula \mathrm{Ca} = \frac{\mu v}{\sigma}, the parameter \mu represents the fluid's resistance to shear deformation, quantifying internal friction during flow; v is the characteristic flow speed, such as the average velocity in a conduit; \sigma denotes the interfacial tension, the work per unit area needed to expand the fluid-fluid interface; and the characteristic length is implicit in the scaling but absent in the final expression.^[8]^[11] The dimensionless nature of \mathrm{Ca} is confirmed by SI unit analysis: [\mu] = \mathrm{kg \cdot m^{-1} \cdot s^{-1}}, = \mathrm{m \cdot s^{-1}}, so [\mu v] = \mathrm{kg \cdot s^{-2}}; [\sigma] = \mathrm{N \cdot m^{-1}} = \mathrm{kg \cdot s^{-2}}; thus, [\mathrm{Ca}] = 1.^[8] For example, consider water (\mu = 1 \times 10^{-3} \, \mathrm{Pa \cdot s}, \sigma = 0.072 \, \mathrm{N/m} with air at 20°C) flowing at a low speed of v = 0.1 \, \mathrm{m/s} in a tube, as might occur in a simple capillary experiment; this yields \mathrm{Ca} \approx 1.4 \times 10^{-3}, indicating surface tension still plays a significant role.^[12]^[13]

Advanced Formulations

Multiphase Formulation

In multiphase flows, particularly immiscible displacements like waterflooding in oil reservoirs, the capillary number is adapted to account for interfacial tension between phases and the properties of the displacing fluid. The formulation is given by

\text{Ca} = \frac{\mu_w v}{\sigma},

where \mu_w is the viscosity of the wetting phase (typically the displacing fluid, such as water), v is the Darcy velocity, and \sigma is the interfacial tension between the wetting and non-wetting phases (e.g., oil-water). This differs from the single-fluid case by emphasizing the ratio of viscous forces in the displacing phase to the interfacial forces resisting meniscus movement at the fluid-fluid interface.^[14] In porous media, relative permeability influences the effective flow behavior, leading to modifications of the capillary number to incorporate phase-specific conductance. An effective capillary number can be defined as \text{Ca}_\text{eff} = \text{Ca} \sqrt{\frac{k_{rw}}{k_{rnw}}}, where k_{rw} and k_{rnw} are the relative permeabilities of the wetting and non-wetting phases, respectively; this adjustment accounts for saturation-dependent reductions in permeability for each phase during displacement.^[15] The multiphase capillary number derives from combining Darcy's law for each phase with the capillary pressure across the interface. Darcy's law for the wetting phase states v_w = -\frac{k k_{rw}}{\mu_w} \nabla p_w, while the capillary pressure is p_c = \frac{\sigma \cos \theta}{r}, where \theta is the contact angle and r is the characteristic pore radius. At the displacement front, the viscous pressure gradient \nabla p \approx \frac{\mu_w v}{k k_{rw}} competes with the capillary pressure gradient \nabla p_c \approx \frac{p_c}{L} (with L the system length), yielding the capillary number as the ratio that determines whether viscous forces destabilize the interface, potentially causing viscous fingering. In porous media, displacement fronts remain stable for \text{Ca} < 10^{-5}, where capillary forces dominate and lead to compact invasion; above this threshold, instabilities like viscous fingering emerge as viscous forces prevail. For typical reservoir conditions—\mu_w = 1 cP, v = 1 ft/day (approximately $3.5 \times 10^{-6} m/s), and \sigma = 30 dyn/cm (0.03 N/m)—the capillary number is on the order of $10^{-7}, indicating capillary-dominated flow with stable fronts under standard waterflooding.

