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Common thresher

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) is a large, migratory species of thresher shark in the family Alopiidae, distinguished by its elongated upper caudal fin lobe that comprises approximately half its total length and facilitates hunting via high-speed tail whips to stun prey such as schooling sardines and herring.^[1]^[2]
This shark inhabits coastal and epipelagic waters of tropical and temperate oceans globally, preferring cooler temperatures but ranging widely in pursuit of food.^[3]^[4]
Adults attain maximum lengths of about 6 meters and weights exceeding 500 kilograms, with lifespans up to 50 years, reflecting slow maturation and low reproductive output limited to litters of 2–6 pups following a 9-month gestation.^[5]^[3]
Primarily piscivorous, it targets small to medium pelagic fishes, employing its tail not only for propulsion but also to herd and incapacitate schools.^[5]^[6]
Owing to its K-strategist traits—longevity coupled with delayed maturity and sparse offspring—the species exhibits limited resilience to exploitation, rendering it Vulnerable to extinction per IUCN criteria amid ongoing fisheries pressure for meat, fins, and bycatch.^[7]^[8]

Taxonomy and classification

Etymology and synonyms

The genus name Alopias derives from the Greek word alōpēx (ἀλώπηξ), meaning "fox," reflecting ancient descriptions of thresher sharks as cunning predators akin to foxes, a notion recorded by Aristotle in his Historia Animalium as early as the 4th century BCE.^[9]^[10] The specific epithet vulpinus originates from the Latin vulpes, also meaning "fox," resulting in a binomial that redundantly evokes fox-like traits, possibly due to the shark's elongated snout or perceived sly hunting behavior; this naming convention was formalized in Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre's 1788 description.^[11] The common name "thresher" refers to the species' elongated upper caudal fin lobe, which can exceed half the shark's total length and is hypothesized to function in whipping or "threshing" schools of prey fish to stun or herd them, a behavioral trait noted in observational accounts since the 18th century.^[12] Alternative common names include "fox shark," echoing the scientific etymology, as well as regional variants such as "Atlantic thresher" or "long-tailed thresher."^[11] Scientific synonyms for Alopias vulpinus include junior synonyms like Squalus vulpinus (Gmelin, 1789), Alopias macrourus (Rafinesque, 1810), Alopias caudatus (Garman, 1903), and Alopias geryi (Budker, 1958), arising from historical taxonomic revisions and misidentifications of specimens; misspellings and invalid combinations such as Alopecias vulpes or Alopias longimana have also appeared in older literature but are not recognized in modern nomenclature.^[13]^[12]^[14] The valid name remains Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788), as upheld by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.^[13]

Phylogenetic relationships

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) belongs to the monophyletic family Alopiidae within the order Lamniformes, which encompasses approximately 15 extant species across 7 families characterized by features such as precaudal pit absence and specific vertebral counts.^[15] The Alopiidae family includes three extant species in the genus Alopias: A. vulpinus, A. superciliosus (bigeye thresher), and A. pelagicus (pelagic thresher), all sharing derived traits like an elongated upper caudal lobe exceeding body length and reduced dentition adapted for small prey.^[16] Molecular phylogenies based on mitochondrial genes, such as cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunits, confirm the monophyly of Alopiidae, positioning it as a basal or sister clade to other lamniform families, including Odontaspididae (sand tiger sharks) and a group comprising Megachasmidae, Mitsukurinidae, and Pseudocarchariidae in some analyses.^[17]^[15] However, the exact interfamily relationships within Lamniformes vary across studies due to differences in gene sampling and morphological weighting; for instance, nuclear and mitochondrial datasets sometimes recover Alopiidae as sister to the filter-feeding Cetorhinidae and filter-feeding Lamnidae clade, reflecting convergent evolution in caudal fin morphology rather than close relatedness.^[18] Within the genus Alopias, phylogenetic resolution remains inconclusive, with species relationships sensitive to the molecular loci employed—mitogenome assemblies support close affinity among species but fail to consistently resolve branching order, potentially indicating recent divergence or incomplete lineage sorting.^[16] The fossil record of Alopiidae dates to the lower Eocene (approximately 56–33.9 million years ago), with primitive forms possibly extending to the Late Cretaceous (circa 95–66 million years ago) via genera like Paranomotodon, suggesting an ancient origin tied to the diversification of open-ocean predatory niches in Lamniformes during the Mesozoic-Cenozoic transition.^[19]^[20]

