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Colletotrichum

Colletotrichum is a genus of ascomycetous fungi in the family Glomerellaceae (order Glomerellales, class Sordariomycetes), comprising approximately 340 accepted species organized into 20 monophyletic species complexes and several singletons, as of 2023.^[1]^[2] These fungi are cosmopolitan, predominantly occurring in tropical and subtropical regions, and are best known as major plant pathogens causing anthracnose diseases, though they also function as endophytes, saprobes, and rarely as entomopathogens or human opportunists.^[3]^[4] The type species is C. lineola, with morphological hallmarks including acervular conidiomata that produce hyaline conidia of variable shapes (e.g., cylindrical, falcate, or fusiform) and melanin-pigmented appressoria essential for host penetration.^[2]^[3] Taxonomically, Colletotrichum has undergone significant refinement through multilocus phylogenetic analyses using markers such as ITS, GAPDH, ACT, CHS-1, and TUB2, resolving historical ambiguities from morphology-based identifications and host-specific assumptions.^[3]^[4] Major species complexes include the gloeosporioides complex (around 56 species, often with cylindrical conidia), acutatum complex (31 species, typically falcate conidia), graminicola complex (pathogenic on grasses), among others such as boninense, destructivum, and truncatum, within 20 recognized complexes as of 2023.^[3]^[5]^[6] Sexual morphs, assigned to the genus Glomerella, are rare but documented in some species, featuring ascomata with bitunicate asci and fusoid ascospores.^[4] Species diversity continues to expand, with new descriptions in 2025 such as C. macroconidii and others, driven by genomic and ecological studies.^[3]^[7] Ecologically, most Colletotrichum species exhibit a hemibiotrophic lifestyle, initially colonizing host tissues asymptomatically before switching to necrotrophy, leading to symptoms like leaf spots, fruit rots, stem cankers, and seedling blights.^[3]^[4] They infect a wide range of hosts, including economically vital crops such as coffee (C. kahawae), maize (C. graminicola), strawberries (C. acutatum), citrus, soybean, and legumes, resulting in substantial agricultural losses and earning the genus the rank of the eighth most important group of plant-pathogenic fungi globally.^[8]^[4] Dispersal occurs via rain-splashed conidia or wind-borne ascospores, favored by warm, humid conditions, while endophytic associations in symptomless plants highlight their versatile interactions within ecosystems.^[3] Management challenges persist due to cryptic diversity and fungicide resistance, underscoring the need for integrated molecular diagnostics and breeding for resistance.^[4]

Overview

General Description

Colletotrichum is a genus of ascomycete fungi belonging to the family Glomerellaceae in the order Glomerellales and class Sordariomycetes.^[4] This genus, which encompasses approximately 764 accepted species (as of September 2025), primarily consists of plant-associated fungi exhibiting diverse lifestyles including endophytic, saprobic, and pathogenic behaviors.^[3]^[9] The name Colletotrichum originates from the Greek words kolla (glue) and trichos (hair), alluding to the adhesive, hair-like masses of conidia produced by the fungus.^[10] A defining morphological feature of Colletotrichum is the production of acervuli, cushion-like fruiting bodies that develop on host tissues and release conidia, often forming characteristic pinkish or salmon-colored masses due to the dense sporulation.^[3] These conidia are typically hyaline, aseptate, and vary in shape from cylindrical to falcate across species, serving as the primary means of dispersal and infection.^[4] Colletotrichum species are cosmopolitan in distribution, occurring worldwide in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions, where they act as significant plant pathogens affecting over 760 host species, mainly dicotyledons such as those in the Fabaceae and Solanaceae families, but also monocotyledons like grasses.^[11] These fungi play a key role in causing anthracnose diseases, leading to substantial crop losses in agriculture.^[4]

Economic and Ecological Significance

Colletotrichum species are major contributors to agricultural losses worldwide, particularly through anthracnose diseases affecting high-value fruit crops. In strawberries, anthracnose can cause field yield losses exceeding 50% in regions like Florida, USA, where humid conditions exacerbate outbreaks.^[12] Similarly, mango production suffers up to 100% yield reduction in unmanaged orchards and 30-60% annual losses in humid agro-ecologies such as Ghana and Indonesia, severely impacting fruit quality and marketability. Avocado crops experience significant post-harvest losses due to anthracnose, with incidence rates often surpassing 50% in tropical regions, leading to fruit rot and reduced export viability. These losses collectively result in substantial economic damage from Colletotrichum-induced diseases, underscoring the genus's status as one of the top fungal pathogens in global agriculture.^[13]^[14] Ecologically, Colletotrichum plays dual roles as both a saprophyte and pathogen, influencing nutrient cycling and biodiversity in natural and disturbed ecosystems. In undisturbed environments, certain species exhibit saprophytic behavior, aiding decomposition of plant litter and contributing to organic matter breakdown in tropical forests. However, in altered habitats, Colletotrichum acts as an opportunistic invader, colonizing stressed or native plants and exacerbating biodiversity decline in tropical regions through reduced plant vigor and increased mortality of susceptible species. For instance, foliar endophytes like C. acutatum from invasive plants can negatively affect seed germination and growth of surrounding native flora, disrupting local ecosystems. This invasive potential heightens ecological pressures in biodiversity hotspots, where the fungus's broad host range amplifies community-level impacts.^[15]^[16]^[17] Emerging threats from Colletotrichum have intensified post-2020, driven by climate change and global trade, leading to expanded outbreaks and novel host associations. Warmer, more humid conditions favor pathogen proliferation, as seen with C. kahawae causing coffee berry disease in Africa, where rising temperatures have increased disease prevalence in Ethiopian Arabica coffee regions, threatening up to 50% of production in affected areas. Trade facilitation has also spread strains to new locales, such as C. gloeosporioides complexes emerging on coffee in East Africa and Mesoamerica, with reports of intensified epidemics linked to altered weather patterns. These dynamics pose ongoing risks to food security and ecosystem stability, particularly in tropical developing regions.^[18]^[19]^[20]

Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Historical Classification

The genus Colletotrichum was established by August Carl Joseph Corda in 1831, with C. lineola as the type species, described from acervuli on a dead stem of an unidentified Apiaceae host in the Czech Republic.^[4]^[21] During the 19th century, numerous species were described, particularly between 1880 and 1900, when approximately 50 new taxa were named in Saccardo's Sylloge Fungorum, often based on associations with anthracnose symptoms on various plants.^[4] These fungi were increasingly recognized as causal agents of anthracnose diseases, characterized by sunken lesions on leaves, stems, and fruits, leading to their frequent classification within the Coelomycetes under the artificial group Melanconiales.^[4] In the 20th century, taxonomic understanding shifted significantly with the discovery of sexual morphs, first reported by Stoneman in 1898 as Gnomoniopsis and later consolidated under Glomerella by von Schrenk and Spaulding in 1903, linking many Colletotrichum anamorphs to ascomycetous teleomorphs.^[4] This connection facilitated the reclassification of Colletotrichum from the imperfect fungi (Deuteromycota) to the Ascomycota phylum, specifically within the Sordariomycetes class and Glomerellales order by the mid-20th century.^[4] Key revisions included von Arx's 1957 monograph, which reduced around 750 accumulated names to 11 species based on morphological aggregates, and Sutton's 1980 treatment in The Coelomycetes, accepting 22 species while noting extensive synonymy due to overlapping conidial shapes and acervular structures.^[4] Prior to molecular approaches, classification faced substantial challenges, with over 900 species names described by the 1990s, many misclassified owing to reliance on subtle morphological similarities, host-specific naming conventions, and variable cultural characteristics that obscured true diversity.^[4] The advent of DNA-based studies in the 1990s, including ITS rDNA sequencing by Mills et al. (1992) and Sreenivasaprasad et al. (1992), revealed cryptic speciation within morphological aggregates like C. gloeosporioides and C. acutatum, highlighting the limitations of pre-molecular taxonomy.^[4] These findings paved the way for multilocus phylogenetic analyses, culminating in the 2012 revision by Cannon et al., which employed a polyphasic approach to recognize 14 species complexes encompassing approximately 150 accepted species and addressing longstanding nomenclatural issues.^[4]

Current Phylogenetic Framework

The genus Colletotrichum is classified within the family Glomerellaceae, order Glomerellales, and class Sordariomycetes in the Ascomycota phylum, where it forms a monophyletic group as confirmed by multi-gene and phylogenomic analyses in recent studies.^[5]^[22] The monophyly of the genus has been robustly supported by analyses incorporating ribosomal RNA genes and protein-coding loci, distinguishing it from closely related genera like Glomerella while highlighting its evolutionary cohesion despite extensive host specialization.^[23] Current taxonomic delineation relies on multi-locus sequence typing, primarily using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA alongside protein-coding genes such as actin (ACT), beta-tubulin (TUB2), calmodulin (CAL), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), and chitin synthase 1 (CHS-1).^[5]^[22]^[23] These markers have enabled the resolution of cryptic species diversity, organizing approximately 280 recognized species into 16 major species complexes and approximately 15 singleton species, following the 2022 phylogenomic revision by Liu et al. with confirmations in 2025 studies.^[24]^[5] Morphological traits, such as conidial shape and size, exhibit significant convergence across lineages, rendering them insufficient for species delimitation without genetic corroboration; instead, phylogenetic clustering with bootstrap support above 70% and pairwise sequence divergences (e.g., >1% in ITS) serve as primary recognition criteria.^[23]^[22] Recent revisions from 2022 to 2025 have expanded the framework through phylogenomic approaches, incorporating whole-genome data and additional loci like histone H3 (HIS3) to refine complex boundaries and describe new taxa.^[5]^[23] Notable additions include species within the C. orchidearum complex, such as expanded reports of C. plurivorum associated with orchids (Orchidaceae), which demonstrates broad host adaptability and genetic variation across isolates from diverse geographic regions.^[25] These updates, building on earlier multi-locus surveys, have addressed previous under-sampling in non-agricultural hosts and incorporated synonymies (e.g., seven proposed in forest plant studies), enhancing the overall stability of the classification.^[23]

