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Cheilitis

Cheilitis is a general term for inflammation of the lips, which can be acute or chronic and may affect the vermilion border, adjacent perioral skin, or occasionally the oral mucosa of one or both lips.^[1] It encompasses a diverse group of disorders with varying etiologies, including exogenous factors like irritants, allergens, and sun exposure, as well as endogenous causes such as infections, nutritional deficiencies, drug reactions, and systemic conditions.^[1] Common symptoms include dryness, erythema, scaling, fissuring, edema, crusting, or ulceration, which can lead to discomfort, pain, or cosmetic concerns depending on the severity and type.^[1] Cheilitis is classified into several types based on clinical presentation and underlying mechanisms, broadly divided into reversible forms like cheilitis simplex, angular/infective, contact/eczematous, exfoliative, and drug-related, and irreversible forms such as actinic, granulomatous, glandular, and plasma cell cheilitis.^[2] Cheilitis simplex, the most common variant, often results from habitual lip licking or environmental dryness, presenting as cracked, fissured lips primarily on the lower lip.^[2] Angular cheilitis involves inflammation at the oral commissures, frequently linked to infections like Candida or nutritional deficiencies in iron and B vitamins.^[3] Contact or eczematous cheilitis arises from allergens or irritants such as lip cosmetics or foods, causing dryness, scaling, and erythema.^[2] In contrast, actinic cheilitis is a precancerous condition induced by chronic ultraviolet exposure, characterized by whitish thickening and potential progression to squamous cell carcinoma.^[1] Rarer forms include granulomatous cheilitis, associated with systemic diseases like Crohn's disease or sarcoidosis, leading to persistent lip swelling, and glandular cheilitis, involving minor salivary gland inflammation often tied to smoking or sun damage.^[2] Diagnosis typically involves clinical evaluation, history-taking, and sometimes patch testing, biopsy, or cultures to identify the specific type and rule out differentials like herpes simplex, syphilis, or malignancy.^[1] Treatment is tailored to the etiology and may include emollients for hydration, topical corticosteroids for inflammation, antifungals or antivirals for infections, avoidance of triggers for allergic cases, and more invasive options like cryotherapy, laser therapy, or surgery for actinic or glandular variants.^[1]^[2] Early intervention is crucial, as untreated cheilitis can lead to secondary infections, scarring, or malignant transformation in predisposed types.^[1]

Overview

Definition

Cheilitis is an inflammation of the lips, specifically involving the vermilion border and/or the perioral skin of one or both lips.^[1] This condition affects the exposed transitional zone between the skin and oral mucosa, which is highly vulnerable due to the vermilion's thin, incompletely keratinized stratum corneum and absence of protective sebaceous glands, making it prone to dryness, cracking, and irritation from environmental exposures.^[4]^[5] Cheilitis manifests in acute or chronic forms. Acute cheilitis is short-term, typically presenting with erythema, edema, and resolution within days to weeks, often triggered by transient irritants.^[1] In contrast, chronic cheilitis involves persistent changes such as scaling, fissuring, or thickening of the lip tissue, potentially leading to long-term discomfort if underlying factors persist.^[1]^[6] The condition is broadly classified into exogenous and endogenous types. Exogenous cheilitis arises from external factors, including irritants like dry weather or allergens such as lip cosmetics.^[1] Endogenous cheilitis stems from internal causes, such as atopic dermatitis or systemic diseases.^[1] Certain subtypes, notably actinic cheilitis, exhibit premalignant potential and may progress to squamous cell carcinoma in rare cases.^[1]

Epidemiology

Cheilitis is a common inflammatory condition of the lips, encompassing various subtypes with eczematous and simplex (chapped) forms being the most frequent manifestations. Exact overall prevalence in the general population remains underreported due to the often episodic and self-resolving nature of mild cases, but subtype-specific data indicate it affects a notable portion of individuals. For example, angular cheilitis has a prevalence of approximately 0.7% in the general U.S. population, while contact cheilitis occurs in 1.3% to 5.8% worldwide among those presenting for evaluation.^[3]^[7]^[1] Demographically, allergic and contact cheilitis exhibit a strong female predominance, with 70.7% to 90% of cases occurring in women, largely linked to exposure from lip cosmetics. In contrast, actinic cheilitis primarily impacts fair-skinned males aged 40 to 80 years, particularly those in outdoor occupations such as farming or fishing. Angular cheilitis shows no strong gender bias but is more prevalent in the elderly, especially denture wearers, reaching up to 28% among institutionalized seniors.^[8]^[1]^[9] Geographically, actinic cheilitis is notably higher in high-ultraviolet regions like Australia and Brazil, with prevalence among outdoor workers ranging from 15.5% to 39.6%. Infectious cheilitis subtypes, including angular forms, are more common in tropical climates due to favorable conditions for microbial growth.^[10]^[3] However, epidemiological data remain incomplete, particularly for pediatric versus adult incidences and rare subtypes like plasma cell cheilitis, which constitute less than 1% of cases.^[11]

Etiology and Pathophysiology

Causes

Cheilitis arises from a variety of etiologic factors, broadly classified into exogenous, endogenous, infectious, iatrogenic, and other categories, often involving multifactorial interactions that disrupt the lip's barrier function.^[1]^[12] Exogenous causes primarily stem from external environmental exposures and contact with irritants or allergens. Dry or cold weather, along with low humidity, can lead to moisture loss and irritation of the lip vermilion, resulting in chapping and inflammation.^[1] Ultraviolet radiation from chronic sun exposure is a key trigger, particularly in fair-skinned individuals with outdoor occupations.^[1]^[12] Irritants such as habitual lip licking, which removes natural oils and promotes evaporation, or components in toothpaste and mouthwashes, exacerbate dryness and fissuring.^[1]^[2] Allergens, including fragrances or metals in cosmetics like lipsticks and certain foods such as citrus, provoke allergic contact reactions in sensitized individuals.^[1] Endogenous causes involve internal systemic or genetic factors that predispose the lips to inflammation. Nutritional deficiencies, notably of iron and B vitamins (such as riboflavin, niacin, and pyridoxine), contribute to angular cheilitis by impairing epithelial integrity and immune function, accounting for approximately 25% of such cases.^[13] Autoimmune conditions like lichen planus can manifest as lip involvement through immune-mediated epithelial damage.^[12]^[2] Genetic predispositions, particularly atopy in individuals with atopic dermatitis, increase susceptibility, with atopy-related reactions observed in up to 30% of cheilitis patients.^[14] Infectious agents directly invade the lip tissues, leading to secondary inflammation. Fungal infections, most commonly by Candida albicans, cause erythematous patches and fissures, often in immunocompromised hosts.^[1] Bacterial involvement, such as Staphylococcus aureus or group A Streptococcus, contributes to crusting and erosion, particularly in angular regions.^[1] Viral pathogens like herpes simplex virus type 1 result in vesicular outbreaks and ulceration.^[1] Iatrogenic causes arise from therapeutic interventions, with systemic retinoids like isotretinoin frequently inducing cheilitis through mucocutaneous dryness and scaling, affecting 15-25% of users depending on dosage.^[1]^[15] Other contributing factors include behavioral habits and additional nutritional issues. Smoking irritates the lip mucosa via chemical exposure and heat, while mouth breathing promotes dehydration and saliva accumulation at the corners.^[16]^[2] Anemia, often linked to iron deficiency, further predisposes to angular forms by altering tissue oxygenation.^[13]

