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Cheek

The cheek is the fleshy prominence on the side of the human face, situated below the eye and above the jawline, spanning laterally from the nose to the ear. It forms part of the lateral wall of the oral cavity and is composed of multilayered skin, subcutaneous fat pads, muscles, glands, and connective tissues that collectively support functions such as facial expression, mastication, speech, and protection of underlying structures.^[1] The cheek's complex anatomy enables its role in both aesthetic contours and essential physiological processes, with its superficial layer providing a barrier against environmental factors while deeper components facilitate movement and secretion.^[1] Structurally, the cheek overlies key bony elements including the zygomatic bone (cheekbone), maxilla, and mandible, with the skin anchored to these via fibrous septa within fat compartments such as the malar, buccal, and nasolabial fat pads, which contribute to facial fullness and volume.^[1] Major muscles include the buccinator, which compresses the cheek to retain food between the teeth during chewing, and the zygomaticus major and minor, which elevate the corners of the mouth for smiling and other expressions; the masseter muscle, deeper and more powerful, aids in jaw elevation for mastication.^[2] Blood supply primarily arises from branches of the external carotid artery, notably the facial and transverse facial arteries, ensuring robust vascularization, while venous drainage and lymphatic flow direct to submandibular and preauricular nodes.^[1] Innervation involves the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) for motor control of mimetic muscles via its buccal and zygomatic branches, and the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) for sensory input and motor function to the masseter.^[1] Functionally, the cheeks are integral to daily activities: the parotid gland within the cheek secretes salivary enzymes to initiate digestion, while the buccinator and orbicularis oris muscles help in articulating sounds during speech.^[1] In clinical contexts, the cheek's anatomy is relevant for procedures like facelifts, where preserving facial nerve branches is critical to avoid paralysis, and it serves as a site for assessing conditions such as infections, tumors, or autoimmune rashes like the malar erythema in systemic lupus erythematosus.^[1] Embryologically, the cheek develops from the first and second pharyngeal arches, integrating mesodermal and ectodermal tissues to form its mature structure by birth.^[1]

Anatomy

External features

The cheek is the soft, fleshy prominence on the side of the face, located below the eye and lateral to the mouth.^[3] It forms the largest convex unit of the face and is bounded superiorly by the zygomatic arch and orbital-cheek crease, inferiorly by the lower border of the mandible, laterally by the preauricular crease, and medially by the nasofacial sulcus, nasolabial crease, and labiomandibular creases.^[3] The superficial layers of the cheek begin with the skin, consisting of the epidermis and dermis, which varies in thickness from approximately 0.6 mm in the infraorbital region to 2.1 mm in the nasolabial area.^[3] Beneath the skin lies the subcutaneous adipose tissue, which includes distinct fat compartments such as the malar fat pad laterally, contributing to the cheek's prominence, and the nasolabial fat pad medially, which accentuates the nasolabial fold.^[3] Deep to this fat layer is the superficial musculoaponeurotic system (SMAS), a fibromuscular layer that provides structural support to the overlying skin and integrates with facial mimic muscles, particularly at the modiolus.^[4]^[3] Key anatomical landmarks on the cheek's surface include the nasolabial fold, a crease extending from the side of the nose to the corner of the mouth formed by subcutaneous fat redundancy and underlying muscular attachments, and the modiolus, a dense fibromuscular node at the oral commissure where multiple facial muscles converge to influence cheek contours.^[3]^[5] Variations in cheek appearance arise from factors such as age, sex, and ethnicity. Infants exhibit fuller cheeks due to prominent buccal fat pads, which aid in sucking and jaw stabilization during feeding, with these pads containing brown adipose tissue that diminishes postnatally.^[6]^[7] In adults, cheeks tend to lose volume and develop more pronounced folds with aging as fat pads descend, while males generally have larger buccal fat pads (9-10 ml volume) compared to females, contributing to broader contours.^[3] Ethnically, South Asians often display more rounded lower cheeks from greater buccal fat and higher cheekbones, contrasting with other groups where cheek prominence may vary in projection and width.^[8] Cheek dimples, small indentations visible during smiling, represent a genetic variation caused by alterations in the zygomaticus major muscle and are inherited as an autosomal dominant trait.^[9]

Internal features

The buccal mucosa forms the inner lining of the cheek, facing the oral cavity, and is composed of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium overlying a lamina propria and submucosa.^[10] The submucosa consists of loose connective tissue containing minor salivary glands, which secrete mucus to lubricate the oral surfaces, along with blood vessels and nerves.^[10] Unlike cutaneous skin, the buccal mucosa lacks hair follicles and sweat glands, adapting it specifically for the moist environment of the mouth.^[10] Stensen's duct, the main excretory duct of the parotid gland, pierces the buccal mucosa and opens via a papilla opposite the upper second molar tooth, allowing serous saliva to enter the oral cavity.^[11] The buccal mucosa extends anteriorly from the line of contact between the upper and lower gingivae, forming the lateral wall of the buccal vestibule—the space between the cheeks and the teeth—and posteriorly to the pterygomandibular raphe, a fibrous band marking the transition to the oropharynx. This configuration helps maintain oral cavity integrity during functions like speech and mastication.^[12] Deep to the buccinator muscle lies the buccal fat pad, also known as Bichat's fat pad, a biconvex, encapsulated adipose structure that persists from infancy and contributes to cheek fullness by filling the space between the buccinator and masseter muscles.^[13] This fat pad is distinct from subcutaneous external fat layers and provides structural support without significant volumetric change throughout life.^[13]