Morphology and Life Cycle

Asexual Structures

The asexual reproductive structures of Colletotrichum species are primarily acervuli, which are stromata-embedded conidiomata typically measuring 50–200 μm in diameter and formed intracuticularly within host plant tissues, often breaking through the cuticle to expose conidiophores that produce conidia in a mucilaginous matrix.^[3] These structures vary in appearance across species, appearing small and compressed in some (e.g., C. lineola) or sparse and pale in others (e.g., C. aenigma), and may include stiff, pigmented setae in certain taxa like C. eryngiicola.^[3] Conidia are produced hyaline and aseptate within acervuli, typically falcate or cylindrical in shape and 10–30 μm long, extruded in cirri (slimy masses) that facilitate dispersal by water or wind.^[26]^[6] Variations include straight, fusiform conidia (16–22 × 3–4 μm) in C. coccodes or cylindrical with rounded ends (12.5–18.5 × 4.5–5 μm) in the C. acutatum complex, with masses often appearing pink or salmon due to carotenoid pigments.^[26]^[6]^[27] Appressoria form from germinated conidia as melanized, thick-walled resting structures essential for host penetration, varying from clavate and entire-margined to deeply lobed or irregular in outline.^[26]^[3] For instance, C. crassipes produces crenate or deeply lobed appressoria, while C. graminicola forms highly irregular ones, with melanization aiding turgor pressure generation via osmolytes for infection.^[26] These structures play a key role in initiating plant tissue penetration during pathogenesis.^[3] In culture, Colletotrichum colonies on potato dextrose agar (PDA) at 25°C exhibit grey-olivaceous to pale grey coloration with moderate aerial mycelium, achieving growth rates of 3–5 cm per week.^[28]^[29] Examples include flat, mouse-grey colonies expanding 45 mm in 7 days for some isolates or olive-grey to greenish-black hues with rapid coverage of plates in 10 days on related media.^[28]^[26]

Sexual Reproduction and Lifecycle Stages

Colletotrichum species exhibit a hemibiotrophic lifestyle, characterized by an initial biotrophic phase where the fungus colonizes living host cells without causing immediate damage, followed by a switch to a necrotrophic phase involving host cell death and tissue necrosis.^[30] During the biotrophic stage, primary hyphae grow intracellularly within host cells, forming bulbous structures that facilitate nutrient uptake while suppressing host defenses.^[31] This transition typically occurs 48-72 hours post-infection, marked by the emergence of visible symptoms as the fungus induces programmed cell death in host tissues to access nutrients.^[3] The lifecycle begins with conidial germination on the host surface under moist conditions, where conidia adhere and produce germ tubes that differentiate into melanized appressoria.^[3] Appressoria generate turgor pressure to penetrate the host cuticle mechanically and enzymatically, allowing entry into epidermal cells.^[3] Following penetration, biotrophic growth ensues with intracellular hyphal proliferation, sustaining the asymptomatic phase for several days in compatible interactions.^[32] Lesion expansion then drives the necrotrophic stage, where secondary necrotrophic hyphae ramify through dead tissue, leading to maceration and symptom development.^[3] Secondary conidiation occurs on lesions or plant debris via acervuli, producing new conidia for dispersal and perpetuating the asexual cycle.^[3] Sexual reproduction in Colletotrichum is rare and primarily observed in laboratory conditions, with the teleomorph stage belonging to the genus Glomerella.^[3] This cycle involves the formation of perithecia, flask-shaped structures measuring 200-400 μm in diameter, which develop under specific mating-compatible conditions and produce ascospores for genetic recombination.^[3] Perithecia serve as survival structures, emerging in response to environmental stresses such as nutrient limitation or suboptimal temperatures.^[3] Lifecycle progression is influenced by environmental factors, with optimal conditions for germination, penetration, and sporulation occurring at 20-30°C and high relative humidity (>90%), which facilitate conidial dispersal via water films or rain splash.^[3] In adverse conditions, some species enter dormancy through sclerotium-like structures, enabling overwintering on infected debris.^[3] These triggers ensure adaptation across diverse hosts and climates, though the degree of hemibiotrophy varies among species complexes.^[33]

Pathogenicity and Host Interactions

Infection Mechanisms

Colletotrichum species primarily infect plants through a specialized infection structure known as the appressorium, which forms from germinated conidia on the host surface. The melanized appressorium generates substantial turgor pressure via accumulation of osmolytes such as glycerol, reaching up to 4 MPa (40 bar), to mechanically breach the plant cuticle and epidermal cell wall. This hydrostatic pressure, driven by the collapse of the appressorial cytoplasm against the rigid cell wall, propels an infection peg directly through the barrier without relying heavily on enzymatic degradation in many species.^[34]^[35] Following penetration, Colletotrichum transitions to a biotrophic phase, during which it secretes effector proteins to manipulate host cellular processes and suppress immune responses. These effectors, delivered into the apoplast or host cytoplasm via haustoria-like structures, include necrosis- and ethylene-inducing protein 1 (NLP)-like toxins, such as CgNLP1 in Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, which promote cell death and facilitate nutrient acquisition while initially avoiding broad host necrosis. Other effectors, like those in the apoplastic space, interfere with defense signaling to maintain biotrophy.^[36]^[37] Gene regulation orchestrates these infection stages through conserved signaling pathways, notably mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades and heterotrimeric G-protein signaling. In C. gloeosporioides, the MAPK kinase kinase CgMck1 is crucial for appressorial development, cell wall integrity, and pathogenesis, while the Gα subunit CgGa1 regulates conidiation, appressorium formation, penetration peg emergence, and overall virulence. Similarly, the MAP kinase CMK1 in C. lagenarium governs conidiation, appressorial melanization, and invasive growth, highlighting the role of these pathways in coordinating infection.^[38]^[39]^[40] Certain Colletotrichum species, such as C. coccodes, can establish quiescent infections, surviving latently in the host apoplast for months without causing visible symptoms, particularly in unripe tissues. This dormant state allows evasion of active defenses, with activation triggered by host wounding or physiological changes like fruit ripening, leading to necrotrophic colonization.^[41]