Pathophysiology

The vermilion border of the lips is particularly susceptible to inflammation due to its unique anatomical features, including a thin stratified squamous epithelium with reduced keratinization compared to adjacent facial skin, high keratinocyte turnover rates, and a deficient stratum corneum barrier.^[17] This structure results in elevated transepidermal water loss (TEWL), which can be significantly higher—up to several times that of cheek skin—predisposing the lips to dryness, cracking, and environmental insult penetration.^[18] The absence of skin appendages like sebaceous glands further impairs natural lubrication and protection, amplifying vulnerability to irritants and allergens.^[19] Exposure to irritants or allergens initiates an inflammatory cascade in the lip epithelium, where keratinocytes release pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), recruiting immune cells and promoting vasodilation and edema.^[20] These cytokines disrupt the epithelial barrier by downregulating tight junction proteins and increasing permeability, exacerbating water loss and allowing further ingress of harmful agents.^[1] In response, vascular changes lead to localized swelling, while histamine and other mediators contribute to erythema and pruritus, perpetuating a cycle of irritation and repair.^[1] In chronic cases, persistent inflammation can induce tissue remodeling, including fibrosis from excessive collagen deposition by activated fibroblasts, hyperkeratosis as a compensatory thickening of the stratum corneum, and granuloma formation involving macrophage aggregation in response to unresolved stimuli.^[21] Dysbiosis of the oral and lip microbiome may facilitate secondary bacterial or fungal infections, altering microbial communities and intensifying local immune activation.^[22] Additionally, in scenarios involving ultraviolet (UV) exposure, cumulative DNA damage—such as cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers—can lead to mutations in tumor suppressor genes like p53, establishing a premalignant state through impaired apoptosis and uncontrolled cell proliferation, though this represents a broader principle of photo-induced epithelial dysregulation.^[23] Multifactorial interactions compound these processes; for instance, dehydration reduces salivary gland output, diminishing the protective mucin layer that normally buffers against evaporative loss and enzymatic irritation from saliva, thereby worsening barrier dysfunction in the context of environmental or endogenous stressors.^[2]

Clinical Features and Diagnosis

Signs and Symptoms

Cheilitis commonly presents with inflammation of the lips, manifesting as erythema, dryness, scaling, fissuring, and edema of the vermilion border and surrounding skin.^[1] These signs may vary in severity but often lead to a rough, cracked appearance that can affect one or both lips. In chronic cases, the lips may appear pale due to pallor or chronically hyperpigmented, particularly in sun-exposed individuals.^[24]^[25] Patients typically experience symptoms such as burning, itching, and pain, which can intensify during eating, speaking, or exposure to irritants. Fissures may result in secondary bleeding or crusting, exacerbating discomfort and increasing the risk of secondary infection.^[1]^[24] In acute infectious presentations, such as viral cheilitis, vesicles or blisters may occur, often resolving within days to weeks if uncomplicated. Chronic forms, however, can lead to lip thickening, atrophy, or persistent swelling, altering the lip's normal contour.^[1] Associated features include perioral skin involvement in approximately 20% of contact cheilitis cases, potentially extending the inflammatory process beyond the lips. These manifestations can impact quality of life, particularly through cosmetic concerns that affect daily social interactions.^[26]^[14] Red flags such as induration or ulceration warrant prompt evaluation, as they may indicate progression to malignancy, with actinic cheilitis carrying a 10-30% risk of transforming into squamous cell carcinoma.^[1]^[27]

Diagnostic Approach

The diagnosis of cheilitis begins with a thorough medical history to identify potential etiologies and guide further evaluation. Key elements include assessing the onset and duration of symptoms, such as dryness, redness, irritation, burning, fissuring, or itching, as well as exposures to irritants or allergens like cosmetics, oral care products, foods, medications, or chronic sun exposure.^[1] Habits such as lip licking or picking, along with systemic symptoms like gastrointestinal issues suggestive of granulomatous disease, nutritional changes, or atopy, should also be explored to differentiate causes.^[6]^[28] Physical examination follows, focusing on inspection of the lips and surrounding areas to determine the distribution (unilateral or bilateral), extent of involvement (vermilion border, cutaneous lip, commissures, or beyond), and specific features like erythema, scaling, edema, fissures, crusting, nodules, or induration upon palpation.^[1] The oral cavity should be examined for contributing factors such as ill-fitting dentures, thrush, or intraoral lesions, while the skin elsewhere is checked for associated conditions like atopic dermatitis.^[6] Basic investigations are pursued based on clinical suspicion. Patch testing is recommended for suspected allergic contact cheilitis, with positive results in approximately 34% of lip dermatitis cases.^[28] It is not indicated for irritant cases, which are diagnosed clinically. Swabs or cultures from the lips are obtained if infection is suspected, targeting bacteria, fungi like Candida, or herpes simplex virus.^[1]^[6] For chronic, persistent, or atypical cases where the etiology remains unclear after initial assessment, advanced testing is indicated. Biopsy of the affected lip tissue is essential to confirm diagnosis, revealing inflammation, granulomas, dysplasia, or malignancy, particularly in actinic or granulomatous forms.^[1] Blood tests may be ordered to evaluate for nutritional deficiencies, such as low ferritin levels indicating iron deficiency, or other systemic markers if autoimmune or inflammatory links are suspected.^[28] A 2024 diagnostic algorithm provides a stepwise framework, starting with history and clinical examination to narrow differentials, followed by targeted basic tests like patch testing or cultures, and progressing to biopsy for unresolved cases, with emphasis on multidisciplinary consultation for potential systemic associations like nutritional or gastrointestinal disorders.^[28] This structured approach addresses the diagnostic challenges of cheilitis, though algorithms are underutilized in routine practice, often leading to prolonged testing or empiric trials.^[28]