Muscles and connective tissue

The buccinator muscle serves as the primary muscular component of the cheek, forming a thin, quadrilateral sheet that lies deep to the skin and subcutaneous tissue. It originates from the outer surfaces of the alveolar processes of the maxilla and mandible, as well as the pterygomandibular raphe. The muscle fibers converge anteriorly to insert into the modiolus at the angle of the mouth and blend with the orbicularis oris muscle. Motor innervation is provided by the buccal branches of the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII), while sensory innervation arises from the long buccal nerve, a branch of the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2). This structure enables the buccinator to compress the cheek against the teeth, contributing to the cheek's structural integrity. In adults, the buccinator is notably thin, with a flattened morphology that underscores its role in maintaining cheek contour. Accessory muscles in the cheek region, integral to the facial expression musculature, include the zygomaticus major and minor, risorius, and levator anguli oris. The zygomaticus major originates from the lateral border of the zygomatic bone and inserts into the modiolus at the corner of the mouth. The zygomaticus minor arises from the zygomatic bone and attaches to the lateral aspect of the upper lip. The risorius originates from the parotid fascia and inserts into the modiolus. The levator anguli oris originates from the canine fossa of the maxilla and inserts into the modiolus. All these muscles receive motor innervation from branches of the facial nerve (CN VII) and lie superficially within the cheek, attaching to the skin and underlying structures to support facial dynamics. The connective tissue framework of the cheek includes layers of fascia and specialized ligaments that anchor the skin and muscles to deeper structures. The superficial fascia, known as the superficial musculoaponeurotic system (SMAS), envelops the facial muscles and integrates with the overlying dermis and subcutaneous fat, providing support and mobility in the cheek region. Deeper, the parotid-masseteric fascia covers the parotid gland and masseter muscle, forming a continuous layer that separates the cheek's superficial components from deeper masticatory elements. Retaining ligaments, such as McGregor's patch (also referred to as the zygomatic ligament), consist of fibrous bands that originate from the inferior border of the zygoma and attach the cheek skin to the underlying bone, preventing excessive sagging and maintaining structural stability.

Vasculature and innervation

The arterial supply to the cheek primarily arises from the facial artery, a branch of the external carotid artery that ascends obliquely across the cheek, superficial to the buccinator muscle, providing perfusion to the facial expression muscles including the buccinator and levator anguli oris.^[14] Additional supply comes from the transverse facial artery, originating from the superficial temporal artery, which courses across the lateral cheek to nourish the parotid region, masseter muscle, and overlying skin.^[15] Deeper structures, such as the buccal mucosa and masseter muscle, receive blood from the buccal and masseteric arteries, both branches of the maxillary artery.^[15] The terminal branch of the facial artery, the angular artery, ascends along the side of the nose to the medial canthus, anastomosing with branches of the ophthalmic artery and supplying the medial cheek and lacrimal region.^[14] Venous drainage of the cheek follows the arterial pattern, primarily via the facial vein, which collects blood from the superficial face and descends to join the internal jugular vein, with connections to the pterygoid and retromandibular plexuses.^[2] This valveless venous system poses a clinical risk, as infections in the cheek or midface can propagate retrograde through the facial vein to the cavernous sinus, potentially leading to cavernous sinus thrombosis.^[16] Lymphatic vessels from the cheek drain superficially to the buccofacial nodes overlying the buccinator muscle and to the submandibular nodes (level Ib), which receive efferents from the cheek skin, mucosa, and adjacent oral structures before progressing to deeper cervical chains.^[17] Sensory innervation to the cheek mucosa is provided by the buccal nerve, a branch of the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3), which supplies the buccal gingiva and skin over the anterior buccinator after piercing the muscle.^[18] The overlying skin receives sensory input from branches of the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2), including the infraorbital and zygomaticofacial nerves.^[2] Motor innervation to the cheek muscles, including the buccinator and other mimetic muscles like the zygomaticus and risorius, is supplied by the buccal and zygomatic branches of the facial nerve (CN VII), which emerge from the parotid gland to innervate these structures for facial expression.^[19] Autonomic innervation includes parasympathetic fibers carried via the auriculotemporal nerve (a branch of CN V3) from the otic ganglion, which provide secretomotor supply to the parotid gland adjacent to the cheek, while sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion contribute to vasomotor and sudomotor control of the cheek skin.^[20] In clinical contexts, such as cosmetic injections, inadvertent intravascular placement into the facial artery branches can lead to embolism, potentially causing tissue necrosis or more severe complications like retinal artery occlusion due to anastomoses with the ophthalmic artery.^[21]

Function

Role in mastication

The buccinator muscle, a key component of the cheek, plays a critical role in mastication by compressing the lateral walls of the oral cavity to maintain the food bolus between the teeth during chewing.^[22] This action prevents food from escaping into the buccal sulci and coordinates with the contractions of the temporalis and masseter muscles to facilitate efficient grinding and breakdown of food particles.^[23] By keeping the bolus centered on the occlusal surfaces, the buccinator ensures sustained contact with the teeth, enhancing the mechanical efficiency of mastication.^[24] The buccal mucosa, lining the inner surface of the cheek, provides essential cushioning against the teeth during chewing, absorbing mechanical stresses to protect underlying tissues.^[10] This mucosa is lubricated by saliva secreted from minor buccal glands, which reduces friction and aids in the smooth manipulation of food within the oral cavity.^[25] Such lubrication supports the overall process by preventing mucosal irritation and facilitating the initial stages of food softening. In coordination with the tongue and lips, the cheek contributes to bolus formation by laterally containing and repositioning food particles, pushing them medially toward the teeth while the tongue directs them for optimal grinding.^[26] This interplay helps form a cohesive bolus suitable for swallowing and prevents unintended displacement or aspiration of food material during mastication.^[27] Weakness in the cheek muscles, such as from facial nerve damage following a stroke, can lead to food trapping in the buccal pouches, impairing bolus containment and increasing the risk of aspiration or incomplete chewing.^[28]

Role in facial expression

The cheeks play a crucial role in nonverbal communication through the coordinated action of underlying muscles, enabling a range of emotional displays from joy to disdain. The zygomaticus major muscle, originating from the zygomatic bone and inserting into the modiolus at the corner of the mouth, elevates the corner of the mouth upward and laterally during smiling, contributing to the expression of happiness or amusement.^[29] This muscle's contraction is often the dominant force initiating most smiles, working in tandem with other facial muscles to modulate the intensity of the expression.^[30] In expressions of discomfort or sarcasm, the risorius muscle activates to draw the angle of the mouth laterally, widening the oral fissure and producing a grin or grimace that can convey tension or irony. This slender muscle, blending with fibers of the nearby platysma and zygomaticus, enhances the horizontal stretch of the cheeks, distinguishing it from more vertical movements in positive smiles. The buccinator muscle, meanwhile, supports subtler expressions by compressing the cheeks inward and aiding in pursing the lips, as seen in concentration or whistling, where it tenses the cheek against the teeth to maintain form.^[24] Its insertion into the orbicularis oris allows integration for nuanced displays, such as a pursed-lip smirk implying sarcasm or focused determination.^[31] A particularly authentic form of smiling, known as the Duchenne smile, involves simultaneous contraction of the zygomaticus major to lift the mouth corners and the orbicularis oculi to raise the cheeks and crinkle the eyes, signaling genuine positive emotion rather than a posed gesture.^[32] These cheek-involved movements can vary culturally; for instance, preferences for smile aesthetics differ across ethnic groups, with East Asian observers often favoring narrower buccal corridors—the dark spaces between the cheeks and teeth during smiling—over broader ones preferred in some Western contexts, influencing perceived cheek prominence and expressiveness.^[33] All these muscles receive motor innervation from the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII), enabling precise voluntary control for emotional conveyance.^[24]