Disease Symptoms and Host Range

Colletotrichum species cause anthracnose diseases characterized by the formation of sunken, necrotic lesions on infected plant tissues, often accompanied by acervuli that produce orange masses of conidia under humid conditions.^[42] These lesions typically appear as dark, irregularly shaped spots on leaves, stems, and fruits, leading to tissue death and potential defoliation or dieback.^[43] On fruits, symptoms manifest as soft, discolored rots that expand rapidly, particularly in ripe stages, while on leaves and stems, they present as blights with concentric rings of necrosis in severe cases.^[44] The host range of Colletotrichum is exceptionally broad, encompassing over 1,300 unique host associations across diverse plant families, reflecting its polyphagous nature.^[45] Common hosts include fruits such as citrus, banana, mango, strawberry, and grape, where fruit rots like ripe rot cause significant postharvest losses.^[43] Vegetables like tomato, pepper, bean, and cucurbits (e.g., pumpkin) suffer from leaf spots and sunken fruit lesions, while ornamentals such as orchids exhibit similar necrotic spots on foliage and flowers.^[44] Symptom severity and expression vary depending on the Colletotrichum species and host; for instance, C. gloeosporioides predominantly affects tropical fruits like mango and avocado, causing extensive fruit rot and twig dieback under warm, wet conditions.^[42] In contrast, C. orbiculare induces leaf blights and fruit cankers in beans and cucurbits, with lesions often featuring salmon-colored spore masses.^[46] These variations highlight how environmental factors and pathogen-host interactions influence disease progression, though quiescent infections—latent without immediate symptoms—can precede overt damage during host stress.^[43] Recent reports indicate emerging infections in previously less affected crops, potentially linked to climate-driven shifts in pathogen distribution. For example, C. spinaciae was identified causing leaf anthracnose on quinoa in China starting in 2023, with symptoms including chlorotic spots and stunted growth.^[47] Similarly, C. fructicola and C. theobromicola have been reported inducing leaf spots and blights on eucalyptus plantations in India and South Africa since 2022, expanding the genus's impact on forestry species.^[48]^[49] In 2025, C. lacrymae-jobi was reported as a new species causing anthracnose on adlay (Coix lacryma-jobi) in China, further illustrating the ongoing diversification of host interactions.^[50]

Species Diversity

Major Species Complexes

The genus Colletotrichum encompasses over 340 recognized species organized into 20 phylogenetic species complexes, which group closely related taxa sharing morphological traits such as conidial shape and appressorial features, yet exhibiting distinct patterns of host specificity and virulence.^[51] These complexes represent monophyletic clades defined primarily through multilocus phylogenetic analyses, with the largest ones accounting for the majority of economically significant plant pathogens causing anthracnose diseases.^[52] The C. gloeosporioides species complex is the largest, comprising 56 species that are cosmopolitan in distribution and highly polyphagous, infecting a wide array of tropical and subtropical crops including mango, banana, avocado, citrus, coffee, strawberry, and pepper.^[5] Species within this complex often display hemibiotrophic lifestyles with shared cylindrical conidia, but vary in host preference and aggressiveness; for instance, C. asianum causes anthracnose on chili (Capsicum annuum) in regions like India and Southeast Asia, leading to fruit rot and yield losses.^[53] Other notable members include C. siamense, which affects over 100 hosts such as avocado and pecan, and C. fructicola on mango and papaya, highlighting the complex's role in post-harvest fruit decay.^[52] The C. acutatum species complex includes 52 species, predominantly associated with temperate and subtropical hosts like strawberry, apple, olive, blueberry, and almond, with a global distribution emphasizing Europe, North America, and Asia.^[51] These fungi share fusiform conidia and are known for causing foliar and fruit anthracnose, but differ in virulence profiles; C. nymphaeae, for example, is a primary causal agent of olive anthracnose in Mediterranean countries, resulting in fruit rot, premature drop, and oil quality degradation.^[54] Key species such as C. fioriniae infect diverse hosts including blueberry and grapevine, while the complex's subclades like nymphaeae show regional adaptations and host-specific adaptations.^[52] Other prominent complexes include the C. orbiculare complex with 8 species, specialized on cucurbits such as cucumber and watermelon, as well as legumes and grasses, causing target spot and anthracnose in field crops worldwide.^[51] The C. truncatum complex, containing 5 species, targets legumes like soybean, cowpea, and chickpea, along with pepper and papaya in tropical areas of Asia and the Americas, where C. truncatum induces seed decay and pod anthracnose.^[51] Similarly, the C. boninense complex comprises 34 species, mainly affecting palms, orchids, avocado, and citrus in tropical regions including Southeast Asia and Brazil, with C. boninense and C. karstii noted for their broad host range exceeding 60 species each and causing stem cankers and fruit rots.^[52] Across these complexes, morphological similarities facilitate initial identification, but molecular tools reveal cryptic diversity driving host-specific pathogenicity.^[51]