Management

Treatment Principles

The management of cheilitis begins with supportive care aimed at restoring the lip's natural barrier function and minimizing exacerbating factors. Emollients such as petroleum jelly or lip balms containing ceramides, mineral oil, or shea butter should be applied several times daily to hydrate and protect the lips, particularly before bedtime and after exposure to dry environments. Patients are advised to avoid irritants including lip licking, biting, or picking, as well as products containing menthol, camphor, fragrances, or salicylic acid, which can perpetuate inflammation. Adequate hydration through increased water intake and the use of humidifiers, especially in low-humidity settings, further supports epithelial recovery.^[1]^[29] Anti-inflammatory therapies form the cornerstone for cases involving persistent erythema or edema. Topical corticosteroids, starting with low-potency options like hydrocortisone 1% for mild inflammation and escalating to medium- or high-potency formulations (e.g., triamcinolone or betamethasone) for chronic or severe presentations, are applied thinly 1-2 times daily for short courses to reduce symptoms while minimizing side effects such as skin atrophy. For steroid-sparing alternatives, particularly in prolonged therapy or perioral areas, topical calcineurin inhibitors like tacrolimus 0.03% or pimecrolimus 1% ointment can be used, applied twice daily, as they inhibit T-cell activation without the risks associated with corticosteroids.^[1] Infection control is reserved for confirmed microbial involvement to prevent antibiotic resistance and unnecessary exposure. Antifungals such as clotrimazole troches or nystatin are indicated for candidal overgrowth, applied topically 3-4 times daily for 7-14 days, while topical antibiotics like mupirocin address bacterial superinfections similarly. Systemic agents, such as oral fluconazole (100-200 mg daily for up to 14 days), are considered only for extensive or refractory fungal cases. Systemic interventions include supplementation with vitamins (e.g., B-complex) at 1-2 times the recommended daily allowance for documented deficiencies contributing to cheilitis, alongside immediate discontinuation of any implicated medications in drug-related forms.^[1] Ongoing monitoring is essential, with regular follow-up visits every 2-4 weeks initially to assess response and detect any progression toward premalignant changes in chronic cases. A multidisciplinary approach involving dermatologists, allergists, or nutritionists is recommended for underlying systemic etiologies, ensuring comprehensive evaluation and adjustment of therapy as needed. Tailored modifications may apply based on the specific type of cheilitis, as detailed elsewhere.^[1]

Prevention

Preventing cheilitis involves adopting lifestyle and environmental modifications to minimize risk factors such as dryness, irritation, and nutritional deficiencies. Regular application of lip balms containing at least SPF 30, formulated with physical blockers like titanium dioxide or zinc oxide, protects against ultraviolet radiation, which can exacerbate lip inflammation.^[30] In dry or cold climates, using humidifiers to maintain indoor humidity levels above 40% helps prevent excessive moisture loss from the lips, while avoiding prolonged exposure to extreme weather by wearing protective scarves or balms reduces irritation.^[29] Gentle cleansing with mild, fragrance-free products and avoiding harsh soaps or exfoliants preserves the lip's natural barrier function.^[1] Modifying habits that contribute to lip trauma is essential for avoidance. Ceasing behaviors like lip licking, biting, or sucking prevents saliva-induced maceration and further drying, with habit reversal techniques such as chewing sugar-free gum or using stress-relief tools aiding in breaking these cycles.^[30] For individuals prone to unconscious habits, maintaining constant hydration through adequate water intake (at least 8 glasses daily) and frequent reapplication of emollients like petroleum jelly supports lip integrity without relying on saliva.^[24] Allergen avoidance plays a key role, particularly for those with sensitive skin. Opting for hypoallergenic, fragrance-free cosmetics and lip products minimizes contact with potential irritants like metals, preservatives, or flavorings, and undergoing patch testing is recommended for high-risk individuals to identify specific triggers.^[31] ^[32] A balanced diet rich in essential nutrients supports overall lip health and prevents deficiency-related forms of cheilitis. Incorporating foods high in B vitamins (such as riboflavin and B12 from whole grains, lean meats, and eggs), iron (from spinach and beans), and zinc (from nuts and seafood) addresses common deficiencies, with supplements considered only under medical guidance if lab tests confirm shortages.^[24] ^[33] Proper denture hygiene, including daily cleaning and ensuring a good fit, reduces moisture trapping and bacterial overgrowth at the mouth corners.^[1] For occupational settings, workers exposed to environmental hazards benefit from targeted protections. Outdoor laborers should use broad-brimmed hats, protective clothing, and SPF lip balms during peak sun hours to shield against UV damage, while those in dry or irritant-heavy environments (e.g., manufacturing) can employ barrier creams and regular breaks for lip rehydration.^[29] Fair-skinned individuals over 40 in high-exposure roles are advised to undergo periodic dermatologic screenings to catch early signs, though these measures complement general prevention rather than replace them.^[30]

Types of Cheilitis

Chapped Lips

Chapped lips, also known as cheilitis simplex, represent the most common and benign form of cheilitis, characterized by non-inflammatory dryness and cracking of the lips due to environmental factors such as low humidity, wind exposure, or dehydration.^[1] Unlike other variants, it lacks significant erythema or deeper tissue involvement, stemming primarily from the lips' lack of oil glands, which renders them vulnerable to moisture loss.^[34] The primary causes include seasonal changes, particularly in winter when dry, cold air predominates, and habitual behaviors like frequent lip licking, where saliva initially moistens but then evaporates, further impairing the skin barrier.^[1] Dehydration from inadequate fluid intake exacerbates this by reducing overall skin hydration, while wind and low humidity strip natural moisture from the vermilion border.^[34] These exogenous triggers lead to a loss of keratin plasticity in the lip epithelium, promoting scaling without an underlying infectious or allergic component.^[1] Clinically, symptoms manifest as mild scaling, a sensation of tightness, and superficial peeling, typically without deep fissures or bleeding unless aggravated.^[35] Affected individuals may experience discomfort from eating spicy or acidic foods, but the condition generally resolves within days to a week upon restoration of moisture.^[34] Diagnosis is straightforward and clinical, relying on patient history and visual inspection; no laboratory testing is required unless symptoms persist beyond two weeks, which may prompt evaluation for alternative etiologies.^[1] Management centers on barrier restoration using occlusive emollients like petrolatum, applied frequently—several times daily—to lock in moisture and prevent further evaporation.^[35] Avoidance of irritants, such as matte lipsticks or flavored balms containing menthol, is recommended to halt perpetuating factors, with hydration and humidified environments aiding recovery.^[34] This approach aligns with broader principles of emollient therapy for cheilitis, emphasizing non-invasive measures.^[1] The prognosis is excellent, as chapped lips are self-limiting and typically heal fully with consistent care, though recurrence is common upon re-exposure to triggers like dry weather or lip-licking habits.^[35] Differentiation from eczematous cheilitis is key, as the latter involves allergic or atopic elements not present in this irritant-driven form.^[1]