Sensory and protective functions

The skin and mucosa of the cheek house a dense array of mechanoreceptors, including Meissner's corpuscles for light touch, Merkel's disks for sustained pressure, Pacinian corpuscles for vibration, and Ruffini endings for skin stretch, enabling precise tactile sensation and proprioception during activities such as eating and social contact.^[34] These receptors, innervated primarily by the trigeminal nerve's maxillary and mandibular branches, contribute to the perception of texture and pressure on the facial surface.^[1] The buccal mucosa, in particular, features specialized low-threshold mechanoreceptors that detect subtle movements and contacts within the oral cavity, supporting spatial awareness during mastication without relying on motor feedback.^[35] As a protective barrier, the cheek's external skin shields against ultraviolet radiation, trauma, and environmental pathogens, while the internal buccal mucosa, composed of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, resists mechanical abrasion from food particles and chewing forces.^[10] This mucosal layer is further fortified by a salivary coating rich in antimicrobial agents, including lysozyme, lactoferrin, and histatin-5, which inhibit bacterial adhesion and fungal growth, such as Candida albicans, thereby preventing infections and maintaining oral homeostasis.^[36]^[37] The cheek's extensive vascular plexus supports thermoregulation through facial flushing, a sympathetically mediated vasodilation response that dissipates excess body heat during elevated core temperatures or emotional arousal, particularly prominent in the cheeks and forehead.^[38] Additionally, the buccal mucosa demonstrates heightened pain sensitivity owing to its relatively thin epithelium (approximately 300–500 μm)^[39] and abundant free nerve endings, allowing rapid nociceptive signaling in response to irritants or injury.^[40] This sensitivity plays a key role in early detection of oral pathologies, such as ulcers, erosions, or neoplasms, by eliciting localized discomfort that prompts self-examination and clinical intervention.^[1]

Development and variation

Embryonic origins

The cheek develops from structures derived from the first and second pharyngeal arches during early embryonic stages. Around the fourth week of gestation, the first pharyngeal arch emerges as a mesodermal core covered by ectoderm and infiltrated by neural crest-derived mesenchyme, contributing to the formation of facial components including the cheek region.^[41] This arch divides into dorsal (maxillary) and ventral (mandibular) prominences, which provide the foundational mesenchyme and ectoderm for the cheek's external and internal layers.^[42] The second pharyngeal arch contributes mesoderm for the muscles of facial expression, including the buccinator, which forms part of the cheek's internal structure. By weeks 5 to 7, these prominences grow and migrate, establishing the basic contours of the cheek through coordinated cellular proliferation and differentiation.^[43] Key components of the cheek arise from specific embryonic tissues within this period. The buccinator muscle, a primary internal structure of the cheek, originates from the mesoderm of the second pharyngeal arch, forming as branchiomeric musculature that integrates with surrounding connective tissues.^[24] In contrast, the buccal fat pad develops from neural crest mesenchyme that populates the arch, giving rise to adipose tissue that fills the cheek's subcutaneous space and supports its rounded morphology.^[44] These elements fuse progressively, with the maxillary and mandibular prominences merging laterally by approximately week 8 to define the cheek's final embryonic shape and establish its boundaries relative to the oral cavity.^[45] Genetic regulation plays a critical role in this patterning. Hox genes, expressed in the hindbrain and migrating neural crest cells, provide positional cues that influence pharyngeal arch identity and ensure proper rostrocaudal organization, although the first arch itself exhibits minimal direct Hox expression.^[46] Disruptions in this process, such as hypoplasia of the first pharyngeal arch, can lead to congenital anomalies like hemifacial microsomia, where underdeveloped maxillary and mandibular structures result in asymmetric cheek formation.^[47] This embryonic foundation sets the stage for the cheek's adult configuration, including its muscular and adipose components. In infants, the cheeks exhibit notable fullness primarily due to the prominent buccal fat pad, which provides structural support and contributes to the characteristic chubby appearance of the face during early development.^[48] This fat pad, located in the cheek's midface region, is relatively larger in proportion to facial size in newborns and young children compared to adults, aiding in facial contouring and protection.^[49] As individuals progress through childhood into adolescence, partial resorption of the buccal fat pad occurs, leading to a reduction in cheek volume and the emergence of more angular, defined contours by late teens.^[50] This transition aligns with pubertal growth spurts, during which the zygomatic bone experiences significant expansion, peaking around ages 11-14 in girls and 12-15 in boys, enhancing cheekbone prominence and overall midfacial projection.^[51] With advancing age, the cheeks undergo progressive changes characterized by fat atrophy, particularly in the deep medial and superficial compartments, resulting in midface hollowing and loss of projection typically noticeable after the third decade.^[52] Concurrently, weakening of the superficial musculoaponeurotic system (SMAS) and ligamentous attachments allows for fat descent, while skin laxity from dermal thinning and elastin degradation exacerbates sagging, often manifesting as jowls in the lower cheeks by age 40 or older.^[52] These alterations contribute to a more concave and elongated facial profile, with studies indicating that buccal fat volume may paradoxically increase in some older adults due to overall facial fat redistribution, though density decreases, further impacting contour.^[50] A 2025 MRI study found no significant differences in buccal fat pad volume between males and females (P = 0.70), though volumes increase with age and BMI (as of August 2025).^[53] Individual variations in cheek structure arise from genetic, sex-related, and environmental factors. Genetically, cheekbone prominence varies across ethnic groups; for instance, populations of Asian descent often exhibit more projecting zygomatic bones compared to those of European ancestry, influencing midfacial width and angularity.^[54] Sex dimorphism plays a role, with females generally displaying greater subcutaneous fat distribution in the cheeks, contributing to softer contours.^[55] Body mass index (BMI) significantly affects cheek volume, as higher BMI correlates with increased buccal and superficial fat pad thickness, leading to fuller cheeks in overweight individuals, independent of age.^[50] Environmental influences, such as chronic sun exposure, accelerate wrinkle formation in the cheeks through photoaging, accounting for up to 80% of visible signs like fine lines and roughness in sun-exposed areas.^[56]