Physical description

Morphology and size

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) exhibits a slender, fusiform body adapted for efficient cruising in pelagic environments, with adults typically measuring 3 to 4 m in total length (TL) and exceptional individuals reaching up to 6 m TL.^[9] Maximum reported weights exceed 500 kg, though average adult mass is around 350 kg, with females attaining larger sizes than males.^[3] The body proportions reflect specialization for sustained swimming, featuring a relatively short trunk and an elongated caudal region that constitutes nearly half the total length.^[4] The head is broad with a short, bluntly rounded snout and moderately large eyes positioned laterally, providing a wide field of vision suited to low-light oceanic depths.^[21] The mouth is small and terminal, armed with rows of small, triangular teeth bearing a single narrow cusp without lateral cusplets; these teeth serve primarily for grasping soft-bodied prey rather than cutting.^[9] Gill slits are five in number and moderately long, supporting the shark's active lifestyle through efficient oxygen extraction.^[22] Pectoral fins are long, falcate, and narrow-tipped, aiding in lift and maneuverability, while the first dorsal fin is small, low, and positioned posteriorly over the pelvic fins. The pelvic fins are also elongated, and the anal fin is absent, a trait shared among lamniform sharks. The caudal fin is the defining feature, with a scythe-like upper lobe extending to approximately the length of the body proper, reinforced by specialized vertebrae that facilitate powerful whipping motions.^[6] Coloration is metallic blue-gray dorsally fading to white ventrally, often with a white patch at the pectoral fin bases.

Distinctive features

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) is most readily identified by its exceptionally elongated upper lobe of the caudal fin, which can measure up to half the shark's total length and functions as a whip to stun prey such as small schooling fish.^[23] This scythe-shaped appendage, a hallmark of the Alopiidae family, exhibits specialized vertebral morphology in A. vulpinus, with precaudal vertebrae featuring elongated centra and reduced neural arches to accommodate the fin's flexibility and power during rapid strikes.^[23] The tail's structure supports high-amplitude oscillations, generating velocities sufficient to incapacitate targets through percussive force.^[23] In addition to the tail, the species displays a small terminal mouth lined with slender, awl-shaped teeth suited for gripping rather than shearing, reflecting its reliance on the caudal fin for prey capture over direct biting.^[11] The head features large, circular eyes positioned laterally, enhancing binocular vision and adaptation to dim oceanic depths where it forages.^[4] Coloration varies from metallic bronze or gray dorsally to pure white ventrally, with lighter flanks providing camouflage in open water; the dorsal surface may appear blue-gray in some individuals.^[4] Internally, A. vulpinus possesses a unique distribution of red, aerobic myotomal muscle extending posteriorly beyond the pelvic fins, unlike other thresher species, which supports sustained cruising and bursts of activity integral to its predatory strategy.^[24] These traits collectively distinguish the common thresher from congeners like the bigeye thresher (A. superciliosus), which has more prominent supraorbital ridges and a shorter tail relative to body size.^[25]

Distribution and habitat

Global range

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) has a circumglobal distribution, occurring in tropical to cold-temperate waters of all major ocean basins, including the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, as well as the Mediterranean Sea.^[9] It inhabits epipelagic and epibenthic zones from coastal continental shelves to offshore oceanic areas, typically at depths of 0–549 m, though most commonly between 0–200 m. In the Atlantic Ocean, the species ranges in the western portion from Newfoundland southward to Cuba, the Gulf of Mexico, and Argentina, while in the eastern Atlantic it extends from Norway and the British Isles to Ghana and South Africa.^[11]^[8] In the Pacific Ocean, populations are documented along the continental shelves of North America from California to Hawaii and southward to Chile, and in the western Pacific from Japan to Australia and New Zealand.^[26] The Indian Ocean hosts the species from the east coast of Africa, including Madagascar, to Indonesia. This broad range reflects the shark's preference for water temperatures of 8–23 °C, with seasonal migrations influencing local abundances, such as northward movements in the northern hemisphere during warmer months. Despite its wide distribution, populations have declined in many regions due to fishing pressure, leading to Vulnerable status on the IUCN Red List.

Preferred environments

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) primarily inhabits temperate and subtropical waters across all major ocean basins, with a preference for neritic and epipelagic zones near continental shelves and oceanic areas up to several hundred kilometers offshore.^[27] It shows a marked affinity for cooler sea surface temperatures, most frequently occurring in waters between 12 and 18 °C, though it tolerates a broader range of 4 to 31 °C.^[28] In the western North Atlantic, tagged individuals spend approximately 90% of their time in temperatures of 14 to 20 °C, reflecting a physiological adaptation to moderate thermal regimes that support metabolic efficiency and prey availability.^[29] Depth utilization follows a diel pattern, with sharks typically occupying the upper 100 to 366 meters during the day—often below the thermocline at 160 to 240 meters where temperatures drop to 9 to 16 °C—and ascending closer to the surface at night to exploit vertically migrating prey schools.^[30] Maximum recorded depths reach 650 meters, but the species rarely exceeds 500 meters, favoring oxygen-rich, mid-water layers over deeper, colder abyssal zones.^[31] Juveniles exhibit a stronger affinity for shallow coastal bays and continental shelf habitats, which serve as nursery grounds with enhanced productivity and protection from larger predators.^[32] This habitat partitioning underscores the shark's reliance on dynamic oceanographic features, such as upwelling zones and frontal systems, that concentrate forage fish and maintain suitable physicochemical conditions.^[28]