Variations in Different Contexts

In non-Newtonian fluids, particularly those following a power-law rheology, the capillary number is defined using an effective viscosity derived from the power-law model, \mu_\text{eff} = K (\dot{\gamma})^{n-1}, where K is the consistency index (Pa·s^n), \dot{\gamma} is the characteristic shear rate (typically \dot{\gamma} \propto v / L with L a characteristic length), n is the flow behavior index (with n < 1 for shear-thinning and n > 1 for shear-thickening fluids), leading to \text{Ca} = \frac{\mu_\text{eff} v}{\sigma}. This adaptation accounts for the nonlinear relationship between shear stress and strain rate, enabling accurate prediction of flow regimes where rheological properties dominate capillary dynamics, such as in polymer processing or biological fluids.^[16] In electrokinetics and magnetohydrodynamics, the capillary number is augmented to incorporate field-induced stresses on fluid interfaces. For electrokinetic flows involving charged interfaces, an electric capillary number \text{Ca}_e = \frac{\epsilon E^2 L}{\sigma} is employed, where \epsilon is the electric permittivity, E the applied electric field strength, L the characteristic length, and \sigma the surface tension; this quantifies the competition between Maxwell stresses and capillary forces in applications like electro-osmotic pumping. Analogously, in magnetohydrodynamic contexts, a magnetic capillary number \text{Ca}_m = \frac{\mu_0 \chi H^2 L}{\sigma} arises, with \mu_0 the vacuum permeability, \chi the magnetic susceptibility, and H the magnetic field strength, capturing magnetic body forces that deform interfaces in ferrofluids or liquid metal flows. These variants are essential for systems where external fields modify interfacial stability beyond purely hydrodynamic effects.^[17]^[18] For high-speed flows where inertia cannot be neglected, the capillary number transitions toward Weber number dominance, with the Weber number (We = \rho v^2 L / \sigma) characterizing the ratio of inertial to capillary forces. This modification is particularly relevant in atomization or jet breakup scenarios, bridging low- and high-speed regimes without fully abandoning capillary considerations.^[19] In microfluidics, capillary numbers can reach values sufficient to observe phenomena like droplet formation or wetting dynamics in lab-on-a-chip devices, necessitating formulations that account for channel dimensions and flow conditions.

Physical Significance

Role in Multiphase Flows

In multiphase flows through porous media, the capillary number (Ca) governs the balance between viscous and capillary forces, dictating the dominant displacement mechanisms and interface stability. At low Ca values, typically below 10^{-4}, capillary forces dominate, promoting capillary-dominated displacement where the invading fluid advances along stable, compact pathways influenced by local pore wettability and geometry, resulting in relatively uniform interface progression without extensive ramification. This regime is characterized by the prevalence of interfacial tension, leading to controlled invasion patterns that minimize bypassing of the displaced phase. In such capillary-dominated conditions (typically Ca < 10^{-5}), snap-off—where the wetting phase swells in pore throats to pinch off non-wetting ganglia—becomes a key process, predominating in constricted pores and generating dispersed oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsions that enhance mobility but can also increase pressure gradients due to droplet interactions.^[20] As Ca increases to above 10^{-2}, viscous forces take precedence, shifting the behavior to viscous fingering, which produces unstable, branched, and dendritic patterns, especially when the displacing fluid has lower viscosity than the displaced one. This instability arises from perturbations at the interface that amplify under high flow rates, causing the invading phase to penetrate preferentially and leave behind significant trapped volumes of the resident fluid. In immiscible displacements, such as water displacing oil, Ca directly impacts residual saturation by controlling the mobilization of trapped ganglia; elevating Ca reduces residual oil saturation as viscous stresses deform and dislodge oil blobs otherwise immobilized by capillary forces. The critical Ca for initial mobilization lies between 10^{-6} and 10^{-5}, marking the onset where trapped phases begin to flow, with further increases yielding substantial desaturation.^[1] At intermediate Ca values, around 10^{-5} to 10^{-3}, coalescence of droplets becomes a key process that facilitates emulsion formation. Coalescence events, driven by thin film drainage between approaching interfaces, further stabilize or destabilize these emulsions, altering the effective rheology of the multiphase system. Experimental core flooding tests confirm these transitions, revealing a threshold Ca of approximately 10^{-6} to 10^{-5} where displacement shifts from piston-like fronts—smooth, uniform advances with minimal dispersion—to shocked fronts characterized by abrupt saturation changes and reduced capillary end effects.^[1] Below this range, capillary dispersion smooths the front, promoting stable but inefficient sweeping; above it, viscous dominance sharpens the profile, improving sweep efficiency in favorable mobility scenarios.^[21]