Clinical significance

Trauma and injuries

Trauma to the cheek commonly results from blunt or penetrating forces, leading to soft tissue injuries or underlying skeletal damage that alters facial structure. Lacerations are frequent, often arising from falls, assaults, or interpersonal violence, which account for a significant portion of facial soft tissue injuries presenting in emergency settings.^[57]^[58] These injuries typically involve the skin and underlying subcutaneous tissues, causing immediate bleeding and potential deformity if deep. Fractures of the zygomatic arch or mandibular body can also occur, resulting from high-impact blunt trauma to the midface and leading to flattening or depression of the cheek contour due to displacement of the bony prominence.^[59]^[60] Such skeletal disruptions impair mastication and facial aesthetics, with the zygomatic arch fracture specifically causing palpable defects and trismus from impingement on the coronoid process.^[61] Blunt force trauma to the cheek, such as from punches, falls, or sports injuries, frequently produces contusions that evolve into hematomas—collections of blood in the soft tissues causing localized swelling and pain.^[62] These hematomas can expand due to the rich vascular supply in the region, leading to ecchymosis where blood dissects into surrounding tissues.^[63] A characteristic complication is periorbital ecchymosis, often termed a "black eye," resulting from blood tracking along fascial planes from the cheek injury to the eyelids, creating bruising around the affected eye.^[64] This spread highlights the anatomical connectivity of the cheek's vascular network, which can exacerbate cosmetic and functional concerns without direct orbital involvement.^[65] Penetrating injuries to the cheek include human or animal bites and intentional piercings, both of which breach the skin and introduce foreign material or bacteria. Human bites occur when teeth puncture the cheek tissue, often during altercations, creating irregular wounds with jagged edges and high bacterial load from oral flora.^[66] Cheek piercings, typically involving the buccal mucosa or skin, pose similar risks as the procedure traverses vascular and glandular structures near the parotid gland.^[67] These injuries carry an elevated potential for complications due to the proximity to salivary ducts and major vessels, though immediate effects focus on tissue disruption and hemorrhage.^[68] Through-and-through lacerations, which extend from the external skin through the buccal mucosa, represent a complex subset of cheek trauma often seen in severe assaults or accidents. These require meticulous evaluation for involvement of the parotid duct or facial nerve branches before repair, as damage can lead to salivary fistula—a persistent leak of saliva into the wound site causing prolonged healing issues.^[69] Layered closure is essential for such injuries, involving separate suturing of the mucosal and cutaneous layers to restore anatomy and minimize dead space, typically using absorbable sutures for the inner layer and non-absorbable for the skin.^[70] Failure to address ductal integrity at the time of initial closure heightens the risk of fistula formation, underscoring the need for prompt surgical intervention.^[71]

Diseases and disorders

Infections of the cheek can arise from odontogenic sources, such as dental abscesses that spread to the buccal space, leading to localized swelling and potential airway compromise if untreated.^[72] These infections typically originate from maxillary or mandibular teeth and involve polymicrobial flora, including streptococci and anaerobes, resulting in pus accumulation within the fascial boundaries of the buccal space.^[73] Cellulitis in the cheek region often spreads rapidly through the loose connective tissue of the subcutaneous layers, facilitated by pathogens like Streptococcus pyogenes, causing diffuse erythema, warmth, and tenderness without discrete abscess formation.^[74] Neoplasms affecting the cheek include malignant tumors such as squamous cell carcinoma of the buccal mucosa, which is strongly associated with tobacco use, including smoking and smokeless forms, elevating risk through chronic irritation and carcinogenic exposure.^[75] This carcinoma often presents as a persistent ulcer or white patch on the inner cheek, with tobacco implicated in 75% to 90% of cases.^[76] Benign neoplasms, such as mucoceles, form due to blockage or trauma to minor salivary gland ducts, resulting in mucus extravasation into surrounding tissues and the development of a painless, fluid-filled cyst commonly on the buccal mucosa.^[77] Inflammatory conditions of the cheek encompass morsicatio buccarum, a frictional keratosis caused by recurrent cheek biting often triggered by stress or anxiety, leading to shredded, white-appearing mucosa that mimics leukoplakia but resolves with habit cessation.^[78] Pemphigus vulgaris, an autoimmune blistering disorder, frequently involves the oral mucosa including the cheeks, manifesting as painful erosions and ulcers due to acantholysis from autoantibodies against desmogleins.^[79] Neurological disorders impacting the cheek include facial nerve palsy, such as in Bell's palsy, which causes unilateral muscle weakness leading to drooping of the cheek and mouth due to inflammation of the seventh cranial nerve.^[80] Parotitis, inflammation of the parotid gland, results in cheek swelling and pain, often from viral causes like mumps or bacterial ascent in dehydrated patients, with the gland's superficial location contributing to visible facial asymmetry.^[81] Certain neoplasms in the buccal area show associations with human papillomavirus (HPV), particularly high-risk types like HPV-16, though the role in oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma remains less established compared to oropharyngeal sites, with prevalence around 6% in affected cases.^[82] Oral cancer incidence, including in the buccal mucosa, is markedly higher among betel nut chewers, with relative risks up to 8-fold due to areca nut's alkaloid content promoting carcinogenesis, especially in South Asian and Pacific Islander populations.^[83]