Biology and behavior

Feeding ecology

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) is an active pelagic predator that primarily consumes small schooling bony fishes, which constitute approximately 97% of its diet.^[11] Stomach content analyses from specimens in the California Current identified northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) as the dominant prey taxon, comprising a significant portion of the 18 prey items found across 157 examined stomachs. Other frequently consumed forage species include sardines, herring, mackerel, and hake, alongside occasional mesopelagic fishes such as barracudinas and lightfishes, pelagic squids, and deep-water red crabs.^[3] This species employs its distinctive elongated upper caudal fin lobe—often exceeding half the shark's total length—as a specialized hunting tool to stun or herd prey.^[26] Observations and biomechanical studies indicate that the tail generates rapid whip-like strikes, producing sufficient force to incapacitate fast-moving schools of fish in open ocean environments.^[2] The shark's small, needle-like teeth are adapted for grasping rather than tearing, facilitating consumption of whole or fragmented prey items post-stunning.^[3] Feeding occurs opportunistically, with individuals often targeting concentrated aggregations of pelagic prey near the surface or in mid-water columns.^[33]

Reproduction and development

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) exhibits ovoviviparity, in which embryos develop internally within the mother's uterus and are nourished primarily by yolk sacs supplemented by oophagy—the consumption of unfertilized eggs produced by the female.^[11]^[34] This reproductive strategy supports embryonic growth without direct maternal tissue provision, as observed in captured gravid females containing full-term embryos displaying oophagic structures.^[34] Litter sizes typically range from 2 to 4 pups per pregnancy, though reports document broods up to 15 individuals.^[35]^[11] Pups are born live after a gestation period estimated at several months, emerging at lengths of approximately 1.1 to 1.4 meters, equipped with fully formed tails and dentition adapted for post-birth feeding.^[11]^[36] Sexual maturity in females occurs at total lengths of 2.4 to 2.7 meters and ages of 4 to 5 years, while males mature at 2.5 to 3.4 meters and 3 to 6 years.^[4] Evidence from ovarian and uterine analyses suggests an annual reproductive cycle, with females capable of producing multiple litters over their lifespan, which extends beyond 20 years.^[37] Embryonic development proceeds rapidly in utero, with pups exhibiting advanced morphological features such as elongated caudal fins by term, facilitating immediate predatory capabilities upon birth.^[36]

Sensory capabilities and movement

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) possesses the suite of sensory modalities characteristic of elasmobranchs, including electroreception via the ampullae of Lorenzini, which detect weak electric fields generated by prey muscle contractions and heartbeat.^[38] These pores are distributed across the ventral and anterior head regions, enabling short-range prey localization in the pelagic environment.^[39] Olfaction is facilitated by paired olfactory rosettes, with morphometric analyses indicating adaptations for detecting chemical cues over distances in open ocean waters.^[40] Vision relies on large eyes suited for low-light conditions typical of their deep-water habitats, supplemented by a tapetum lucidum for enhanced photon capture.^[41] The inner ear structures, including maculae, function as particle motion detectors for orientation and equilibrium during swimming, converting differential movements via otoconia to neural signals.^[41] Mechanoreception occurs through the lateral line system, sensitive to water movements and pressure changes, aiding in navigation and predator avoidance.^[42] Auditory capabilities allow detection of underwater sounds, with behavioral responses to acoustic stimuli observed in related elasmobranchs, though specific thresholds for A. vulpinus remain understudied.^[42] Locomotion in the common thresher shark involves sustained cruising powered primarily by medial red axial muscle, which exhibits dynamic strain during steady swimming speeds of approximately 1.2 body lengths per second in oceanic conditions.^[43] White muscle shows minimal activation during these endurance activities, conserving energy for long-distance migrations across pelagic realms.^[44] The streamlined fusiform body, coupled with large pectoral fins, facilitates efficient thunniform propulsion, minimizing drag in open water.^[45] The elongated upper caudal lobe, comprising nearly half the total body length, supports oscillatory tail movements at the base for propulsion, while the distal extension enables rapid maneuvers.^[46] Specialized vertebral morphology along the tail provides rigidity for high-speed whipping actions, reaching velocities up to 50 mph during prey stunning, which integrates with routine swimming kinematics for hunting efficiency.^[23] This biomechanics involves four phases—preparation, strike, recovery, and collection—allowing precise control in three-dimensional space.^[47]