Actinic Cheilitis

Actinic cheilitis is a chronic condition resulting from prolonged ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure to the lips, primarily affecting the vermilion border of the lower lip and a chronic premalignant condition with a risk of progression to invasive squamous cell carcinoma of 10-20%.^[36]^[37] It arises due to cumulative sun damage, making the lips vulnerable as they lack the protective stratum corneum found on other skin areas.^[23] Epidemiologically, actinic cheilitis shows a prevalence of 10-20% among fair-skinned individuals engaged in outdoor occupations, particularly those aged 40 years and older residing in sunny latitudes, with higher incidence in males due to greater occupational sun exposure.^[36] Overall population prevalence in sunny regions ranges from 0.5% to 2.4%, underscoring its association with light skin phototypes and chronic UV exposure.^[37] The pathophysiology involves UV-B radiation inducing DNA damage in keratinocytes, particularly mutations in the p53 tumor suppressor gene, leading to impaired apoptosis and uncontrolled cellular proliferation that promotes dysplasia.^[23]^[36] The lower lip is predominantly affected due to its horizontal orientation, which maximizes UV penetration compared to the upper lip.^[23] Clinically, it presents with a rough, sandpaper-like texture on the lower lip vermilion, often accompanied by white plaques, actinic elastosis, and superficial erosions or ulcerations that may cause a burning sensation.^[37]^[23] The condition typically spares the commissures and upper lip, with the vermilion border appearing blurred or indistinct.^[38] Diagnosis requires a confirmatory biopsy, as clinical features overlap with other lip disorders; histopathological examination reveals hyperkeratosis, acanthosis, solar elastosis, and graded epithelial dysplasia classified as mild, moderate, or severe based on the extent of atypical cellular changes.^[23]^[38] Treatment options include topical therapies such as 5-fluorouracil (5% applied twice daily for 2-4 weeks, achieving up to 91% response rates) or imiquimod to induce local inflammation and eliminate dysplastic cells; cryotherapy offers targeted destruction for localized lesions, while severe or widespread cases may necessitate surgical vermilionectomy with reported remission rates of 92.8%.^[23]^[36] If untreated, actinic cheilitis carries a prognosis of 5-10% risk of progression to invasive squamous cell carcinoma, with higher rates up to 30% in advanced dysplasia, emphasizing the importance of early intervention to prevent malignant transformation.^[36]^[23]

Angular Cheilitis

Angular cheilitis, also known as angular stomatitis or perlèche, is an inflammatory condition affecting the skin at the labial commissures, the corners of the mouth.^[3] It typically presents as a multifactorial disorder involving moisture accumulation, microbial overgrowth, and predisposing factors such as ill-fitting dentures or nutritional deficits.^[24] The condition is common, with a prevalence of about 0.7% in the general U.S. population, rising to 11% among the elderly and up to 28% in denture wearers.^[3] It is often bilateral, occurring in approximately 80% of cases.^[24] The etiology of angular cheilitis is diverse, frequently resulting from saliva pooling in skin folds, which leads to maceration and creates an environment conducive to secondary infections.^[39] Common infectious contributors include Candida species, isolated in 30-50% of cases via swab, and bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus or streptococci.^[24] Nutritional deficiencies play a role in up to 25% of instances, particularly involving iron, riboflavin (vitamin B2), pyridoxine (B6), cobalamin (B12), or zinc, often linked to malabsorption or dietary inadequacies.^[3] Other unique predispositions include poorly fitted dentures that alter oral anatomy, promoting saliva retention, and conditions like diabetes or immunosuppression that impair local defenses.^[39] Clinically, angular cheilitis manifests as erythema and edema at the mouth corners, progressing to fissuring, crusting, and sometimes ulceration or bleeding.^[3] Patients often report soreness, burning, or pain during eating and speaking, with pseudomembranous plaques indicating candidal involvement.^[24] In severe cases, the lesions may extend slightly onto the adjacent vermilion border or buccal mucosa, but the primary site remains the commissures.^[39] Diagnosis is primarily clinical, based on the characteristic location and appearance, though confirmatory tests enhance accuracy.^[3] Microbial swabs from the lesions identify Candida in 30-50% or bacteria in relevant cases, guiding targeted therapy.^[24] Blood tests, including complete blood count, serum iron, ferritin, vitamin B levels, and zinc, are recommended to screen for deficiencies, especially in recurrent or refractory presentations.^[39] Management focuses on addressing underlying causes while providing symptomatic relief. Barrier creams or petrolatum-based ointments protect against saliva irritation and promote healing.^[24] For infectious components, topical antifungals like nystatin or miconazole ointment are first-line, applied 2-4 times daily for 1-2 weeks; antibiotics such as mupirocin may be added if bacterial superinfection is present.^[3] Nutritional supplements, including iron, B vitamins, or zinc, are prescribed based on bloodwork results.^[39] Denture wearers require adjustment or refitting of appliances, along with overnight removal and antifungal soaks to prevent recurrence.^[24] Prognosis is generally favorable, with most cases resolving within 2 weeks of appropriate intervention.^[3] However, recurrence occurs in about 20% of patients without ongoing hygiene measures or correction of predisposing factors.^[24]