Singleton and Synonymized Species

Singleton species in the genus Colletotrichum are those that do not cluster within the established species complexes based on multilocus phylogenetic analyses, often representing host-specific or geographically restricted pathogens or endophytes.^[3] These singletons typically exhibit distinct morphological traits, such as unique conidial shapes or appressorial patterns, and are less polyphagous compared to complex-associated species. As of 2025, approximately 20 singleton species are accepted, comprising a small but significant portion of the genus's over 340 recognized species.^[55]^[51] Representative examples include C. tofieldiae, an endophytic fungus primarily associated with alpine plants like those in the genus Tofieldia, where it promotes host growth under nutrient-limited conditions by facilitating phosphorus transfer without causing disease.^[56] Another key singleton, C. coccodes, is a well-documented pathogen causing black dot disease on potato and anthracnose on tomato, characterized by its survival on crop debris and production of microsclerotia for long-term persistence in soil.^[57] Synonymized names in Colletotrichum arise from historical misclassifications based on morphology alone, particularly from the pre-molecular era before 2012, when over 200 names were proposed but later resolved through DNA-based phylogenetics.^[4] For instance, numerous synonyms of C. gloeosporioides were consolidated following the designation of epitypes to clarify ambiguous type material, reducing nomenclatural confusion for this widespread pathogen.^[58] Similarly, C. destructivum was once considered a synonym of C. coccodes but has been reinstated as distinct in recent revisions, highlighting the ongoing refinement of species boundaries.^[57] These synonymizations have stabilized taxonomy by invalidating redundant names and prioritizing phylogenetically supported entities. Recent updates to Colletotrichum taxonomy, including those from 2021 onward, have refined the list of singletons through phylogenomic analyses, maintaining around 15-20 valid ones while incorporating new data from global isolates.^[5] For example, epitypification efforts for species like C. acutatum have addressed the absence of viable ex-type cultures, ensuring nomenclatural stability by linking historical descriptions to modern molecular sequences.^[59] Such designations are crucial for singletons, where type specimens are often degraded or unavailable, preventing misidentification in applied mycology and supporting accurate pathogen tracking.^[4] These advancements underscore the importance of integrating morphology, ecology, and genomics to resolve lingering taxonomic uncertainties in the genus.

Management and Control

Cultural and Chemical Strategies

Cultural practices play a crucial role in managing Colletotrichum-induced anthracnose by reducing inoculum sources and limiting disease spread. Crop rotation with non-host plants for 2-3 years helps break the pathogen's life cycle and minimize soilborne survival structures. Sanitation measures, such as removing and destroying infected plant debris after harvest, prevent the buildup of acervuli and conidia that serve as primary inoculum. Planting anthracnose-resistant varieties further enhances control; for instance, mango cultivars like Tommy Atkins and Keitt exhibit moderate to high resistance to fruit rot caused by Colletotrichum species.^[60]^[61]^[62]^[63] Chemical control relies on targeted fungicide applications to suppress Colletotrichum infections, particularly in high-value crops like fruits and vegetables. Effective fungicides include azoxystrobin, a quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) from the strobilurin class, and mancozeb, a multi-site protectant, both of which inhibit spore germination and mycelial growth. Application timing is critical for efficacy; preventive sprays should begin at early disease stages, such as bud break or 5-10% bloom in perennial crops, and be repeated every 10-14 days during wet periods to coincide with infection risks. Combining azoxystrobin with mancozeb has shown superior disease control, achieving up to 88.5% reduction in anthracnose incidence on infected tissues.^[64]^[65]^[66]^[67] Integrated approaches combine cultural and chemical methods with monitoring to optimize management while mitigating resistance risks. Threshold-based spraying, guided by environmental factors like leaf wetness duration and temperature, allows for timely fungicide use only when infection potential is high, reducing unnecessary applications. Resistance management is essential, as Colletotrichum species have developed insensitivity to strobilurins through cytochrome b gene mutations, with widespread QoI resistance reported in cucurbit anthracnose by 2023; rotating fungicide classes and limiting strobilurin use to no more than one-third of the spray program helps preserve efficacy.^[67]^[68]^[69] Regulatory measures support management by restricting the movement of invasive Colletotrichum strains across borders. In the European Union, some Colletotrichum species, such as C. gossypii, are listed as protected zone quarantine pests (e.g., in Greece) under Regulation (EU) 2016/2031, requiring phytosanitary certificates and inspections for imported plant material to prevent introduction. EFSA categorizations indicate that species in the C. acutatum complex meet criteria for potential Union quarantine pest status, emphasizing surveillance and trade restrictions to protect non-endemic regions.^[70]^[71]^[72]