Ecological role

Predator-prey dynamics

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) functions as an opportunistic predator in open-ocean ecosystems, specializing in the pursuit of small schooling pelagic fishes. Its diet is dominated by bony fishes, which constitute approximately 97% of consumed biomass, including species such as herring (Clupea spp.), mackerel (Scomber spp.), Atlantic saury (Scomberesox saurus), sand lance (Ammodytes spp.), menhaden (Brevoortia spp.), bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), and butterfish (Peprilus spp.).^[11] Cephalopods, including squid, supplement the diet but form a minor component.^[3] Hunting employs the species' distinctive elongated upper caudal fin, which can extend to half the shark's total length, to deliver high-velocity strikes capable of herding and stunning prey. This tail-whipping technique disrupts school cohesion, immobilizes targets through concussive force, and facilitates subsequent capture by the shark's mouth. Empirical observations from tagged individuals and video footage confirm the prevalence of this "tail-feeding" strategy, distinguishing it from more conventional slashing or biting methods observed in other elasmobranchs.^[3]^[1] As a mid-to-upper trophic level predator, common threshers exert selective pressure on forage fish populations, potentially influencing local abundances through density-dependent foraging. However, their own vulnerability stems from sparse natural predation; adults face minimal threats beyond sporadic encounters with killer whales (Orcinus orca), as documented off New Zealand. Juveniles, conversely, suffer higher mortality from intra- and interspecific predation by larger sharks, including shortfin makos (Isurus oxyrinchus), reef sharks, and even conspecific adults exhibiting cannibalistic tendencies.^[4]^[3] This size-based predation dynamic underscores the species' reliance on rapid growth and dispersal to evade early-life risks, contributing to its overall population resilience in unaltered ecosystems.^[4]

Population dynamics

The common thresher shark exhibits low population resilience due to its life-history characteristics, including slow growth, delayed maturity, low fecundity, and extended lifespan. The von Bertalanffy growth coefficient K is estimated at 0.10, reflecting gradual somatic development, with females attaining sexual maturity at lengths of approximately 270-320 cm (around 8-10 years of age) and males slightly earlier. Litters typically comprise 2-4 pups, produced every two years following a 6-7 month gestation period, contributing to an intrinsic rate of population increase (r) of roughly 0.05 or less. Generation length is approximately 25.5 years, rendering populations susceptible to prolonged recovery times following depletion, with minimum doubling times of 4.5-14 years.^[31]^[48] Global population trends indicate significant declines driven by fisheries exploitation, with the IUCN Red List assessing a median reduction of 47% over three generations (76.5 years), qualifying the species as Vulnerable; the probability of less than 20% decline is higher in some models, but ongoing fishing pressure predominates as the causal factor. Regional disparities are pronounced: in the Mediterranean Sea, abundance has plummeted by over 99% since the early 20th century due to intensive historical targeting, while North Atlantic stocks continue to decrease amid pelagic longline and gillnet fisheries. In contrast, eastern Pacific populations show signs of increase following 1990s regulations, such as drift gillnet bans and quotas, which reduced fishing mortality below sustainable thresholds. Western North Atlantic assessments reveal historical dips (e.g., early 1980s) but current stability under management, though data deficiencies hinder precise biomass estimates.^[49]^[50]^[51] These dynamics underscore the species' vulnerability to overexploitation, as even moderate fishing rates exceed natural recruitment in unmanaged areas, with recovery contingent on reduced bycatch and targeted harvest; stock assessments in regulated regions, like the U.S. west coast, project no overfished status but emphasize monitoring due to the low rebound potential (r ≈ 0.002 in some estimates).^[52]^[53]