Eczematous Cheilitis

Eczematous cheilitis represents an inflammatory condition of the lips driven by immune-mediated mechanisms, encompassing subtypes such as irritant contact cheilitis, allergic contact cheilitis, and atopic cheilitis. Irritant contact cheilitis arises from direct exposure to non-immunologic irritants like foods or habitual lip-licking, which disrupts the lip's protective barrier.^[40] Allergic contact cheilitis involves a delayed hypersensitivity reaction to allergens commonly found in lip products, such as metals like nickel or fragrances, with studies showing positive patch test reactions in approximately 24% to 32% of cases of eczematous cheilitis referred for testing.^[41]^[7] Atopic cheilitis, an endogenous form, occurs in patients with underlying atopic dermatitis, affecting up to 19% to 53% of those with eczema depending on the cohort studied.^[42]^[43] The pathophysiology of allergic contact cheilitis is characterized by a type IV hypersensitivity reaction, where T-cell mediated inflammation leads to lip edema and erythema upon re-exposure to the allergen.^[26] In contrast, atopic cheilitis stems from an inherent epidermal barrier dysfunction, exacerbated by genetic predispositions like filaggrin mutations, resulting in increased transepidermal water loss and susceptibility to environmental triggers.^[1] Irritant contact cheilitis, while not immunologic, shares features of barrier compromise but lacks the specific allergic sensitization.^[40] Clinical signs include erythematous, scaly lips with potential vesiculation, oozing, and crusting in acute phases, progressing to lichenification and fissuring in chronic cases; perioral involvement is frequent, distinguishing it from isolated mechanical drying.^[12] These manifestations often mimic other dermatoses but are typically bilateral and symmetrical in atopic forms.^[18] Diagnosis relies on a detailed history of atopy or exposure to potential irritants and allergens, supplemented by patch testing using standardized series like the TRUE Test to identify specific culprits in allergic subtypes, with positive reactions confirming the diagnosis in up to 60% of suspected cases.^[44] Biopsy is rarely needed but may show spongiosis and lymphocytic infiltrate if performed.^[1] Management centers on allergen or irritant avoidance as the cornerstone, combined with topical mid-potency corticosteroids such as triamcinolone 0.1% ointment applied twice daily for 1-2 weeks to reduce inflammation, alongside emollients to restore barrier function.^[12] For refractory or chronic atopic cases, topical calcineurin inhibitors like tacrolimus 0.03% ointment offer steroid-sparing efficacy, leading to complete resolution in reported pediatric series.^[45] Prognosis varies by subtype, with irritant forms often resolving promptly upon trigger elimination, while allergic and atopic variants tend to be recurrent or chronic, particularly in atopics where ongoing barrier defects perpetuate flares.^[41]^[46]

Infectious Cheilitis

Infectious cheilitis refers to inflammation of the lips primarily caused by microbial pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and rarely parasites, which exploit the lips' thin stratum corneum and exposure to saliva for invasion.^[1] This condition differs from secondary infections in other cheilitis forms by being the dominant etiology, often presenting acutely with localized symptoms that may spread if untreated.^[1] Viral infectious cheilitis is most commonly due to herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), manifesting as herpes labialis with grouped vesicles on an erythematous base that rupture to form crusted erosions, typically on the vermilion border.^[1] Recurrence occurs in 20-40% of affected individuals, triggered by factors like stress or UV exposure.^[47] Bacterial causes include impetigo from Staphylococcus aureus or group A Streptococcus, characterized by honey-crusted lesions that start as vesicles or bullae on the lips.^[48] Fungal infections, primarily Candida albicans, present beyond angular areas with diffuse erythema, edema, and fissures, particularly in immunocompromised patients where HIV increases the risk of oral candidiasis, including cheilitis, by up to 50-fold compared to the general population.^[1]^[49] Rare parasitic forms, such as cutaneous leishmaniasis in endemic regions like the Mediterranean or South America, appear as erythematous papules, nodules, or plaques on the lips due to Leishmania species protozoa.^[50] The pathophysiology involves direct microbial invasion of the lip epithelium, facilitated by the barrier's vulnerability to maceration from saliva or minor trauma, leading to local inflammation and potential dissemination in severe cases.^[1] Immunosuppression, such as in HIV or diabetes, heightens susceptibility by impairing host defenses, allowing opportunistic pathogens like Candida to proliferate.^[49] Characteristic signs include pustules and vesicles in viral and bacterial cases, ulcers or erosions that may crust, and white plaques or pseudomembranes in fungal infections; severe or disseminated forms can cause systemic symptoms like fever and lymphadenopathy.^[1] Diagnosis relies on clinical presentation, supported by laboratory tests: viral culture or PCR for HSV confirmation, Gram staining for bacterial identification, potassium hydroxide (KOH) preparation for fungal hyphae, and biopsy with histopathology or PCR for parasitic or deep infections.^[1] Treatment targets the specific pathogen: oral acyclovir at 400 mg five times daily for 5 days for HSV episodes, topical mupirocin ointment three times daily for 5-7 days for bacterial impetigo, and systemic fluconazole at 200 mg daily for 7-14 days for extensive candidal cheilitis, with topical antifungals like clotrimazole for milder cases.^[48]^[1] Parasitic infections require region-specific antileishmanial therapy, such as liposomal amphotericin B.^[50] Supportive measures include lip emollients to protect the barrier. Prognosis is excellent for acute, treated cases, with rapid resolution and low complication risk in immunocompetent individuals; however, recurrences are common in viral forms, and chronic or refractory disease persists in immunocompromised patients without addressing underlying factors.^[1]^[47]