Surgical and cosmetic procedures

Surgical and cosmetic procedures involving the cheek encompass both reconstructive interventions to restore function and structure following trauma or defects, as well as elective enhancements to improve aesthetics and contour. Reconstructive techniques often utilize local tissues like the buccal fat pad for defect repair, while zygomatic fractures require precise fixation to maintain facial symmetry. Cosmetic options focus on volume restoration and lifting to address age-related changes or desired facial proportions, with procedures tailored to individual anatomy to minimize risks such as nerve damage or contour irregularities. In reconstructive surgery, the buccal fat pad serves as a reliable pedicled flap for repairing intraoral defects arising from trauma or fibrous band release, offering advantages in vascularity and proximity over alternatives like nasolabial flaps. For maxillary defects post-trauma, prefabricated titanium mesh combined with a pedicled buccal fat pad provides stable three-dimensional reconstruction, promoting integration and reducing donor site morbidity. Traumatic herniation of the buccal fat pad itself can be managed by repositioning to restore cheek contour, preventing long-term asymmetry. Zygomatic fractures, common in midfacial trauma, are typically treated with open reduction and internal fixation using titanium plates and screws at key buttresses like the zygomaticomaxillary region, achieving anatomic alignment and preventing malocclusion in over 90% of cases without secondary surgery. These implants ensure rigid stabilization, with bioabsorbable options available to avoid removal in select isolated fractures. Cosmetic procedures for cheek augmentation commonly employ hyaluronic acid fillers to restore midfacial volume, providing immediate contour enhancement with effects lasting 6-18 months and high patient satisfaction in volumetric studies. Autologous fat grafting offers a longer-term alternative for cheek volume, harvesting fat from donor sites like the abdomen and injecting into the malar and submalar regions, with survival rates of 50-70% yielding natural rejuvenation and improved skin quality. For lifting sagging cheeks, midface rhytidectomy via superficial musculoaponeurotic system (SMAS) plication repositions descended tissues superiorly, often combined with multi-vector techniques to address nasolabial folds and midfacial ptosis effectively. Buccal fat pad removal, or Bichat pad excision, slims prominent cheeks by excising excess intraoral fat, particularly sought in Asian populations desiring a V-shaped contour, with results enhancing zygomatic definition. However, over-resection risks midfacial hollowing and premature aging appearance, emphasizing conservative excision. Risks across these procedures include facial nerve injury, occurring in approximately 1-2% of SMAS-based lifts, typically temporary and resolving within months due to the nerve's superficial course in the midface. In midface elevation techniques, such as malar fat pad lifts, nerve paresis remains infrequent and transient, supporting the safety of these approaches when performed by experienced surgeons.

Comparative anatomy

In mammals

In mammals, cheek anatomy varies significantly across dietary and phylogenetic groups, reflecting adaptations to feeding strategies, mastication, and social behaviors. Herbivores often exhibit an enlarged buccinator muscle, which compresses the cheeks to maintain food against the teeth during prolonged grinding, as seen in horses where the tight buccal mucosa and robust buccinator facilitate lateral jaw movements essential for processing fibrous vegetation.^[84]^[85] Many herbivorous rodents, such as hamsters, possess expansible cheek pouches lined by the buccinator that allow temporary storage of seeds and grains, enabling efficient foraging in predator-rich environments before safe mastication.^[86] Carnivores display reduced buccal fat pads and thinner buccinator muscles compared to herbivores, prioritizing a streamlined facial structure for wide gapes and rapid prey dispatch, with wolves exemplifying prominent zygomatic arches that anchor powerful masseter muscles to enhance bite force during tearing.^[84]^[87] These adaptations minimize cheek bulk, reducing interference with jaw excursion in predatory strikes. In ruminants like deer, the cheeks feature caudally directed buccal papillae—conical, keratinized projections on the mucosa—that trap ingested forage, preventing spillage and directing it toward the teeth to support initial mastication before rumen fermentation.^[88] Among primates, cheek structures are broadly similar to those in humans, with the buccinator aiding in food manipulation, but variations include cheek pouches in Old World monkeys (Cercopithecidae), such as macaques, which store food for later consumption amid group foraging competition.^[89] These pouches, absent in hominoids, highlight a key human uniqueness: the evolutionary loss of such structures in apes and humans, likely tied to shifts in diet and reduced contest over dispersed resources, allowing greater reliance on facial musculature for expressive communication rather than storage.^[90] In chimpanzees, for instance, enhanced facial muscles beyond the buccinator enable nuanced expressions, paralleling human capabilities but with less subcutaneous fat for contouring.^[91]

In non-mammalian animals

In non-mammalian animals, the concept of cheeks as fleshy, muscular lateral regions of the face seen in mammals is largely absent, with evolutionary adaptations reflecting diverse feeding, respiratory, and protective needs that diverged following the Cambrian explosion around 541 million years ago, when early vertebrates developed pharyngeal arches that later formed jaws and gill supports in non-tetrapods.^[92] Birds lack fleshy cheeks, instead featuring feathered malar regions or caruncular structures like wattles—elongated, fleshy lobes of skin hanging from the head or neck—that primarily serve for thermoregulation, display during mating, and signaling health, as exemplified by the prominent red wattles in wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo).^[93] These adaptations arise from the avian skull's lightweight structure optimized for flight, with minimal buccal musculature compared to mammals.^[94] Reptiles exhibit scaly lateral face regions formed by overlapping epidermal keratin scales that provide waterproofing and protection, with generally minimal underlying musculature for facial movement; snakes (Serpentes), for instance, possess highly streamlined heads covered in uniform ventral and dorsal scales without distinct cheek pouches or fleshy expansions, facilitating their burrowing and predatory lifestyles.^[95] This scaly integument contrasts with softer mammalian skin, emphasizing armor-like functions over flexibility.^[96] In fish and amphibians, there are no true cheeks or robust buccal musculature; instead, fish rely on the operculum—a bony flap covering the gills—as a protective and functional analog for enclosing the branchial region, working with the buccal cavity to pump water for respiration via coordinated mouth and opercular movements.^[97] Amphibians, such as frogs (Anura), feature a simple buccal region for air gulping and prey capture, supported by thin skin and minimal skeletal reinforcements rather than muscular cheeks.^[98] Among invertebrates, insects display cheek-like genae—lateral sclerites of the head capsule positioned behind the compound eyes and frontal sutures—that frame and stabilize the mouthparts, aiding precise feeding mechanisms like chewing or piercing in species such as beetles (Coleoptera).^[99]