Human interactions

Commercial and economic utilization

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) is commercially targeted primarily for its meat and fins, with meat valued for human consumption and fins traded internationally for use in fin soup.^[54] In regions like California, where it constitutes the leading commercial shark species, the fishery relies heavily on drift gillnets, accounting for approximately 78% of landings, with operations extending from the Mexican border to central Oregon in waters up to 200 miles offshore and depths of 30–2,000 fathoms.^[35] Historical annual landings from 1977–1989 averaged 1.1 million pounds dressed weight, peaking at 2.3 million pounds in 1982, though they declined to an average of 0.4 million pounds annually from 1990–1998 due to regulatory measures including time/area closures and permit limits.^[35] Ex-vessel prices for common thresher landings reached $1.36 per pound in 1998, contributing to broader drift gillnet fishery revenues that averaged $7.2 million annually for thresher, swordfish, and shortfin mako combined in recent years prior to stricter quotas.^[35]^[55] Fins are detached prior to landing under specific exemptions allowing this practice for thresher sharks since 1996, facilitating export to Asian markets where they command premium prices.^[35] Meat is marketed fresh or processed, with some demand in U.S. seafood outlets, while liver oil extraction occurs on a smaller scale, primarily from processing plants equipped for centrifuge separation in Pacific Coast operations.^[56] Globally, reported capture production for thresher sharks (primarily A. vulpinus) fluctuated from 398 tonnes in 2020 to 1,525 tonnes in 2022, often as targeted catches in gillnet and longline fisheries or bycatch in pelagic operations, though data underreporting limits precise economic valuation.^[57] These activities support local employment and revenue in artisanal and industrial fleets, particularly in the eastern Pacific and Mediterranean, but have prompted quota reductions to address population declines.^[35]

Recreational pursuits

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) is targeted by recreational anglers for its size, acrobatic fighting style, and distinctive long caudal fin, which it uses to stun prey and during battles with hooks.^[58]^[59] In regions like southern California and the U.S. East Coast, it supports a directed sport fishery, with anglers pursuing specimens averaging 200 pounds (91 kg) using bait such as mackerel or squid on heavy tackle.^[35]^[60] Fishing often occurs from private boats or charters during spring and fall migrations, targeting offshore canyons and bait schools.^[61]^[62] Regulations govern recreational harvest to manage populations, including bag limits of two fish per day in California waters and requirements for non-stainless steel circle hooks to improve catch-and-release survival.^[35]^[63] In federal U.S. waters, anglers need a Highly Migratory Species (HMS) permit, with minimum sizes such as 66 inches (168 cm) fork length for citation awards in some states; however, fisheries are closed in areas like Washington due to vulnerability assessments.^[4]^[26]^[8] Foul-hooking, common due to the shark's tail-whipping behavior, reduces post-release survivorship, prompting best practices like keeping fish in water and rapid revival.^[63]^[64] Charter operations and guided trips emphasize the species' appeal as a game fish, with records like Connecticut's highlighting its status in big-game angling, though over-reliance on directed effort contributes to population pressures alongside commercial bycatch.^[65]^[61]^[66] Limited data exist on non-consumptive pursuits like shark viewing, as the species' pelagic habits and low coastal visibility restrict ecotourism compared to reef sharks.^[58]

Conservation efforts and regulations

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) is classified as Vulnerable globally by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), primarily due to ongoing population declines driven by overexploitation in fisheries, with slow reproductive rates limiting recovery potential. This assessment, originating from a 2007 reassessment of thresher sharks from Data Deficient to Vulnerable, persists as of recent evaluations, reflecting insufficient global management to counter moderate fishing pressures despite the species' low intrinsic recovery capacity.^[49] In 2016, all three thresher shark species, including A. vulpinus, were added to Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), mandating non-detriment findings and export permits for international trade to prevent unsustainable exploitation. This listing aims to enhance traceability and compliance in fisheries, complementing regional measures, though enforcement challenges persist in high-catch areas like the Indo-Pacific.^[67] Regionally, the United States regulates A. vulpinus under highly migratory species management by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), requiring directed and incidental fishing permits, catch logbooks, quotas, and gear restrictions such as bans on gillnets that effectively eliminated commercial thresher fisheries by 1990, contributing to stock recovery in Atlantic and Pacific waters.^[4]^[68] A 2014 petition to list the species under the Endangered Species Act was deemed unwarranted in 2015, citing adequate existing regulatory mechanisms including time-area closures and bycatch mitigation.^[69] Conservation efforts include community-based initiatives, such as in Indonesia where alternative livelihood programs reduced thresher shark catches by 91% among participating fishers, demonstrating efficacy of economic incentives over strict bans in artisanal fisheries.^[70] Establishment of no-take marine reserves targets bycatch reduction, though their impact remains limited by the species' wide-ranging pelagic habits and illegal fishing.^[3] Globally, advocacy for improved data collection and regional fishery management organization (RFMO) compliance underscores the need for binding harvest controls to address persistent vulnerabilities.