Biological Control and Resistance Breeding

Biological control of Colletotrichum species, which cause anthracnose diseases in various crops, involves the use of antagonistic microorganisms to suppress pathogen growth and infection. Key agents include bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, which produce antifungal compounds like lipopeptides that inhibit spore germination and mycelial growth. For instance, commercial formulations like Serenade ASO, based on B. subtilis, have demonstrated moderate efficacy in reducing postharvest decay in fruits affected by C. gloeosporioides and C. acutatum by up to 50% in field trials.^[73] Filamentous fungi, particularly Trichoderma species and Aureobasidium pullulans, employ mechanisms such as mycoparasitism and nutrient competition to antagonize Colletotrichum; A. pullulans has shown high inhibitory activity against C. gloeosporioides on mango fruits, reducing lesion development by over 70% through biofilm formation and lytic enzyme production.^[74] Yeasts, including non-Saccharomyces species, contribute via volatile organic compounds and direct competition for space on host surfaces.^[75] Emerging approaches include the use of essential oils and hot water treatments combined with biocontrol agents for postharvest anthracnose management, showing promise in reducing decay incidence as of 2025.^[76]^[77] These strategies are particularly effective in integrated postharvest management, though challenges like environmental stability and strain specificity persist.^[73] Resistance breeding targets the development of crop varieties with enhanced tolerance to Colletotrichum-induced anthracnose through genetic selection and molecular tools. In chili pepper (Capsicum spp.), sources of resistance are drawn from wild relatives like C. baccatum and landraces such as PBC80, where major quantitative trait loci (QTLs) on chromosome P5 confer polygenic resistance against C. acutatum and C. capsici. Conventional methods, including pedigree selection and backcrossing, have produced varieties like Lembang-1 and Tanjung-2, which exhibit reduced fruit rot under high disease pressure.^[78] Marker-assisted selection (MAS) using SSR markers like HpmsE032 has accelerated introgression of resistance genes, such as the recessive co1 locus, into elite lines.^[78] In legumes, over 20 resistance genes (e.g., Co-1 to Co-4 in common bean) have been identified against C. lindemuthianum, with recurrent selection generating broad-spectrum resistant progenies across multiple pathogen races. QTL mapping in cowpea and mungbean highlights oligogenic control, while omics approaches like GWAS reveal SNPs on chromosomes Pv04 and Pv09 associated with enzymatic defense pathways.^[79] For sorghum, loci on chromosome 9 provide partial resistance to C. sublineola, enabling marker-based breeding for durable protection in tropical regions.^[80] Challenges include pathogen diversity and stage-specific resistance, addressed by integrating genomics for precise gene editing via CRISPR/Cas9 to enhance quantitative resistance.^[79]