Granulomatous Cheilitis

Granulomatous cheilitis, also known as Miescher cheilitis or a manifestation of orofacial granulomatosis, is a rare idiopathic condition characterized by persistent, painless swelling of the lips due to chronic granulomatous inflammation.^[51]^[52] It typically presents as recurrent episodes of lip edema that may become permanent over time, affecting young adults more commonly, with a slight female predominance.^[21] The condition is frequently associated with systemic disorders, including Crohn's disease, where oral involvement occurs in 10-20% of cases, often manifesting as granulomatous changes in the lips or oral mucosa.^[53]^[54] It may also link to sarcoidosis, presenting with similar granulomatous features, or to food sensitivities, particularly to additives like cinnamon, benzoates, and chocolate, which can trigger flares in susceptible individuals.^[53]^[55] Pathophysiologically, granulomatous cheilitis involves the formation of non-caseating granulomas driven by a T helper 1 (Th1)-mediated immune response, leading to lymphocytic infiltration and edema in the lip tissues without evidence of infection or necrosis.^[21] This inflammatory process disrupts lymphatic drainage and promotes fibrosis, contributing to the persistent swelling observed clinically.^[51] Clinically, patients exhibit diffuse enlargement of one or both lips, often starting with the upper lip, which may feel firm or nodular on palpation; associated features include cobblestoning of the oral mucosa, gingival hypertrophy, and episodic flares that resolve partially between episodes.^[51]^[56] The swelling is typically nontender and nonpruritic, though severe cases can lead to fissuring, ulceration, or cosmetic deformity.^[21] Diagnosis relies on clinical presentation supported by lip biopsy, which reveals sarcoid-like non-caseating granulomas composed of epithelioid histiocytes and multinucleated giant cells, without vasculitis or microbial elements.^[57] Systemic evaluation is essential to exclude associations, including serum angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) levels to rule out sarcoidosis, colonoscopy for Crohn's disease, and patch testing for food or contact allergens.^[57]^[53] Treatment focuses on symptom control and addressing underlying triggers; intralesional corticosteroids, such as triamcinolone injections every 4-6 weeks, provide effective reduction in swelling for many patients.^[58] Oral dapsone at 100 mg daily has shown benefit in refractory cases by modulating inflammation, while exclusion diets avoiding cinnamon and benzoates lead to improvement in 54-78% of responsive individuals.^[59]^[58] Surgical cheiloplasty may be considered for persistent deformity, though recurrence is common.^[21] The prognosis is that of a chronic, relapsing condition with variable response to therapy, often requiring long-term management to prevent progression to disfiguring lip enlargement.^[60] Approximately 5-10% of cases may evolve to overt intestinal Crohn's disease, particularly if gastrointestinal symptoms emerge.^[61] Drug-related cheilitis, also known as iatrogenic cheilitis, refers to inflammation of the lips induced by systemic or topical medications through mechanisms of direct toxicity rather than hypersensitivity.^[2] This condition is distinct from allergic reactions and arises primarily from pharmacologic effects on lip mucosa and skin.^[28] Common medications associated with this form of cheilitis include retinoids such as isotretinoin, which causes lip dryness and cheilitis in approximately 90% of users due to its dose-dependent effects.^[62] Chemotherapy agents often lead to cheilitis as an extension of oral mucositis, occurring in 18-60% of patients undergoing treatment, particularly in those with head and neck cancers.^[63]^[64] Nicorandil, a potassium channel activator used for angina, induces oral ulcers that may manifest as cheilitis in up to 5% of users, often presenting as persistent, painful lesions.^[65]^[66] The primary mechanisms involve direct toxicity leading to xerosis (severe dryness) by inhibiting sebaceous gland function and reducing sebum production, as seen with retinoids.^[62] Certain drugs, including retinoids and some chemotherapeutic agents like sorafenib, also enhance photosensitivity, exacerbating lip inflammation upon UV exposure.^[28] These effects are typically dose-dependent and reversible upon withdrawal. Clinical signs include erythematous, scaling lips with fissuring, often involving the angles of the mouth (angular cheilitis) in severe cases, and are proportional to the drug dosage.^[2] Patients may report burning, cracking, or peeling without systemic symptoms unless linked to broader mucositis from chemotherapy.^[63] Diagnosis relies on establishing a temporal association between drug initiation and symptom onset, confirmed by improvement or resolution upon discontinuation.^[28] Exclusion of infectious or allergic causes through history and clinical examination is essential, though biopsy is rarely needed.^[2] Treatment involves dose reduction or switching to alternative medications when feasible, alongside supportive lip care using lanolin-based emollients to alleviate dryness and prevent secondary infection.^[67] For severe cases, temporary interruption of the offending drug may be required. Supportive emollients are detailed in general treatment principles for cheilitis.^[67] Prognosis is favorable, with symptoms typically resolving within 2-4 weeks after drug discontinuation, though rare cases may show lingering dryness.^[68] Permanent changes are uncommon, affecting fewer than 1% of patients.^[62]

Exfoliative Cheilitis

Exfoliative cheilitis is a rare chronic inflammatory condition of the lips characterized by persistent desquamation and peeling of the vermilion border, often presenting as factitious or idiopathic continuous keratin scale formation that is frustrating for patients and clinicians alike.^[69] It typically affects the lower lip more frequently than the upper, with symptoms manifesting as a cyclic process of buildup and shedding.^[2] The primary causes are factitious behaviors such as habitual lip picking, biting, or licking, frequently linked to underlying psychogenic factors including anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive tendencies.^[69] In many cases, it arises in the context of emotional stress or parafunctional habits, particularly among young adults and adolescents, with a higher prevalence in females.^[70] Associations with nutritional deficiencies or secondary infections like candidiasis may occur but are not primary etiologies.^[2] Pathophysiologically, repeated mechanical trauma from self-inflicted behaviors induces keratinocyte hyperproliferation, leading to excessive keratin production, parakeratosis, and subsequent desquamation without significant underlying mucosal involvement.^[71] This process can result in secondary inflammation or superinfection, exacerbating the cycle of peeling and crusting.^[69] Clinically, it presents with thick, adherent scales on the lips accompanied by erythema, dryness, and occasional fissuring or hemorrhage, but lacks vesicles, ulcers, or induration; it predominantly impacts young adults without systemic symptoms.^[69] The condition spares the surrounding skin and oral mucosa, distinguishing it from broader dermatoses.^[2] Diagnosis is primarily clinical, based on history of habitual lip manipulation and exclusion of infectious, allergic, or neoplastic causes through swabs, patch testing, and biopsy if needed; histopathology typically reveals nonspecific parakeratosis, acanthosis, and mild chronic inflammation without plasma cell infiltrates or granulomas.^[71]^[70] Treatment emphasizes addressing behavioral triggers with psychotherapy or cognitive-behavioral therapy to halt self-trauma, alongside topical agents such as tacrolimus ointment (0.03-0.1%) applied once or twice daily to reduce inflammation, while avoiding manual peeling; in select cases, botulinum toxin injections may reduce saliva-induced licking by temporarily weakening the orbicularis oris muscle.^[72]^[73] Barrier repair emollients can support healing, as outlined in general treatment principles.^[69] Prognosis is variable, with persistence common due to poor compliance with behavioral interventions, but up to half of cases show significant improvement or resolution with integrated psychological support and consistent topical management; refractory instances may require multidisciplinary care to prevent chronicity.^[70]^[69]

