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Codex Borbonicus

The Codex Borbonicus is an Aztec pictorial manuscript dating to the early 16th century (ca. 1520), created in the Valley of Mexico, likely in or near Tenochtitlan, shortly after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.^[1] It is painted on 36 sheets of amate paper—derived from the bark of fig trees—folded in an accordion style, measuring approximately 38–40 cm in height and width per sheet, extending to about 14 meters when fully unfolded.^[2]^[1] Using vibrant natural pigments such as red ochre and indigo, the codex adheres closely to pre-Columbian Nahua artistic traditions, with minimal post-conquest influences, making it one of the most authentic surviving examples of Aztec manuscript art.^[1] Currently housed in the Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée Nationale in Paris, where it was acquired in 1826, it serves as a national treasure and a primary source for Mesoamerican studies.^[2]^[3] The manuscript's content is structured into three distinct sections that illuminate key elements of Aztec cosmology and religious practice. The first section details the tonalpohualli, a 260-day divinatory calendar consisting of 20 thirteen-day periods (trecenas), each governed by specific deities and omens, used for ritual timing and prophecy.^[4]^[1] The second section depicts the xiuhpohualli, the 365-day solar calendar divided into 18 twenty-day months (veintenas) plus five intercalary days, illustrating associated festivals, agricultural rites, and sacrifices to gods like Tlaloc and Xipe Totec.^[4] The third and final section focuses on the New Fire ceremony, a pivotal ritual performed every 52 years to renew the world and avert catastrophe, symbolizing the cyclical nature of time in Aztec worldview.^[2]^[4] Despite scholarly debates over its exact dating—some early analyses suggested a pre-conquest origin around 1507—the consensus from modern scientific examinations, including hyperspectral imaging of its materials, confirms its early colonial production while preserving indigenous techniques and iconography.^[2]^[1] As one of only a handful of extant Aztec codices to survive the widespread destruction of indigenous texts following the 1521 fall of Tenochtitlan, the Codex Borbonicus offers critical insights into Aztec timekeeping, mythology, and societal rituals, influencing ongoing research in anthropology, art history, and cultural heritage preservation.^[2]^[4]

Overview and Significance

Physical Characteristics

The Codex Borbonicus is a Mesoamerican screenfold manuscript consisting of a single continuous sheet of amatl paper, derived from the inner bark of fig trees (Ficus spp.), which has been beaten, stretched, and coated with a layer of gypsum for durability and smoothness.^[2]^[5] This material choice reflects traditional pre-Columbian papermaking techniques, resulting in a lightweight yet robust support suitable for folding and repeated handling. The codex measures 14.2 meters (46.5 feet) in total length when unfolded and approximately 40 cm in height, forming an accordion-style format that allows it to be read from either end.^[6]^[7] Originally comprising 40 pages, two from the beginning and two from the end are now missing, leaving 36 extant folios folded accordion-style, with illustrations rendered on both recto and verso surfaces.^[6]^[8] The artistic execution employs a pictographic and logographic style typical of Aztec manuscripts, featuring symbolic imagery of deities, glyphs, and ritual scenes without accompanying hieroglyphic text, conveyed entirely through visual elements. Illustrations are executed in vibrant natural pigments, including reds derived from cochineal insects, blues from indigo or Maya blue, and yellows from ochre or other mineral sources, applied in flat, bold areas with precise outlines to emphasize narrative and calendrical motifs.^[9]^[10] These pigments, often prepared as lake colors fixed with binders like alum and niter, exhibit a brilliant texture that aligns with Aztec aesthetic preferences for luminous and saturated hues.^[9] In its current state, the codex shows signs of extensive use and age-related deterioration, with the first 18 pages displaying heavy wear, including abrasions and fading from frequent consultation, while the later sections appear less handled and the third portion remains unfinished. Minor damages from repeated folding are evident along the creases, but the overall structure retains its original screenfold configuration without alterations from European binding techniques.^[6] Housed in a protective modern binding at the Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée Nationale in Paris, the manuscript's condition underscores its active role in pre-conquest or early colonial contexts before its survival through the colonial period.^[6]