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Histology, Oral Mucosa - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Histologically, the oral mucosa is formed by three layers, a surface squamous stratified epithelium, known as the oral epithelium, whose thickness and degree of ...Missing: Stensen's | Show results with:Stensen's<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
Parotid gland: Anatomy, innervation and clinical aspects - Kenhub
The duct will eventually pierce the buccal mucosa to enter the oral cavity via a papilla adjacent to the upper second molar tooth. The aforementioned submucosal ...
[12]
Anatomy, Head and Neck, Oral Cavity (Mouth) - StatPearls - NCBI
A mucous membrane known as the oral mucosa is composed of stratified squamous epithelium and forms the inner lining of the mouth. Several submandibular and ...
[13]
Buccal Fat Pad Reduction - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Nov 21, 2022 · [4] Bichat's fat pad is located between the anterior margin of the masseter and the buccinator, with the mean volumetric variation found to be ...
[14]
Anatomy, Head and Neck: Facial Artery - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 6, 2024 · The facial artery's cervical branches include the ascending palatine, tonsillar, submental, and glandular branches.Introduction · Structure and Function · Embryology · Physiologic Variants
[15]
An illustrated anatomical approach to reducing vascular risk during ...
The buccal artery, a branch of the maxillary artery, contributes to the blood supply in the buccal region of the cheek. The zygomaticofacial artery (ZFA). The ...
[16]
Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jun 16, 2025 · Another cause of cavernous sinus thrombosis is decreased drainage from the facial vein and superior and inferior ophthalmic veins, resulting ...Etiology · Pathophysiology · History and Physical · Treatment / Management
[17]
Anatomy, Head and Neck, Lymph Nodes - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
This group drains the efferent lymphatics of the face, parotid gland, level Ia, level Ib, and retropharyngeal nodes. It receives direct drainage from the nasal ...
[18]
Anatomy, Head and Neck: Buccal Nerve - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
The buccal nerve is the only sensory branch of the anterior mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve. It innervates the major part of the buccal mucosa.Introduction · Structure and Function · Physiologic Variants · Clinical Significance
[19]
Neuroanatomy, Cranial Nerve 7 (Facial) - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
The facial nerve provides motor innervation of facial muscles that are responsible for facial expression, parasympathetic innervation of the glands of the oral ...
[20]
Anatomy, Head and Neck: Auriculotemporal Nerve - StatPearls - NCBI
Aug 8, 2023 · The inferior root of the auriculotemporal nerve contains general visceral efferent fibers that provide autonomic parasympathetic innervation to ...Structure and Function · Embryology · Nerves · Surgical Considerations
[21]
Cerebral Embolism as a Result of Facial Filler Injections
With the growth in the popularity of facial filler injections, increased numbers of severe adverse events, such as cerebral embolism, have been reported.
[22]
The buccinator during mastication: a functional and anatomical ...
The buccinator muscle forms the lateral wall of the oral cavity. It is presumed to aid mastication by maintaining bolus position.
[23]
Buccinator muscle repositioning - PMC - NIH
It is frequently referred to as an accessory muscle of mastication because of its role on chewing food and swallowing and compressing the cheeks against the ...
[24]
Anatomy, Head and Neck: Buccinator Muscle - StatPearls - NCBI - NIH
Nerves. The buccinator's sensory innervation comes from the long buccal nerve, a branch of the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2). Motor ...
[25]
Anatomy, Head and Neck, Salivary Glands - StatPearls - NCBI
May 29, 2023 · Stensen's duct, the main excretory duct of the PG, projects from the anterior portion of the gland over the masseter. In its trajectory, it ...Missing: stratified squamous
[26]
Coordination of Mastication, Swallowing and Breathing - PMC - NIH
During chewing, the tongue (pushing laterally) and the cheek (pushing medially) reposition food on the occlusal surfaces before each closing stroke of the teeth ...
[27]
Anatomical, functional, physiological and behavioural aspects of the ...
No data are available for younger children. For adults, thicknesses reported are of the order of 13 mm for the masseter and 14 mm for the temporalis( 20 ); ...Missing: buccinator | Show results with:buccinator
[28]
[PDF] Dysphagia - NIDCD
Weak tongue or cheek muscles may make it hard to move food around in the mouth for chewing. A stroke or other nervous system disorder may make it difficult ...
[29]
[PDF] Evolution and development of the mammalian multicuspid teeth
Mar 2, 2022 · Endothermic mammals have high basal metabolic rates and must take in much energy by efficient mastication of food using their multicuspid cheek ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
An Interdisciplinary Review of the Zygomaticus Muscles: Anatomical ...
The ZMa muscle is one of the primary muscles of facial expression, playing a pivotal role in controlling the movements related to smiling and expressing ...
[31]
A simple reference to understand the dominant muscle contraction ...
Feb 25, 2022 · Zygomaticus major was the dominant force for the beginning of most smiles. Apart from the zygomaticus major, other perioral muscles played a ...
[32]
Anatomy, Head and Neck, Orbicularis Oris Muscle - StatPearls - NCBI
The orbicularis oris is a complex muscle attaching to the lips, with deep fibers for sphincteric action and superficial fibers for lip movement, also used for ...
[33]
Fake Smile or Genuine Smile? | The Duchenne Smile
This particular configuration of the enjoyment smile identified by Duchenne–the orbicularis oculi with zygomatic major–has been called the Duchenne smile in ...
[34]
Laypersons' perception of smile esthetics from different backgrounds
Jul 4, 2024 · This study aims to assess the effect of culture/geographic location on judging smile esthetics by comparing the perception of smile characteristics between ...Missing: cheek involvement
[35]
Mechanical frequency detection thresholds in the human face
The purpose was to determine the mechanical frequency detection thresholds of select skin sites in the face and hand using a psychophysical procedure.Missing: functions | Show results with:functions
[36]
Origin of primary sensory neurons innervating the buccal stretch ...
The primary sensory neurons innervating mechanoreceptors in oro-facial regions have their cell bodies in either the trigeminal ganglion or the mesencephalic ...
[37]
The power of saliva: Antimicrobial and beyond - PMC - NIH
Nov 14, 2019 · Saliva is crucial for defense against microbial species, as it is rich in antimicrobial compounds such as hydrogen peroxide, lactoferrin, and lysozymes.
[38]
Protection of the Oral Mucosa by Salivary Histatin-5 against Candida ...
Specifically, the host salivary antimicrobial peptide histatin-5 (Hst-5) has been proposed to play a protective role in the oral cavity against C. albicans.