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Apr 10, 2025 · Ten species that infect more than a dozen host plant families display broad host range, nine species that infect a single host plant genus or ...
[19]
Phylogenetic diversity of Colletotrichum species (Sordariomycetes ...
Based on the current classification system, they are distributed across 15 species complexes, with about 20 singleton species, that is, species not assigned to ...
[20]
[PDF] Taxonomy and phylogeny of Colletotrichum on important forest ...
Sep 17, 2024 · Currently, the multi-locus phylogenetic analysis of different Colletotrichum species complexes commonly utilizes either the ITS-gapdh-chs-1 ...
[21]
[PDF] Identification and characterization of Colletotrichum species ...
Dec 26, 2023 · plurivorum isolated from Cymbidium sinense, Paphiopedilum sp., and Impatiens balsamina. Figure 16 – Colletotrichum plurivorum (ZHKUCC 23-0861).
[22]
Molecular and Morphological Identification of Colletotrichum ... - NIH
These species differed in having conidia which were straight and fusiform (C. coccodes) or falcate (C. dematium and C. graminicola). The conidia of C. dematium ...Missing: traits | Show results with:traits
[23]
The Colletotrichum acutatum species complex - PMC
The most well-known morphological feature of C. acutatum (s. lat.) is the shape of its conidia, which have acute ends (Simmonds 1965). However, other conidial ...Missing: traits | Show results with:traits
[24]
Morphological, Pathological and Genetic Diversity of the ... - MDPI
They were unicellular, hyaline, straight, and cylindrical to fusiform (Figure 4C). The conidial characteristics of the Colletotrichum coccodes isolates are ...Missing: traits | Show results with:traits
[25]
Identification, prevalence and pathogenicity of Colletotrichum ...
Jun 28, 2019 · Conidia hyaline, aseptate, smooth-walled, short, cylindrical, both ends obtuse or one end slightly acute or truncate at the base, (11.5–)12.5–13 ...Missing: dimensions | Show results with:dimensions<|separator|>
[26]
Cultural and morphological characteristics of Colletotrichum ...
The mean culture growth of C. sublineolum isolates showed highly significant (P < 0.01) variations among each other and ranged from 15 to 44 mm eight-days after ...
[27]
The hemibiotrophic lifestyle of Colletotrichum species - PubMed
The lifestyle of Colletotrichum species is called hemibiotrophic, as biotrophic and necrotrophic developmental stages are sequentially established.Missing: lifecycle review scientific paper
[28]
[PDF] The hemibiotrophic lifestyle of Colletotrichum species.
A Colletotrichum graminicola mutant deficient in the establishment of biotrophy reveals early transcriptional events in the maize anthracnose disease ...
[29]
Lifestyle transitions in plant pathogenic Colletotrichum fungi ... - Nature
Aug 12, 2012 · Major hemibiotrophic plant pathogens such as Colletotrichum and the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae undergo major transformations in cell ...Missing: review | Show results with:review
[30]
Life styles of Colletotrichum species and implications for plant ...
This review describes the various modes of life styles of Colletotrichum species, the underlying mechanisms of infection and colonisation, and implications the ...
[31]
Colletotrichum: tales of forcible entry, stealth, transient confinement ...
Dec 21, 2001 · The comparatively low maximum turgor pressure of 2–4 MPa generated by the hyaline appressoria of this fungus during host cell penetration may ...
[32]
Appressorium turgor pressure of Colletotrichum kahawae might ...
Turgor pressure (TP) of the appresoria was estimated in vitro to be 2.6 MPa, about twice the osmotic pressure (OP) of the green berries. Appresoria exposed in ...
[33]
The Effector Protein CgNLP1 of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides ...
Jun 12, 2022 · Normally, the cytotoxic NLP proteins were expressed during the switch from biotrophic to necrotrophic lifestyle in hemibiotrophic pathogens ( ...
[34]
Proteinaceous Effector Discovery and Characterization in Plant ...
May 27, 2022 · Colletotrichum pathogens secrete numerous effector proteins either in apoplastic space or inside of host cells for effective colonization.Effectors For Infection... · Effectors Suppress... · Effectors Induce Plant...
[35]
The MAPKKK CgMck1 Is Required for Cell Wall Integrity ... - NIH
Nov 8, 2018 · The Colletotrichum lagenarium MAP kinase gene CMK1 regulates diverse aspects of fungal pathogenesis. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 2000;13 ...Missing: CmMck1 | Show results with:CmMck1
[36]
The G-protein alpha subunit CgGa1 mediates growth, sporulation ...
CgGa1 regulates growth, asexual and sexual sporulation, appressorium formation, penetration and pathogenicity of C. gloeosporioides.
[37]
The Colletotrichum lagenarium MAP Kinase Gene CMK1 Regulates ...
Here we report that the C. lagenarium CMK1 gene encoding a mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase plays a central role in these infection steps.Missing: CmMck1 | Show results with:CmMck1
[38]
(PDF) Quiescence as a strategic stage for the infective process of ...
Quiescent stage is determined by the host's biochemical responses and the pathogen's activity. Once the pathogen is activated, it develops an infectious ...Missing: apoplast | Show results with:apoplast
[39]
Characterization of Colletotrichum Species Responsible for ...
Damage to strawberry crops is not limited to a certain growth period or storage conditions, and anthracnose may appear throughout the season (Fig. 1D). Although ...
[40]
New Insights in the Detection and Management of Anthracnose ...
Colletotrichum spp. has a wide host range and causes several disease symptoms in strawberry plants, including root, fruit, and crown rot, lesions on ...
[41]
Anthracnose Disease of Vegetables - University of Maryland Extension
Jul 14, 2023 · Anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum, creates sunken, dark spots on crops like pepper, bean, tomato, and pumpkin. It may have salmon-colored ...
[42]
Colletotrichum species and complexes: geographic distribution, host ...
Sep 29, 2021 · In this work we have recorded 1353 unique host species-Colletotrichum species association records from 720 hosts, with the Fabaceae as the ...
[43]
Anthracnose of Cucurbits | Cornell Vegetables