Controversies and assessments

Overfishing debates

The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) faces ongoing debates regarding the extent and impacts of overfishing, driven by its K-selected life history traits including slow growth, late maturity at 4–14 years, and low fecundity of 2–4 pups per gestation.^[71] Globally, the IUCN Red List assesses the species as Vulnerable, citing an estimated population reduction of 30–49% over the past three generations (approximately 76.5 years) primarily due to targeted fisheries and bycatch in pelagic longline and gillnet operations. This assessment aggregates data from regional declines, such as up to 79% reductions in parts of the Indo-Pacific attributed to demand for meat and fins, though critics argue that global extrapolations may overestimate declines due to inconsistent reporting and species misidentification between thresher taxa.^[70] In contrast, stock assessments in the northeastern Pacific indicate no overfishing is occurring, with spawning stock biomass estimated above target levels (66% of unfished biomass in base models) and fishing mortality below thresholds since the 1980s implementation of drift gillnet restrictions and quotas.^[51] These findings, based on integrated population models incorporating catch-per-unit-effort indices and tag-recapture data, suggest that stringent regional management can stabilize or prevent overexploitation, challenging narratives of universal collapse.^[51] However, petitions for U.S. Endangered Species Act listing, such as in 2014, highlighted potential risks from international high-seas fisheries lacking equivalent controls, though subsequent reviews found insufficient evidence for species-wide endangerment.^[72] Debates intensify over data quality and management efficacy internationally, where misreported catches and bycatch underreporting obscure true exploitation rates; for instance, Mediterranean populations have declined sharply from overfishing, while bans in regions like Sri Lanka reduced targeted landings but failed to curb unrecorded bycatch.^[73] ^[74] Proponents of heightened protections, including NGOs, emphasize the species' low resilience to even moderate fishing pressure, advocating for broader CITES Appendix II implementations and RFMO quotas, whereas fishery managers in regulated areas cite empirical recoveries as evidence that targeted conservation measures suffice without global prohibitions.^[50] Uncertainties persist due to limited age-validated growth data and historical misidentifications inflating perceived declines in some datasets.^[33]

Management efficacy

The efficacy of management strategies for the common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) varies by region, with stronger outcomes in well-enforced fisheries like those under U.S. jurisdiction compared to global efforts hampered by data deficiencies and compliance issues. In the U.S. Pacific, the Pacific Fishery Management Council implements quotas and trip limits, contributing to stable or recovering populations since the 1990s, as evidenced by fishery-independent surveys showing no significant decline in biomass. Similarly, Atlantic stocks benefit from International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) recommendations, including finning bans and minimum size limits, which NOAA assesses as supporting sustainable harvest levels without necessitating Endangered Species Act listing. These measures have enabled catch-and-release survivorship rates approaching 100% for mouth-hooked individuals in recreational fisheries, minimizing post-release mortality when fight times are limited to under 85 minutes.^[33]^[68]^[4]^[63] Internationally, however, management efficacy is undermined by inaccurate reporting and weak enforcement, leading to persistent overexploitation despite prohibitions in areas like the Mediterranean and parts of the Indian Ocean. A 2024 analysis of global shark fisheries found that while regulations such as landing bans have proliferated since 2010, overall fishing mortality continues to rise, with thresher species experiencing unreduced pressure due to bycatch in unregulated longline fleets. In Sri Lanka, a 2012 ban on thresher landings reduced reported catches but faced low compliance, as fishers often underreport or discard at sea, highlighting how perceptual barriers among stakeholders erode regulatory impact. Peer-reviewed status reviews emphasize that without improved catch documentation and bilateral agreements—such as those proposed between Mexico and the U.S.—transboundary stocks remain vulnerable to depletion.^[33]^[75]^[74] Community-driven initiatives offer supplementary efficacy in data-poor regions, though their scalability for A. vulpinus specifically remains unproven at large scales. In Indonesia, alternative livelihood programs targeting thresher fisheries achieved up to 91% reductions in local catches by 2023 through ecotourism incentives, demonstrating causal links between economic disincentives for fishing and behavioral shifts among artisanal fishers. Yet, such localized successes contrast with broader inefficacy, as global IUCN assessments maintain the species' Vulnerable status, attributing limited recovery to insufficient integration of these approaches into national policies. Ongoing research advocates for refined bycatch mitigation, like circle hooks and gear restrictions, to enhance overall management outcomes, but empirical evidence of population rebounds remains sparse outside managed Western fisheries.^[76]^[77]