Cultural and Historical Role

The Codex Borbonicus served as a primary divinatory tool for Aztec priests, known as tlamatini or "wise men," who consulted it to determine auspicious timings for rituals, prophecies, and religious ceremonies in Mexica society. This manuscript encoded the tonalamatl, a 260-day ritual calendar divided into 20 trecenas, each governed by patron deities and associated with specific offerings to propitiate cosmic forces and align human activities with celestial cycles. In Aztec culture, such calendars were essential for integrating daily life with the broader cosmic order, reflecting Nahua beliefs in the interdependence of human events and divine rhythms, as evidenced by its depictions of year-bearing deities and ritual volatiles.^[11]^[12] As one of the few surviving Aztec codices—alongside examples like the Codex Fejérváry-Mayer—it holds immense significance as an artifact, providing unmediated insights into pre-Columbian Nahua cosmology free from extensive Spanish glosses or colonial alterations that characterize many post-conquest manuscripts. Unlike hybrid works influenced by European conventions, the Borbonicus preserves indigenous pictorial conventions on amate bark paper, offering a direct window into Mexica religious practices and iconographic systems without interpretive overlays from conquistadors or friars. This rarity stems from the widespread destruction of such divinatory books by Spanish authorities after the conquest, making it a pivotal relic for reconstructing authentic pre-Hispanic intellectual and artistic traditions.^[11]^[13]^[14] The codex's broader impact lies in its role as key evidence of Nahua intellectual traditions, illuminating Mesoamerican timekeeping mechanisms and symbolic iconography that tied societal order to eternal cycles of creation and renewal. It exemplifies how Aztecs viewed time not linearly but as interlocking wheels—the tonalamatl overlapping with the xiuhmolpilli, or 52-year solar cycle—central to their worldview where human prosperity depended on ritual renewal to avert cosmic catastrophe, such as during the New Fire Ceremony. Modern scholarship draws on these elements to deepen understandings of indigenous cosmology, influencing studies in anthropology, art history, and astronomy by highlighting the sophistication of Nahua prognostic systems and their enduring legacy in Mesoamerican heritage.^[11]^[13]^[12]

History and Provenance

Origins and Survival

The Codex Borbonicus was produced in the early colonial period, approximately 1520–1541, in the central Valley of Mexico, likely in or near Tenochtitlan, as a work by indigenous scribes preserving pre-conquest calendrical and ritual traditions.^[2]^[1] Scholars associate its creation with Aztec priests adapting esoteric knowledge amid colonial transition.^[15] Despite some early analyses suggesting a pre-conquest origin around 1507, modern scientific examinations, including hyperspectral imaging, confirm its early colonial production while preserving indigenous techniques and iconography.^[2]^[1] The codex survived the widespread destruction of indigenous manuscripts in the colonial era, including campaigns by Franciscan friars who viewed such works as idolatrous and burned thousands, as in the 1562 auto-da-fé in Maní.^[15] Its primarily divinatory and non-narrative focus may have rendered it less threatening to colonial authorities than historical or royal codices, allowing survival through possible concealment by native custodians.^[2] Only about 14–16 pre-conquest Mesoamerican codices are known to have endured this period of eradication, though the Borbonicus itself is colonial.^[15] In the early post-conquest period, the codex shows no direct European annotations or alterations, suggesting protection by indigenous communities or oversight amid friars' campaigns.^[15] This contrasts with collaborative colonial works like the Florentine Codex. Evidence of physical wear indicates use by native practitioners continuing pre-Hispanic rituals under colonial pressures.^[15]

Acquisition and Modern Custody

The Codex Borbonicus was purchased in 1826 at a Paris auction by Pierre-Paul Druon, deputy-curator of the library of the French National Assembly, for 1,300 gold francs from a collection likely originating in Mexico.^[2]^[16]^[17] This acquisition occurred during the Bourbon Restoration, naming the codex after the Palais Bourbon, and it entered the library's collections under the monarchy.^[2]^[16] Following the July Revolution of 1830, the library served the July Monarchy and later republics, with the codex retained by the Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée Nationale in Paris.^[2]^[16] Designated a French national treasure in 1960, it is legally restricted from export or foreign loans.^[16]^[2]^[17] Preservation addresses its fragility as an accordion-folded amate manuscript, with storage at 18°C in a secure environment.^[2] In the 1980s, conservation stabilized its folding mechanism.^[2] Hyperspectral imaging in 2013–2014 captured 900 spectral bands for non-invasive analysis and digital documentation.^[2] Digitization in the early 2000s enables public access via the French National Library's portals, as the original is too delicate for frequent handling.^[2] Exhibited rarely due to condition, its national treasure status has prevented international loans since the 1960s.^[2]^[16] Debates over loans and repatriation intensified in 2014 with scientific efforts and claims from Indigenous groups like the Ñahñu, underscoring France's policies.^[2]^[17] In November 2025, potential repatriation became central to France-Mexico talks during President Emmanuel Macron's visit to Mexico City, with Mexican officials and Indigenous representatives renewing demands; as of November 2025, it remains in Paris.^[18]