Anthracnose is a destructive disease of cucurbits, caused by the fungus *Colletotrichum orbiculare*, causing black, sunken cankers on fruit.
[44]
First Report of Colletotrichum spinaciae Causing Leaf Anthracnose ...
Nov 17, 2023 · This is the first report of C. spinaciae causing quinoa leaf anthracnose in China. C. spinaciae seriously affects the yield and quality of quinoa.
[45]
A serious shoot and leaf disease caused by Colletotrichum ...
Mar 22, 2022 · Colletotrichum theobromicola is known to cause anthracnose on various plants including eucalypts in Brazil, but this is the first record of the pathogen in ...
[46]
Morphology and phylogeny revealed Colletotrichum fructicola ...
In December 2022, a leaf spot and blight disease was observed in Eucalyptus plantations in northern India.
[47]
https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/PDIS-07-23-1285-PDN
[48]
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2989/20702620.2021.2005454
[49]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389338509_Morphology_and_phylogeny_revealed_Colletotrichum_fructicola_causing_new_disease_symptoms_on_Eucalyptus_in_India
[50]
First Report of Colletotrichum nymphaeae on Olive in Italy
Jan 29, 2019 · Olive Anthracnose in Portugal Is Still Mostly Caused by Colletotrichum nymphaeae, but C. acutatum Is Spreading and C. alienum and C. cigarro ...
[51]
The Colletotrichum destructivum species complex - NIH
The species was regarded as synonym of C. gloeosporioides by von Arx (1957), and is listed as a synonym of C. coccodes in Index Fungorum (www.indexfungorum.org, ...Missing: Vermiculariopsis | Show results with:Vermiculariopsis
[52]
The typification of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
Jan 1, 2008 · The anamorphic species Colletotrichum gloeosporioides has never been adequately typified according to modern nomenclatural practice ...<|separator|>
[53]
[PDF] Epitypification and phylogeny of Colletotrichum acutatum J.H. ...
Article 9.7 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code, 2006) states that “An epitype is a specimen or illustration selected to serve as ...Missing: issues | Show results with:issues
[54]
Anthracnose / Strawberry / Agriculture: Pest Management ... - UC IPM
Use cultural controls, including soil solarization, and crop rotation, and wash soil from crowns before planting. Use annual plantings, as inoculum tends to ...Missing: varieties | Show results with:varieties
[55]
Anthracnose on Tomatoes | N.C. Cooperative Extension
Aug 8, 2025 · Cultural Controls: Practice crop rotation, avoiding planting tomatoes or other solanaceous crops in the same spot more than once every 3–4 years ...
[56]
Cultivar Resistance against Colletotrichum asianum in the World ...
The most susceptible cultivars to anthracnose were Ubà, Quinzenga, Amarelinha da Sementeira followed by Aroeira and Correjo, whereas Mallika followed by Ourinho ...
[57]
[PDF] Anthracnose in mangos report
Although some mango cultivars imported into the U.S. are moderately resistant to anthracnose (Keitt and Tommy Atkins), chemical treatments are necessary ...
[58]
[PDF] Fungicide Management Program to Control Mango Anthracnose
Aug 1, 2005 · Prochloraz, mancozeb, and azoxystrobin are effective fungicides for mango anthracnose. Rotating fungicides and good tree pruning can help ...
[59]
Anthracnose / Almond / Agriculture: Pest Management Guidelines ...
In orchards that have a history of anthracnose, apply fungicide sprays beginning at 5-10% bloom or pink bud and repeat every 10 to 14 days if rains persist.
[60]
[PDF] New novel fungicides for management of anthracnose of ...
Sep 20, 2023 · Aoxystrobin 8.3%+Mancozeb 66.7% at 3.5 gm/l was most effective, with a 4.90% PDI and 88.5% disease control. A 3 g/l dosage was also effective.
[61]
Managing Colletotrichum on Fruit Crops: A “Complex” Challenge
Jul 14, 2020 · This review summarizes current research on diseases caused by Colletotrichum spp. on major fruit crops in the United States.
[62]
[PDF] Resistance management and IPM. Target pest: Anthracnose of cucurbi
4) Integrated pest management (IPM) practice is identified as deploying various cultural and agronomic practices to ensure management of fungal diseases, and ...
[63]
(PDF) Mutations associated with fungicide resistance in ...
Mar 2, 2023 · The high resistance of Colletotrichum species to MBC fungicides is attributed to the substitution of glutamic acid (E) with alanine (A) or ...Missing: threshold | Show results with:threshold
[64]
Pest categorisation of Colletotrichum aenigma , C. alienum , C ...
Jul 8, 2022 · The new Plant Health Regulation (EU) 2016/2031, on the protective measures against pests of plants, is applying from 14 December 2019.
[65]
L_2019319EN.01000101.xml - EUR-Lex - European Union
Dec 10, 2019 · This Regulation implements Regulation (EU) 2016/2031, as regards the listing of Union quarantine pests, protected zone quarantine pests and Union regulated non ...Missing: asianum | Show results with:asianum
[66]
Colletotrichum acutatum sensu lato (COLLAC)[Reporting articles]
Modifications to the EU Annexes I and II of EU Directive 2000/29, 2009-04. 2009/055, New data on quarantine pests and pests of the EPPO Alert List, 2009-03.Missing: asianum | Show results with:asianum
[67]
Biocontrol strategies for the management of Colletotrichum species ...
Here, we are reviewing for the first time all reported biocontrol strategies for the management in vivo of Colletotrichum species in postharvest fruits.
[68]
Biocontrol Potential of Beneficial Fungus Aureobasidium pullulans ...
Sep 27, 2023 · Biological control is a promising approach to reduce plant diseases caused by fungal pathogens and ensure high productivity in horticultural ...
[69]
Biocontrol Ability and Mechanism of a Broad-Spectrum Antifungal ...
Sep 16, 2021 · Biocontrol is considered as a promising strategy to manage the post-harvest fruit diseases.Abstract · Materials and Methods · Results · Discussion
[70]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9405523/
[71]
Full article: Anthracnose Resistance in Legumes for Cropping ...
Jul 3, 2023 · Genetic manipulation through omics offers scope to better protect legumes from anthracnose by improving the efficiency of breeding programs.
[72]
Genome-wide association study of resistance to anthracnose in ...
Aug 10, 2023 · A genome-wide association study (GWAS) was carried out to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with anthracnose resistance.