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[20]
The fossil distribution of two pelagic lamniform sharks Alopias ...
The occurrence of the common thresher shark represents the first published record and description of a representative from the family Alopiidae in northern ...
[21]
Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788), Thresher Shark
Body spindle-shaped (fusiform) and stout; upper lobe of caudal fin (tail fin) as long or longer than rest of body; head broad; snout broad; eyes relatively ...Missing: peer | Show results with:peer
[22]
Gill morphometrics of the thresher sharks (Genus Alopias)
Feb 20, 2015 · The phylogenetic relationship of the three thresher shark species within the genus Alopias remains unresolved (Naylor et al., 1997; Shimada ...
[23]
Vertebral morphology in the tail-whipping common thresher shark ...
Jan 3, 2024 · In this study, we examined vertebrae from ten common thresher sharks (Alopias vulpinus) ranging from an embryo (fork length (FL): 61 cm) to ...
[24]
The vascular morphology and in vivo muscle temperatures of ...
Despite morphological similarities among the alopiids, the common thresher (Alopias vulpinus) is unique in that its red, aerobic myotomal muscle (RM) is …Missing: features | Show results with:features
[25]
Bigeye Thresher – Discover Fishes
May 29, 2025 · This shark also has an indented forehead, a curved broad-tipped pectoral fin, and the free-rear tip of the first dorsal fin is located over or ...
[26]
Common thresher shark | Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife
Maximum age is 50 years old. Geographic range. Common thresher sharks are found along the continental shelves of North America and Asia of the North Pacific, ...
[27]
[PDF] 1 CHAPTER 2.2.1.4: THRESHER AUTHORS - ICCAT
The thresher shark, *Alopias vulpinus*, is also known as *Thresher shark*, *Requin renard*, and *Tiburón zorro*. Its ICCAT code is ALV.
[28]
[PDF] Seasonal distribution and habitat use of the common thresher shark ...
Dec 31, 2020 · The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) is one of 2 species in the fam- ily Alopiidae that occurs in temperate and subtropical regions of ...
[29]
Horizontal and vertical movements and habitat use of the common ...
Tagged common thresher sharks inhabited a wide temperature range in the WNA (-0.5 to 25.6ºC) but spent ~90% of their time in waters between 14 and 20ºC.
[30]
Archival tagging of subadult and adult common thresher sharks ...
Archival tag data show similar temperature ranges, from 21.3°C at the surface to a low of 9.1°C at maximum depth (Fig. 8). SSTs from June to July 2004 (sharks 1 ...
[31]
Alopias vulpinus, Thresher : fisheries, gamefish - FishBase
Cosmopolitan in temperate and tropical seas (Ref. 6871, 58085). Population considered reduced (R) in the US Atlantic waters; lower risk/conservation dependent ( ...
[32]
Movement patterns, habitat preferences, and fisheries biology of the ...
Chapter 3 investigates the habitat utilized by juvenile threshers and shows that they preferentially inhabit waters over the SCB continental shelf as a nursery ...
[33]
[PDF] Status Review Report: Common Thresher (Alopias vulpinus) and ...
This document is a status review of both the common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) and bigeye thresher shark (Alopias superciliosus). Under the ESA, if a ...
[34]
First documentation of gravid Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788) in ...
Sep 29, 2025 · Here, we report the capture of pregnant Alopias vulpinus off Peru, detailing the analysis of four full-term embryos that exhibited oophagy as a ...
[35]
[PDF] Thresher Shark
The common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) is the leading commercial shark ... Reproduction is ovoviviparous; normal brood size appears to be two to ...
[36]
Embryos of common thresher shark Alopias vulpinus in southern ...
Jun 28, 2006 · There is little published biological information on this species, especially regarding embryonic development and reproductive seasonality.
[37]
The Reproductive Biology of the Common Thresher Shark in the ...
Oct 4, 2013 · In this paper, we present the results of a comprehensive examination of Common Thresher Shark reproduction in the western North Atlantic. We ...Missing: ovoviviparous | Show results with:ovoviviparous
[38]
[PDF] Sensory Physiology and Behavior of Elasmobranchs
only a fraction studied for their sensory capabilities, much still ... thresher sharks, Alopias vulpinus, a sister species to the bigeye thresher ...
[39]
Phylogenetic and ecological factors influencing the number and ...
Feb 7, 2012 · The ampullae of Lorenzini ... The functional role of the caudal fin in the feeding ecology of the common thresher shark Alopias vulpinus.
[40]
[PDF] Morphometric analysis of the elasmobranch olfactory rosette
Sep 12, 2022 · Olfaction is a sensory modality that fish use to find prey, mates, communicate with conspecifics, and avoid predators (Kleereko- per, 1969). The ...<|separator|>