Production and Dating

Materials and Creation Methods

The Codex Borbonicus was crafted from amatl paper, produced by harvesting the inner bark of fig trees (Ficus spp.), which was stripped, scraped to remove the outer layers, boiled in a solution of water and lime to soften and separate the fibers, and then repeatedly beaten or pounded on a flat surface until it formed thin, flexible sheets.^[19]^[20]^[21] These sheets were further treated with lime sizing to enhance durability against wear and moisture, and often coated with a thin layer of gypsum to provide a smooth, absorbent surface for painting.^[2] The resulting paper measured approximately 38 cm in height and 42 cm in width per panel, with the entire codex comprising a single continuous strip about 14 meters long, folded accordion-style into 36 leaves without glue or additional adhesives, creating 72 pages when fully extended.^[2]^[22] Illustrations on the codex were applied to both sides of the amatl sheets using fine brushes made from animal hair or plant fibers, employing pigments derived from natural minerals and plant sources for vivid, symbolic representations.^[9] Red hues were primarily obtained from cochineal, a dye extracted from the bodies of scale insects (Dactylopius coccus) crushed and mixed into a lake pigment with a binder like gum or resin, while blues came from indigo plants (Indigofera spp.), fermented and oxidized to yield stable colorants.^[10]^[23] Other colors, such as yellows from clays or plants and blacks from carbon or iron oxides, were layered in a non-linear, pictorial style adhering to Mesoamerican conventions, where images conveyed ritual and calendrical meaning through spatial relationships rather than sequential narrative.^[9] The screenfold binding facilitated ritual unfolding, with the flexible amatl serving as both medium and structure, eliminating the need for rigid covers and allowing the codex to be handled repeatedly in ceremonial contexts.^[19] Scientific examinations, including hyperspectral imaging, have noted the uniform distribution and even pigmentation across the leaves, consistent with production in a cohesive workshop session by specialized scribes and painters. The study identified traditional pigments like cochineal for reds and indigo-based Maya blue for blues, with no evidence of European materials, indicating production by indigenous artisans.^[2]^[10]^[24]

Authorship and Chronological Disputes

The authorship of the Codex Borbonicus remains unattributed to any specific individuals, as the manuscript bears no signatures or colophons, a common feature of pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican codices produced by collective scribal traditions. Scholars attribute its creation to anonymous Nahua priest-scribes, known as tlacuiloque, who were trained in the elite calmecac schools and skilled in pictorial writing for ritual and divinatory purposes.^[25] The codex's stylistic consistency with pre-Hispanic Aztec manuscripts, including precise iconographic conventions and vibrant mineral-based pigments, supports this view, indicating production by indigenous artists versed in traditional calmecac instruction for junior priests. Chronological debates center on whether the codex predates the Spanish conquest of 1521 or represents an early colonial copy made amid cultural upheaval. Proponents of a pre-conquest origin, dating it to approximately 1500–1520, emphasize its purely indigenous content, including unadulterated Nahua iconography such as deity depictions and calendrical symbols without any Christian motifs or European stylistic influences. This perspective positions the codex as one of the oldest intact Aztec manuscripts, potentially created during the reign of Moctezuma II (r. 1502–1520), as suggested by references to events like the 1507 New Fire Ceremony.^[2] In contrast, arguments for a post-conquest date in the early 1520s highlight structural anomalies, such as an appended section on the xiuhpohualli (solar year festivals) that deviates from the codex's primary tonalamatl focus, possibly indicating unfinished elements or adaptations during the conquest's chaos. Some scholars also note blank areas in certain pages, interpreted as spaces reserved for later annotations, potentially in Spanish, though this remains speculative.^[15] Efforts to resolve these disputes through scientific analysis have yielded inconclusive results for precise dating. A 2014 French study using hyperspectral imaging on the amate paper and pigments targeted a narrow window around 1519 but confirmed the use of indigenous materials and pigments, supporting an early 16th-century production in the post-conquest period while underscoring the challenges of dating organic materials like fig-bark paper without destructive radiocarbon testing, which has not been attempted due to conservation concerns.^[2] Recent scholarship, including analyses of the codex's ritual imagery, leans toward a 1520s production as a colonial-era effort to preserve Aztec traditions, yet the pre-conquest theory persists based on its fidelity to indigenous forms.^[26]