Cheilitis Glandularis

Cheilitis glandularis is a rare inflammatory condition primarily affecting the minor salivary glands of the lower lip, characterized by glandular hyperplasia, ductal dilatation, and progressive lip eversion.^[74] It was first described by Volkmann in 1870 and represents a clinical spectrum rather than distinct entities.^[74] The condition leads to cosmetic disfigurement and functional issues due to chronic inflammation and secondary infections.^[75] The disorder is classified into three main subtypes based on clinical and histologic features: simple cheilitis glandularis, superficial suppurative cheilitis glandularis (also known as Baelz disease), and deep suppurative cheilitis glandularis (also termed cheilitis glandularis apostematosa or myxadenitis labialis).^[74] The simple form involves painless swelling with dilated salivary ducts and minimal inflammation, while the superficial suppurative subtype features secondary bacterial infection leading to crusting, ulceration, and cloudy mucopurulent discharge from everted orifices.^[76] In contrast, the deep suppurative variant is marked by more severe involvement, including abscess formation, fistulas, and deeper tissue inflammation.^[74] Etiology remains largely idiopathic, though predisposing factors include chronic irritation from smoking, prolonged sun exposure, wind, poor oral hygiene, and possibly genetic predisposition such as autosomal dominant inheritance.^[76] It predominantly affects middle-aged to older males, with a mean age of onset around 40-60 years and a male-to-female ratio of approximately 2:1; the condition is uncommon in children and rare in non-Caucasian populations, though cases have been reported in Asian individuals.^[75]^[74] Pathophysiologically, cheilitis glandularis arises from chronic irritation causing salivary ductal ectasia, glandular hyperplasia, squamous metaplasia of ducts, and chronic sialadenitis with lymphoid infiltration.^[76] This results in mucus retention, edema, fibrosis, and eventual eversion of the lip vermilion, exposing the everted mucosa to further environmental damage.^[75] Histologic examination typically reveals dilated ducts filled with mucus, oncocytic metaplasia, and inflammatory cells without granulomatous changes or atypia.^[76] Clinically, patients present with painless to painful enlargement and eversion of the lower lip, often with erythematous nodularity, fissuring, and mucopurulent or serous discharge from glandular orifices.^[74] The upper lip is rarely involved, and bilateral cases are exceptional; symptoms may worsen with secondary infection, leading to crusting or ulceration.^[76] Diagnosis is primarily clinical, supported by biopsy to confirm glandular hyperplasia, ductal ectasia, and inflammation while excluding mimics such as actinomycosis through special stains.^[74] Imaging is seldom required, but histopathology is essential to rule out neoplastic or granulomatous processes.^[75] Treatment varies by subtype and severity; conservative measures include addressing predisposing factors like smoking cessation and sun protection, with antibiotics such as tetracyclines or penicillins used for suppurative forms to control infection.^[74] For persistent eversion and cosmetic concerns, surgical options like vermilionectomy or cheiloplasty with possible skin grafting provide definitive relief and reduce recurrence.^[76] Intralesional corticosteroids may offer temporary benefit but are less effective long-term.^[76] The prognosis is generally chronic and benign, though untreated cases carry an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma due to chronic UV exposure on the everted mucosa.^[75] Surgical intervention improves aesthetics and function, with low recurrence rates post-excision, but lifelong sun protection is advised to mitigate malignant transformation.^[74]

Plasma Cell Cheilitis

Plasma cell cheilitis is a rare, idiopathic inflammatory disorder primarily affecting the lips, characterized by chronic erythematous plaques resulting from dense infiltration of plasma cells in the submucosal tissue. It is considered a mucosal variant or counterpart of plasma cell balanitis, sharing similar histopathological features of plasma cell-rich inflammation without glandular involvement.^[77]^[78] The condition is very rare, with only sporadic case reports and small series documented in the literature, accounting for less than 1% of cheilitis cases in clinical practice. It predominantly occurs in middle-aged to elderly males, with a mean age of onset around 65 years and a male-to-female ratio approaching 2:1 in reported cohorts.^[79]^[80] Pathophysiologically, plasma cell cheilitis involves a band-like or diffuse infiltrate of mature, predominantly polyclonal plasma cells in the upper dermis, triggered by unidentified factors such as chronic irritation, mechanical trauma (e.g., from dentures or lip biting), or solar exposure. The plasma cells typically express both kappa and lambda light chains, confirming polyclonality, though rare cases with monoclonal predominance (approximately 5% in broader plasma cell mucositis spectra) may indicate a pre-malignant process requiring further hematologic evaluation.^[79]^[78] Clinically, it manifests as thickened, erythematous to red-brown plaques on the vermilion border of the lower lip, often with subtle swelling or erosion, and is usually asymptomatic though it may cause mild pruritus, pricking sensation, or discomfort in some patients.^[81]^[79] Diagnosis relies on histopathological examination of a biopsy, which reveals a dense, band-like plasma cell infiltrate without cellular atypia or mitotic activity in benign cases; immunohistochemistry is essential to assess light chain restriction and rule out monoclonal proliferation suggestive of malignancy. Brief reference to standard biopsy techniques, as detailed in general diagnostic approaches for cheilitis, confirms the inflammatory nature of the plasma cells.^[78]^[80] Treatment options include topical corticosteroids (e.g., triamcinolone 0.1%) as first-line therapy, with intralesional steroid injections or topical calcineurin inhibitors like tacrolimus for refractory lesions; surgical excision is reserved for persistent or extensive involvement. Long-term monitoring is recommended to detect any rare progression to lymphoma or plasma cell dyscrasia.^[79]^[82] The prognosis is generally favorable and benign, with many cases achieving partial or complete resolution following treatment, though recurrences are common in up to 40% of patients; malignant transformation is exceedingly rare, with no reported cases in documented series.^[79]^[82]