Relation to Other Dimensionless Numbers

The capillary number (Ca) is closely related to the Reynolds number (Re = ρ v L / μ), which quantifies the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in fluid flows. High values of Ca generally correspond to low Re regimes, where viscous drag dominates over inertial effects at fluid interfaces, such as in slow, creeping flows through capillaries or porous structures. This distinction highlights the transition from inertia-driven to viscosity-driven interfacial deformation; for instance, in multiphase systems, low Re ensures that capillary and viscous forces govern meniscus shapes without turbulent disruptions. The combined parameter Ca × Re encapsulates the full force balance among viscous, inertial, and surface tension effects, aiding in the analysis of free-surface flows where both momentum and interfacial stability are critical.^[22] A key interconnection exists between Ca and the Weber number (We = ρ v² L / σ), which measures inertial forces relative to surface tension. Mathematically, We = Ca × Re, revealing that the Weber number scales the product of viscous-to-capillary and inertial-to-viscous ratios, thereby marking the shift from capillary-dominated regimes (low We) to those where inertial forces disrupt interfaces (high We). This relation is particularly useful in predicting phenomena like droplet breakup or jet atomization, where increasing velocity elevates We beyond unity, overriding surface tension stabilization. In processing diagrams for complex fluids, trajectories governed by the Ohnesorge number (Oh = \sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{Ca}}{\mathrm{Re}}}) further illustrate how Ca and Re jointly influence We-dependent outcomes.^[22] The Bond number (Bo = Δρ g L² / σ) complements Ca by contrasting gravitational forces with capillary forces, providing insight into buoyancy-driven versus viscous-driven multiphase dynamics. Low Ca paired with high Bo favors gravity drainage in vertical flows, as gravitational potential overcomes capillary retention, enabling efficient phase segregation without significant viscous resistance. Conversely, high Ca and low Bo emphasize viscous displacement over sedimentation, altering saturation profiles in heterogeneous media. This comparison is essential for understanding flow stability and recovery efficiency in systems where body forces compete with interfacial tension.^[23]^[24] In porous media applications, the capillary number is frequently expressed as the group N_ca = v μ / σ, which integrates with Re and Bo to enable similitude in scaled experiments. This formulation allows researchers to match viscous-to-capillary ratios (N_ca) alongside inertial (Re) and gravitational (Bo) effects, ensuring that laboratory models replicate field-scale multiphase transport behaviors, such as imbibition or drainage. For example, experiments maintaining N_ca ≈ 10^{-5} to 10^{-4}, low Re (<1), and moderate Bo (≈10^{-4}) isolate capillary dominance while validating predictions against gravitational or inertial perturbations. Such combined dimensionless groups underpin quantitative assessments of relative permeability and residual saturations in subsurface flows.^[25]^[26]