Content Structure

Tonalamatl Divinatory Calendar

The Tonalamatl Divinatory Calendar constitutes the opening section of the Codex Borbonicus, comprising 18 surviving pages that illustrate 18 of the original 20 trecenas, each representing a 13-day period within the 260-day tonalpohualli ritual cycle. This structure commences with the trecena of 1 Reed (Ce Acatl) and systematically progresses through the calendar, omitting only the final two periods. Each page is visually dominated by a central deity presiding over the trecena, encircled by the 13 pertinent day signs arranged in a frame, along with auxiliary symbols such as birds or butterflies denoting omens and ritual attendants. Central to the divinatory system, the tonalpohualli integrates 20 day signs (e.g., Reed, Jaguar, Flint) with numerals from 1 to 13, yielding unique combinations consulted for personal and communal guidance. Deities like Quetzalcoatl, depicted with feathered serpents during the 1 Flint trecena, and Tezcatlipoca, shown with a smoking mirror in the 1 Jaguar period, embody the presiding energies, influencing interpretations of fate and fortune. Omens, sacrificial scenes (such as bloodletting or offerings), and astronomical markers like stars or the sun disk appear as vignettes around the deity, signaling propitious or inauspicious conditions for activities within the trecena.^[27] Priests and diviners employed the Tonalamatl for prophecy, child-naming based on birth day signs, and timing rituals to align human endeavors with cosmic rhythms. The pages also track the progression of the 9 Lords of the Night—deities including Xiuhtecuhtli and Tlazolteotl—who cycle every 13 days, overlaying nocturnal influences on the diurnal signs to refine prognostications. This layered symbolism underscores the calendar's role in harmonizing earthly events with divine will, as evidenced by the codex's pre-Hispanic stylistic purity.

Xiuhmolpilli 52-Year Cycle

The second section of the Codex Borbonicus illustrates the xiuhmolpilli, or "bundle of years," representing the 52-year solar cycle that synchronized the Mesoamerican calendars and marked periods of cosmic renewal.^[28] This cycle, depicted primarily on pages 21 and 22, sequences all 52 years, a rare complete visualization in surviving codices, with each year identified by its bearer sign—one of four rotating day glyphs: Reed (acatl), Flint (tecpatl), House (calli), or Rabbit (Tochtli)—combined with one of the nine Lords of the Night (yohualli ehecatl).^[29] The year bearers progress in a fixed order, each governing 13 consecutive years to total 52, ensuring no repetition within the cycle and providing a unique identifier for historical events.^[28] Central to the xiuhmolpilli's iconography is the symbolic New Fire ritual, enacted at the cycle's conclusion to avert cosmic destruction and renew the world, often featuring the fire god Xiuhtecuhtli as the patron of ignition and regeneration.^[29] Illustrations on these pages portray year beginnings with fire-drilling motifs and the Lords of the Night, emphasizing ceremonial kindle of new flames to commence each year within the bundle.^[28] Xiuhtecuhtli's imagery, including turquoise mosaics and fire serpents, underscores his role in binding the years, symbolizing the sun's perpetual motion and the prevention of eternal night.^[29] The cycle's mechanics interlock the 260-day tonalamatl ritual calendar with the 365-day xiuhpohualli solar count, forming the Calendar Round of 18,980 days without drift, as 52 solar years equal 73 tonalamatl periods.^[28] This alignment, visualized through the rotating year bearers and Lords of the Night, allowed priests to predict recurring celestial events like the Pleiades' zenith.^[29] Each 13-year bundle carries omens, with the first half (years 1–26) associated with creation and prosperity, and the latter (27–52) with decline and peril, guiding societal preparations for renewal.^[28] This section transitions to the broader depictions of the xiuhpohualli's 18 veintena festivals in the following pages.