Other Forms

Nutritional cheilitis arises from deficiencies in essential vitamins, distinct from angular forms, and is exemplified by pellagra due to niacin (vitamin B3) deficiency. Pellagra manifests with oral symptoms including cheilitis, glossitis, buccal mucosa inflammation, and tongue swelling or redness, often preceded by a burning sensation in the mouth.^[83] This condition primarily affects individuals with poor dietary intake of niacin or its precursor tryptophan, such as in regions with maize-based diets lacking diversification.^[84] Autoimmune-related cheilitis includes lichen planus cheilitis, a rare variant of lichen planus characterized by white striae, lacy papules, or erosive lesions on the lips, which can mimic other dermatoses like actinic cheilitis or discoid lupus erythematosus.^[85] Approximately 20% of oral lichen planus cases involve mucosal erosions, with lip involvement occurring in a subset, presenting as painful, radiating streaks or ulcers that may lead to scarring if untreated.^[86] Biopsy is essential for confirmation, revealing basal cell degeneration and lymphocytic infiltrate.^[87] Neoplastic conditions can mimic cheilitis, particularly early squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the lip, which may present as persistent erythema, scaling, or induration resembling inflammatory cheilitis.^[88] This overlap underscores the critical role of biopsy in differentiating premalignant or malignant lesions from benign cheilitis, as SCC arising from actinic changes carries a higher metastasis risk than cutaneous forms.^[23] Emerging variants include angular cheilitis associated with COVID-19, reported from 2020 to 2023, often linked to prolonged mask use causing irritation, friction, and moisture retention at the lip corners.^[89] Environmental toxins, such as heavy metals like lead, can induce cheilitis through chronic occupational exposure, leading to fissures, ulcers, and epithelial desquamation on the lips and oral mucosa.^[90] Management of these forms is tailored to the underlying etiology; for nutritional cheilitis like pellagra, niacin supplementation (typically 50-100 mg daily of nicotinamide) reverses symptoms rapidly, preventing progression to severe dermatitis or neurological issues.^[91] Autoimmune cases such as lichen planus cheilitis respond to topical corticosteroids, while neoplastic mimics require histopathological evaluation and potential excision.^[85] For emerging or toxin-related forms, addressing irritants (e.g., mask hygiene or metal avoidance) combined with supportive care like emollients is key.^[89]

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Isotretinoin - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Mar 4, 2025 · Cheilitis or dry lips are the most common dose-dependent adverse effects in about 90% of patients taking isotretinoin. Dry skin (xerosis) ...
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Oral manifestations in pediatric patients receiving chemotherapy for ...
The prevalence of oral manifestations was: gingivitis, 91.84%; caries, 81.63%; mucositis, 38.77%; periodontitis, 16.32%; cheilitis, 18.36%; recurrent herpes, ...
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Criticisms and Controversies in the Diagnosis of Cheilitis
Contact cheilitis. Post –radio and/or –chemotherapy cheilitis is a lips localization of oral mucositis that may. occur in 30–60% of patients receveing ...
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Nicorandil‐induced ulcerations: a 10‐year observational study of all ...
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We suggest that HPA Lanolin® is effective in reducing the symptoms of dehydration and the signs of lip dryness resulting from toxicity of chemotherapy.Missing: induced | Show results with:induced
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Oral isotretinoin is as effective as a combination of oral isotretinoin ...
During follow-up, it was observed that cheilitis subsided in all the patients four weeks after discontinuing treatment. Hypercholesterolemia was seen in six ...
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Exfoliative Cheilitis as a Manifestation of Factitial Cheilitis - PMC - NIH
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Challenging of treating patients with exfolliative cheilittis: Report of ...
May 1, 2023 · The aim of this paper is to describe two cases of exfoliative cheilitis in young persons under periods of emotional stress and parafunctional habits.
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Exfoliative cheilitis: a case report and review of the literature - PubMed
We examined a 16-year-old male with persistent crusting of the lips. Biopsy showed parakeratosis, which is a normal feature, and a mild inflammatory infiltrate ...
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Exfoliative cheilitis managed with oral minocycline and topical ...
Exfoliative cheilitis managed with oral minocycline and topical tacrolimus associated to psychotherapy.
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Cheilitis glandularis (CG) is a rare disorder characterized by swelling of the lip with hyperplasia of the labial salivary glands.
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Cheilitis Glandularis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
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Jan 20, 2016 · Cheilitis glandularis (CG) is a rare benign affection of the lip mucosa. The etiology and pathogenesis of CG are unknown.
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Successful treatment of plasma cell cheilitis with topical calcineurin ...
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Plasma cell cheilitis: the diagnosis of a disorder mimicking lip cancer
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Plasma Cell Cheilitis: A Clinicopathological and ... - NIH
Plasma cell cheilitis (PCC) is a rare, idiopathic, inflammatory disease that occurs on the lip, with histological findings characteristically showing dense ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
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A Case of Plasma Cell Cheilitis Successfully Managed with...
Plasma cell cheilitis (PCC) is a chronic, non-specific, benign disease of inflammatory response. Several treatments for the disease have been reported, but ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Manifestations and Treatment of Hypovitaminosis in Oral Diseases
This review's objective is to examine the findings from various studies on oral signs and symptoms related to vitamin deficiency.
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Pellagra | About the Disease | GARD
Pellagra is a nutritional disorder caused by a deficiency in niacin (vitamin B3) or its precursor (tryptophan) that is mainly observed in Asia and Africa ...
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Lichen Planus Cheilitis: A Brief Review - PMC - NIH
Jun 27, 2025 · Cheilitis encompasses a spectrum of inflammatory conditions affecting the lips, with etiologies ranging from benign habits to malignant ...
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Lichen Planus of the Lip—Case Series and Review of the Literature
Jun 16, 2024 · About 20% of cases affect the oral mucosa, with the lower lip being among the most frequently affected areas [8]. Biopsies from DLE lesions are ...
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Oral lichen planus: An update on pathogenesis and treatment - PMC
Interlacing white striae appearing bilaterally on the posterior buccal mucosa is often pathognomonic. Difficulties arise often when there is superimposed ...
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Actinic cheilitis or squamous cell carcinoma of the lip? Practical ...
A lip biopsy should not be routinely performed in patients who display pure signs AC. In contrast, it is not expected from patients with AC to display ...
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Prevalence of cheilitis in health care workers treating patients with ...
Jul 16, 2020 · Angular cheilitis was seen in 12 patients (36.36%), whereas progression to perioral involvement was seen in 5 patients (15.15%). Cheilitis ...
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Chronic occupational exposure to lead and its impact on oral health
Chronic lead exposure favours the formation of cheilitis, fissures, ulcers and epithelial desquamation of the tongue, palate and other parts of the oral mucous ...
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A Case Involving Bariatric Surgery, Whipple Procedure, and Alcohol ...
Aug 25, 2025 · Pellagra can be caused by either insufficient dietary intake or dysfunctional utilization of niacin. Because niacin can be found in nearly every ...