Applications

In Enhanced Oil Recovery

In enhanced oil recovery (EOR), the capillary number plays a pivotal role in waterflooding processes, where polymer additives are employed to increase the displacing fluid's viscosity, thereby elevating the capillary number and facilitating the mobilization of residual oil trapped by capillary forces.^[27] Typically, conventional waterflooding operates at low capillary numbers on the order of 10^{-6} to 10^{-5}, leaving significant residual oil saturation, but polymer addition can raise this value to 10^{-5} or higher by enhancing viscous forces relative to interfacial tension.^[28] This increase often results in additional oil recovery of 10-20% of the original oil in place, as demonstrated in laboratory corefloods and field pilots, by reducing oil trapping in pore throats and improving sweep efficiency.^[29] Chemical EOR techniques further leverage the capillary number to target residual oil, with surfactant flooding primarily lowering interfacial tension to dramatically increase the capillary number and promote oil detachment from rock surfaces.^[30] By reducing interfacial tension from millinewtons per meter to ultralow values (e.g., 10^{-3} mN/m), surfactants can elevate the capillary number by orders of magnitude, enabling the recovery of oil otherwise immobilized at low capillary numbers.^[31] In alkaline flooding, the mechanism involves both interfacial tension reduction through in-situ soap generation and wettability alteration toward more water-wet conditions, which indirectly enhances the effective capillary number and alters its interpretation in multiphase flow.^[32] These combined effects in alkali-surfactant-polymer systems can achieve capillary numbers sufficient to lower residual oil saturation below waterflood levels, improving overall recovery in heterogeneous reservoirs.^[33] The capillary number is integral to simulation and scaling in EOR, particularly within fractional flow theory as embodied in the Buckley-Leverett equation, where it influences the stability and propagation of displacement fronts by balancing viscous and capillary forces.^[34] Lower capillary numbers stabilize the front against fingering, leading to more uniform sweep and predictable recovery profiles in numerical models.^[35] For lab-to-field upscaling, matching capillary numbers ensures that core-scale experiments translate to reservoir conditions, using capillary desaturation curves to correlate residual oil saturation with local capillary number variations and validate simulations across scales.^[36] A historical milestone in applying the capillary number to EOR occurred during 1970s field tests, such as polymer floods in Wyoming reservoirs like the Minnelusa Formation, where elevated capillary numbers demonstrated miscible-like recovery efficiencies in otherwise immiscible systems.^[37] These pilots, including early implementations at fields like Skull Creek, highlighted how polymer flooding could overcome capillary trapping through improved mobility control, paving the way for widespread adoption of chemical EOR methods.^[38]

In Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-Chip

In microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip devices, the capillary number (Ca) plays a pivotal role in controlling droplet formation regimes, enabling precise manipulation of fluid interfaces at microscales. At low Ca values around 10^{-3}, capillary forces dominate, leading to the dripping regime where uniform, monodisperse droplets are generated through interfacial instabilities in geometries like flow-focusing or T-junctions.^[39] This regime is ideal for applications requiring discrete, size-controlled emulsions, as the balance favors surface tension over viscous shear. In contrast, at higher Ca values approaching 1, viscous forces prevail, transitioning to the jetting regime that produces elongated threads for continuous droplet streams, often used in high-throughput particle synthesis.^[40] The capillary number also governs passive versus active flow control strategies in these systems, extending principles like Washburn's law for self-propelled imbibition in capillaries. In passive setups, low Ca (typically 10^{-4} to 10^{-2}) enables pump-free operation, where capillary pressure drives fluid advection according to L(t) ∝ √t, facilitating autonomous mixing and transport in open or closed channels without external actuation.^[41] This contrasts with active control, where higher Ca allows syringe-driven flows for dynamic adjustments, but passive designs dominate lab-on-a-chip for simplicity and portability. Such Ca ranges ensure efficient diffusive mixing in low-Reynolds environments, avoiding the need for mechanical pumps. In biomedical applications, Ca optimization enhances emulsion stability for drug delivery, where low Ca values promote robust, uniform droplets that encapsulate therapeutics for controlled, targeted release, minimizing coalescence and improving bioavailability.^[42] For instance, in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) channels fabricated via soft lithography, tuning Ca to around 10^{-3} to 10^{-2} enables precise droplet encapsulation during single-cell analysis, allowing isolation and study of individual cells in heterogeneous samples like blood, with applications in genomics and diagnostics.^[43] Post-2020 advancements have integrated Ca considerations with soft lithography techniques, where the number scales inversely with channel aspect ratio (h/w), optimizing capillary filling rates for portable diagnostics. This enables compact, instrument-free devices, such as those for COVID-19 antigen detection using capillary-driven assays in PDMS structures, achieving rapid results with minimal sample volumes and enhancing point-of-care accessibility in resource-limited settings.^[44]^[45]

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