End-of-Cycle Rituals

The third section of the Codex Borbonicus depicts the rituals and ceremonies associated with the 18 twenty-day months (veintenas) of the 365-day xiuhpohualli solar calendar, spanning approximately pages 23–38 and illustrating festivals, agricultural rites, and sacrifices to deities such as Tlaloc and Xipe Totec. The final nine incomplete pages (folios 29–37) provide a primary focus on the toxiuhmolpilia, or year-binding rites, centered on the New Fire ceremony conducted at the conclusion of each 52-year cycle to avert cosmic destruction and ensure renewal. These pages depict a sequence of ceremonial actions on the sacred hill of Huixachtepetl in Tenochtitlan, where priests gathered bundles of reeds symbolizing the completed cycle before extinguishing all household and temple fires across the empire.^[30] The illustrations emphasize communal participation, with families donning masks to ward off malevolent spirits during the period of darkness.^[31] Key elements portrayed include human sacrifices of war captives, ritual combat to capture victims, and the central act of drilling a new fire using a bow and wooden tools, often on the chest of a sacrificial victim impersonating a deity. Priests, dressed as gods such as Tezcatlipoca and Xipe Totec, lead processions carrying logs and offerings, while cosmic renewal symbols like stars, serpents, and the year-bearer glyphs underscore the rite's role in realigning celestial and terrestrial orders.^[32] Folio 34, the most detailed page, shows eleven priestly figures approaching the fire altar amid the reed bundles, highlighting the ceremony's climax under the sign of 2 Reed.^[30] The ritual sequence unfolds across the pages: preparation involves fasting, ritual confessions, and the destruction of old fires to symbolize the world's potential end; the climax features the ignition of the new fire, distributed from the hilltop temple to reignite hearths empire-wide; and the aftermath includes feasts and the resumption of normal life, affirming the sun's continued motion.^[31] The section's unfinished state, with abrupt termination after folio 37 and incomplete coloring on later pages, suggests an interruption possibly linked to the Spanish conquest around 1521, differing from the more fully rendered 52-year cycles in codices like the Codex Mendoza.

Scholarly Interpretations

Early European Analyses

The Codex Borbonicus entered European collections in the early 19th century, acquired by the Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée Nationale in Paris through a 1826 auction, where it was cataloged among Bourbon family holdings as a Mexican manuscript of divinatory and ritual significance.^[33] Initial scholarly attention in France during the 1830s focused on its physical preservation and basic description within library inventories, recognizing it as a pre-colonial artifact but without detailed interpretation due to linguistic and cultural barriers. By the 1890s, early attempts at translation emerged, with scholars like Joseph Florimond Loubat funding reproductions that linked the codex's imagery to Aztec mythological narratives, such as ritual cycles and deity associations, though these efforts were preliminary and reliant on colonial-era Nahuatl glosses.^[34] In the 1890s, German scholar Eduard Seler advanced the analysis significantly, identifying the codex's core tonalamatl structure as a 260-day divinatory calendar organized into 20 trecenas, each governed by presiding deities and omens, which he decoded using comparative iconography from other Mesoamerican manuscripts.^[35] Seler's work positioned the Codex Borbonicus within the broader Borgia Group of codices, noting stylistic affinities in ritual symbolism and calendrical notation despite its Aztec origin, and he published detailed commentaries in his multi-volume studies on Mexican picture writing.^[36] These interpretations built on earlier French efforts, such as E.-T. Hamy's 1899 facsimile edition with explanatory notes, which first reproduced the full manuscript and connected its pages to Aztec festival sequences.^[25] Early European analyses were markedly influenced by colonial biases, interpreting the codex through a Christian framework that dismissed its content as "pagan idolatry" and sensationalized elements like human sacrifice in ritual scenes, often prioritizing moral condemnation over cultural context.^[37] Limitations arose from the codex's perceived incompleteness in early reproductions—due to damaged or missing sections in handling—and a lack of access to indigenous informants, leading to partial understandings that overlooked nuanced cosmological meanings.^[25] Early European analyses were markedly influenced by colonial biases, interpreting the codex through a Christian framework that dismissed its content as "pagan idolatry" and sensationalized elements like human sacrifice in ritual scenes, often prioritizing moral condemnation over cultural context.^[37] Limitations arose from the codex's perceived incompleteness in early reproductions—due to damaged or missing sections in handling—and a lack of access to indigenous informants, leading to partial understandings that overlooked nuanced cosmological meanings.^[25]