[39]
Reflex control of facial flushing during body heating in man - PubMed
Flushing of the forehead and cheek on the sympathetically intact side during body heating far outweighed the extent of flushing after release of vasoconstrictor ...
[40]
Quantitative Determinations of Sensory and Pain Thresholds on ...
High-energy light from an argon laser was applied to human oral mucosa in order to investigate regional pain sensitivity.
[41]
Embryology, Face - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jan 30, 2024 · Mesoderm and neural crest cells migrate into the 1st pharyngeal arches to generate maxillary mesenchyme during the 4th week of development.
[42]
Pharyngeal arches: Anatomy and clinical aspects - Kenhub
Embryological background The pharyngeal arches appear in the fourth week of embryological development when neural crest cells migrate into the future head and ...
[43]
Development and Evolution of the Pharyngeal Apparatus - PMC
The pharyngeal complex forms during early embryonic development and commences as a reiterated series of outgrowths on the lateral side of the head called ...
[44]
Orofacial Muscles: Embryonic Development and Regeneration after ...
Nov 1, 2019 · The mesoderm of the pharyngeal arches gives rise to the branchiomeric muscles that include the masticatory muscles, the buccinators, the ...
[45]
Buccal Fat Pad-Derived Stem Cells for Repair of Maxillofacial ... - NIH
Mar 29, 2018 · Buccal fat pad (BFP) is an easily accessible niche housing neural-crest-derived stem cells, and there is limited morbidity after retrieval [13].
[46]
Maxillary Prominence - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The maxillary and mandibular prominences merge laterally to form the cheeks and their fusion determines the width of the mouth. The lower jaw is formed when the ...
[47]
Hox Genes - Transcriptional Control of Neural Crest Development
Vertebrate Hox genes pattern the hindbrain and pharyngeal regions of the developing head up to and including structures derived from the second pharyngeal arch.
[48]
Hemifacial Microsomia in Pediatric Patients: Asymmetric Abnormal ...
Hemifacial microsomia results from the abnormal development of the first and second branchial arches and the first branchial membrane.
[49]
The Buccal Fat Pad: A Unique Human Anatomical Structure and ...
Sep 27, 2024 · Buccal fat pads are biconvex adipose tissue bags that are uniquely found on both sides of the human face along the anterior border of the masseter muscles.
[50]
Anatomy and aging of cheek fat compartments - OAText
Its supero-lateral boundary is the medial cheek fat and its infero-medial boundary is the nasolabial fold. Its inferior part borders and overlaps the SJF [33].
[51]
Changes of the Buccal Fat Pad Volume According to the ... - PubMed
Sep 15, 2024 · Buccal fat volume, localized in the middle third of the face, increased with aging and increasing BMI values. Young females had lower buccal fat volume.
[52]
The pattern of facial skeletal growth and its relationship to ... - PubMed
In girls, the peak of the growth spurt in height, facial size, and mandibular length occurred at 10.9, 11.5, and 11.5 years. Height peaked significantly earlier ...
[53]
The Facial Aging Process From the “Inside Out” - PMC
Superomedial and inferolateral portions of the orbital bone also undergo resorption with age, manifesting in increased prominence of the medial brow, fat pad, ...
[54]
Ancestral Variations in the Shape and Size of the Zygoma - Oettlé
Dec 21, 2016 · High cheek bones or a projecting zygoma is strongly associated with Asians. The projecting cheek bones render the appearance of a flat face as ...POSSIBLE FACTORS... · ANCESTRAL VARIATIONS · IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS
[55]
Patterns of Superficial Midfacial Fat Volume Distribution ... - PubMed
Oct 3, 2018 · This study shows that increases in age and BMI differentially predict the distribution of superficial cheek fat.Missing: higher | Show results with:higher
[56]
Effect of the sun on visible clinical signs of aging in Caucasian skin
Sep 27, 2013 · Indeed UV exposure seems to be responsible for 80% of visible facial aging signs.
[57]
What Is Expected from a Facial Trauma Caused by Violence? - PMC
Dec 29, 2014 · Facial trauma due to interpersonal violence seem to be related to a higher rate of facial fractures and lacerations when compared to all patients with facial ...
[58]
Incidence and Characterization of Facial Lacerations in Emergency ...
Our research reveals that assaults contribute to less than 10% of facial laceration cases. This finding aligns with prior studies indicating that deliberate ...
[59]
Zygomatic Arch Fracture - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jan 26, 2024 · Fractures of the ZMC or ZA can often lead to unsightly malar depression, which should be corrected to restore normal facial contour and ...
[60]
Fractures of the Mandible and Midface - Injuries - Merck Manuals
Zygomatic arch fracture is suggested by trismus and a defect on palpation of the zygomatic arch. A depression on the ipsilateral cheek may or may not be visible ...<|separator|>
[61]
Zygomatic Arch and Orbital Fractures | Doctor - Patient.info
High-impact, blunt trauma to the cheek causes zygomatic fractures; they are easy to overlook and, if displaced, require treating within 10 days. Usually ...
[62]
Blunt Eye Trauma - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Blunt injury to the eye can lead to various intrinsic eye injuries. Globe rupture and retrobulbar hematoma are two emergent entities that are of importance.
[63]
Raccoon Eyes: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment - Cleveland Clinic
Raccoon eyes are bruises around your eyes that resemble the dark fur around the eyes of a raccoon. It's usually a sign of a skull fracture.
[64]
The clinical features of periorbital ecchymosis in a series of trauma ...
Periorbital ecchymosis (PE) is caused by blood tracking along tissue plains into periorbital tissues, causing discoloration in the upper and lower eyelids.Missing: blunt | Show results with:blunt
[65]
A blow to the eye: Ocular and orbital trauma - Mayo Clinic
Apr 27, 2018 · Patients with ocular or orbital injuries may present with pain in and around the orbit, bruising, swelling, bleeding from lacerations, and facial numbness.
[66]
Managing human bites - PMC - NIH
Because bites on the face are associated with more bleeding, they are at a lower risk of infection following primary closure. Thus, primary closure of all ...
[67]
Cheek Piercing Procedure, If It Hurts, Side Effects, and Aftercare
Dec 10, 2019 · Cheek piercings are risky because they are so close to the parotid gland. A skilled and trained piercer will know to avoid the duct, but ...
[68]
Human Bites Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference
Dec 27, 2024 · Effective management of bite wounds requires meticulous wound care, selective closure, and careful use of prophylactic antibiotics.
[69]
Salivary Gland Trauma: A Review of Diagnosis and Treatment - PMC
Lacerations to the facial nerve or parotid duct should be repaired at the initial time of laceration closure. Injury to the duct may be accompanied by injury ...
[70]
Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Facial Laceration Repair - NCBI - NIH
May 26, 2023 · Cheek lacerations require evaluation of the parotid gland, duct, and extratemporal facial nerve before repair can begin. The parotid gland may ...
[71]
Parotid Duct Injuries Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference
Sep 26, 2023 · Perform closure in a simple interrupted fashion, avoiding layered closure with buried sutures. A retrospective study by Hu et al indicated that ...
[72]
Odontogenic Orofacial Space Infections - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jul 12, 2023 · Similarly, the buccal space is formed by the insertion of the buccinator muscle on the maxilla and mandible; it is bordered medially by the ...
[73]
Oral Facial Infection of Dental Origin: A Guide for the Medical ... - NCBI
Aug 9, 2025 · Dental infections originate in the tooth or its supporting structures and can spread to the surrounding tissues. When facial structures are ...Etiology · History and Physical · Evaluation · Treatment / Management
[74]
Microbial Infections of Skin and Nails - Medical Microbiology - NCBI
Streptococcus pyogenes is the most common agent of cellulitis, a diffuse inflammation of loose connective tissue, particularly subcutaneous tissue. The ...
[75]
Tobacco and oral squamous cell carcinoma: A review of ... - NIH
Apr 12, 2019 · The data show that the risk factors that attribute to OSCC are age, sex, race, gender, tobacco, alcohol, betel nut, diet and nutrition. Among ...
[76]
Risk Factors for Oral Cavity and Oropharyngeal Cancers
Mar 23, 2021 · Tobacco use is one of the strongest risk factors for head and neck cancers, including oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer. · Drinking alcohol ...Tobacco and alcohol use · Human papillomavirus (HPV...
[77]
Mucocele and Ranula - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Mucoceles and ranulas result when there is a disruption of the flow of secretions of the salivary glands mostly due to trauma and present as asymptomatic ...Missing: cheek | Show results with:cheek
[78]
Cheek Plumper: An Innovative Anti-cheek Biting Appliance - NIH
Jun 15, 2016 · Morsicatio buccarum or cheek biting habit is less common and is prevalent in 750 out of every one million individuals, with females being more ...Missing: recurrent | Show results with:recurrent
[79]
Oral Lesions: The Clue to Diagnosis of Pemphigus Vulgaris - PMC
Clinically oral lesions precede skin lesions in many cases and appear as blisters which rupture rapidly resulting in painful erosions. Buccal mucosa, lips, and ...
[80]
Bell's palsy - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Mar 15, 2024 · Bell's palsy is a condition that causes sudden weakness in the muscles on one side of the face. Often the weakness is short-term and improves over weeks.
[81]
Parotitis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jun 23, 2025 · Clinically, parotitis is typically painful and presents with unilateral glandular swelling and reduced salivary flow, except in cases associated ...
[82]
HPV and cancer of the oral cavity - PMC - NIH
It is currently under debate, whether HPV plays a role in the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity (OSCC).
[83]
Areca Nut and Oral Cancer: Evidence from Studies Conducted in ...
Areca nut chewing is one of the major risk factors for oral cancer, with large-magnitude risks reported in studies comparing betel quid chewers and never users.
[84]
Buccinator muscle - vet-Anatomy - IMAIOS
In most mammals, it is covered on its surface ... The buccinator is thinner and weaker in carnivores compared to its configuration in herbivores.
[85]
Anatomy of a Horse's Teeth - Okanagan Equine Veterinary Services
May 31, 2022 · The mobile mandibular arcade (jaw cheek teeth) grind feeds against the fixed (upper) maxillary arcade. As the jaw returns to the resting ...
[86]
Small Mammals: Common Surgical Procedures of Rodents, Ferrets ...
Many small mammal species have cheek pouches, which may be located internally within the caudal oral cavity, and may be large and expansile for storing food ...
[87]
Cranial morphology of captive mammals: a meta-analysis - PMC - NIH
Jan 23, 2021 · The relative spread of the zygomatic arch is highly indicative of cranial musculature and functionality, where a wider zygomatic arch implies ...
[88]
Digestive System - Veterian Key
May 28, 2017 · In ruminants, the mucosa is studded with macroscopic, caudally directed, conical buccal papillae that facilitate the prehension and mastication ...Oral Cavity · Tongue · Teeth
[89]
Cercopithecidae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Cercopithecidae refers to a family of catarrhine primates that may possess cheek pouches for storing food and exhibit diverse adaptations for terrestrial and ...
[90]
Evolutionary Transitions: From Primate Ancestors to Modern Humans
Sep 9, 2021 · They characteristically possess cheek pouches where food can be stuffed and chewed later in more secure places. Apes split off from the ...
[91]
Muscles of facial expression in the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
The results showed 23 mimetic muscles in P. troglodytes, including a thin sphincter colli muscle, reported previously only in adult prosimians, a bi-layered ...
[92]
Evolution and development of the fish jaw skeleton - PMC - NIH
Whereas fishes and amphibians have a primary palate to form the roof of the mouth, in amniotes a secondary palate develops to separate the oral and nasal ...Missing: equivalent | Show results with:equivalent
[93]
What Are Wattles For? - National Audubon Society
Feb 25, 2019 · Wattles are an adaptive feature that come in handy in several ways. On a hot day, with the sun bearing down, the bare skin of neck and wattle helps release ...Missing: jowls | Show results with:jowls
[94]
Normal Birds - A Review of Avian Anatomy | The Poultry Site
The muscles appear as dark areas; whereas, fat is yellow. The skin on the face and bottom of the foot is thickened and is normally white or yellow in color. ...Missing: jowls | Show results with:jowls
[95]
Reptilian Skin and Its Special Histological Structures - IntechOpen
Mar 13, 2019 · Snake's skin and scale features. In snakes, the skin is entirely covered with scales, specific to reptiles. The scales are set together as ...Missing: cheeks | Show results with:cheeks
[96]
Basic Reptile and Amphibian Anatomy and Physiology | Veterian Key
Jan 8, 2017 · The outer epidermal layer in snakes is thrown into a series of folds forming scales, which cover the whole surface of the snake. There are ...Missing: cheeks | Show results with:cheeks
[97]
Structure and Function - Fish - University of Hawaii at Manoa
The buccal pump is what fish use to move water over their gills when they are not swimming. The buccal pump has two parts: the mouth and the operculum. During ...
[98]
[PDF] Frog Anatomy Workbook | BC SPCA
Frogs have no diaphragm. They use the same mechanism in bucco- pharyngeal respiration that brings in and expels air to and from the buccal cavity. 40. In most ...
[99]
Head – ENT 425 – General Entomology
The genae (“cheeks”) are lateral sclerites that lie behind the frontal sutures on each side of the head. Below each gena there may be another sclerite (the ...Missing: cheek | Show results with:cheek