Contemporary Studies and Access

In the 21st century, scholarly analyses of the Codex Borbonicus have advanced through interdisciplinary methods, including material science and archaeological correlations. A 2014 study by French researchers from the Natural History Museum Paris and the National Centre for Scientific Research employed hyperspectral imaging to examine the codex's amate paper and organic dyes, aiming to determine whether it predates or postdates the Spanish conquest around 1519.^[2] This refined dating integrates with findings from Templo Mayor excavations in Mexico City, where artifacts like Tlaloc shrines depicted in the codex align with archaeological evidence of ritual landscapes, enhancing understandings of Mexica religious practices.^[38] Interpretive advances have incorporated diverse theoretical lenses, such as feminist readings that highlight gender dynamics in the codex's ritual depictions. For instance, analyses of festivals like Toxcatl portray Cihuacoatl-Ilamatecuhtli as embodying dual masculine-feminine roles, challenging binary gender norms and emphasizing women's agency in communal ceremonies.^[39] Links to astronomy and climate events are also explored, revealing how the codex's Venus almanacs and eclipse notations corresponded to environmental cycles, informing agricultural and prophetic rituals.^[40] Digital reproductions have democratized access to the codex, with high-resolution scans hosted by the Bibliothèque nationale de France on Gallica since the mid-2000s, enabling global scholars to study its iconography without physical handling. Public access has intensified through exhibitions and repatriation debates; from 2023 to 2025, Mexico's government and Indigenous groups, including the Nahuatl-speaking community of San Andrés de las Salinas, advocated for the codex's return from France during diplomatic talks. These efforts culminated in French President Emmanuel Macron's November 7, 2025, visit to Mexico, where discussions highlighted repatriation as a key issue, leading to announcements of strengthened bilateral ties, cultural exchanges (such as Mexico loaning the Codex Boturini to France), and ongoing commitments to address indigenous heritage reclamation, though no full repatriation agreement for the Codex Borbonicus has been finalized as of November 2025.^[17]^[41] Recent studies emphasize Indigenous reclamation, integrating Nahua perspectives to reinterpret the codex as a living document for contemporary identity. AI-assisted iconographic decoding, using machine learning on Nahua codices, has identified patterns in cosmovision motifs, aiding decolonial analyses of symbolic networks.

References

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Codex Borbonicus (fin XVe siècle) Manuscrit aztèque sur écorce, plié en paravent, comportant des annotations postérieures en langue espagnole.
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### Summary of Codex Borbonicus Information
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The Codex Borbonicus is a copy of a pre-Spanish illuminated manuscript from the early colonial age, which is now lost today.
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... BCE. This was a form of paper made by boiling the inner bark of several species of trees, particularly fig trees Offsite Link (genus Ficus) such as F.Missing: Borbonicus | Show results with:Borbonicus<|control11|><|separator|>
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On page 71 of the Borgia Codex, and in the Tonalamatl of the Codex Borbonicus and the Aubin manuscript, two different owls are pictured, one without ears (Fig.
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May 15, 2015 · Seler, Eduard, 1849-1922; Loubat, J. F. (Joseph Florimond), 1831-1927; Borgia, Stefano, 1731-1804. Publication date: 1904. Topics: Indians of ...Missing: Borbonicus | Show results with:Borbonicus
[35]
A REEXAMINATION OF THE BIRDS IN THE CENTRAL MEXICAN ...
This analysis includes Mexican codices from both the Aztec and Borgia Groups, and is intended to serve as a guide for those interested in identifying birds and ...
[36]
The Globe-Trotting Scholar Who Unlocked the Secrets of the Aztecs
Zelia's careful study of artifacts would challenge the way people thought of Mesoamerican history. She was the first to decode the Aztec calendar.Missing: Hispanic | Show results with:Hispanic
[37]
Archaeology & Symbolism in Aztec Mexico: The Templo Mayor of ...
In the Codex Borbonicus, Tlaloc is shown several times with his shrine on top of a hill. The distinctiveness of. Tlaloc's hill at the Templo Mayor is ...Missing: integrations | Show results with:integrations
[38]
[PDF] Gendered Understandings of Power in Aztec Ritual
The influence and value of women and the importance of their participation in household in communal activity in collective societies are well-established, a ...
[39]
Ancient inhabitants of the Basin of Mexico kept an accurate ... - PNAS
Dec 12, 2022 · In this paper, we show that the observation of sunrise against the Basin's eastern horizon could have provided an accurate solar calendar.
[40]
https://oxfordre.com/planetaryscience/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190647926.001.0001/acrefore-9780190647926-e-54