[41]
Interspecific Variation in the Inner Ear Maculae of Sharks - PMC
The end organs of all fishes function as particle motion detectors, converting differential movement between the denser otoconia (or a gelatinous cupula in the ...
[42]
The effect of underwater sounds on shark behaviour - PubMed Central
May 6, 2019 · The effect of sound on the behaviour of sharks has not been investigated since the 1970s. Sound is, however, an important sensory stimulus underwater.
[43]
Function of the medial red muscle during sustained swimming in ...
Our study used sonomicrometry to measure the dynamics of red and white muscle movement in common thresher sharks swimming in the ocean to test whether the ...
[44]
Red muscle function in stiff-bodied swimmers: there and almost back ...
3. Thresher sharks: almost back again. (a). A limited knowledge of swimming biomechanics. Studies of biomechanics of swimming in fishes possessing internalized ...
[45]
The Biomechanics Of Thresher Shark Tails Revealed - Forbes
Jan 24, 2024 · Essentially, the vertebral column of thresher sharks is strengthened throughout its length, possibly functioning akin to a catapult, ...
[46]
[PDF] The denticle surface of thresher shark tails
The goals of this paper are first, to provide a comprehensive description of three- dimensional surface roughness characteristics of the tail surface of mature ...
[47]
Study Uncovers Mechanics of 'Tail-Whipping' in Thresher Sharks - FAU
Jan 17, 2024 · With incredible speed, their long, machete-like tails can slap and stun their prey, allowing them to swallow multiple fish in one fell swoop.Missing: maximum peer
[48]
The Biology and Ecology of Thresher Sharks (Alopiidae)
We review the biology and ecology of the three known species of thresher shark (Alopiidae) occurring in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
[49]
[PDF] Alopias vulpinus, Common Thresher - IUCN Red List
It is long-lived (38 years), yet with larger litters (2–6 pups) and possibly an annual reproductive cycle, it consequently has a higher rate of © The IUCN Red ...Missing: lifespan | Show results with:lifespan
[50]
[PDF] Disappearing Silky and Thresher Sharks - The Pew Charitable Trusts
Silky and thresher shark populations have collapsed globally, with declines of more than 80 percent, and some up to 99 percent, in many regions. Action is ...
[51]
[PDF] Status of Common Thresher Sharks, Alopias vulpinus, Along the ...
independent peer review of the stock assessment of common thresher sharks along the west coast of North America. The CIE review panel was chaired by Dr.
[52]
Thresher Sharks, Alopias vulpinus - MarineBio Conservation Society
Thresher sharks inhabit warm and temperate waters worldwide. They prefer cool pelagic waters but will wander into coastal areas as well in pursuit of fish.
[53]
Status of common thresher sharks, Alopias vulpinus, along the west ...
Status of common thresher sharks, Alopias vulpinus, along the west coast of North America : updated stock assessment based on alternative life history.
[54]
[PDF] petition to list the common thresher shark (alopias vulpinus ... - SPREP
Aug 22, 2014 · Like many shark species, the common thresher shark's fin has high commercial value. Unlike most sharks, however, some consider the common ...
[55]
22 MANAGEMENT OF SHARK FISHERIES OFF THE WEST COAST ...
The CDFG estimated that landings by the DGN fishery have averaged $7.2 million (US) in exvessel value for swordfish, mako, and common thresher shark in recent ...
[56]
14. Shark utilization
Sharks and their relatives provide a multitude of usable products including: meat, fins, liver, skin, cartilage and jaws and teeth.
[57]
Thresher - Aquatic species
Global Capture Production for species (tonnes) ; 2020, Tonnes - live weight, 397.501 ; 2021, Tonnes - live weight, 462.784 ; 2022, Tonnes - live weight, 1524.886.
[58]
Thresher Sharks - Pfleger Institute of Environmental Research
Swimming Muscle Physiology of Thresher Sharks. The Functional Significance ... This study examined the swimming biomechanics and twitch kinetics of this ...
[59]
Thresher Shark Fishing - My Fishing Cape Cod
Feb 24, 2024 · Thresher sharks will use their enormous tail to whip and stun baitfish. Relative to their body length, thresher sharks have the longest tail out of all sharks.
[60]
Thresher Shark - Delaware Fish Facts for The Recreational Angler
Typical Sizes Caught, In general, Thresher Sharks average around 200 pounds. ; Citation Minimum Length and Weight, Live Release Award Adult: 66 inches minimum<|separator|>
[61]
Thresher sharks a favorite catch in CT — but still have secrets
Aug 12, 2025 · Recreational fishing for threshers, which is regulated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, requires a highly migratory ...
[62]
How to Fish for Thresher Shark in Newport Submar
Aug 25, 2025 · Along with recreational angling, commercial longlining for Threshers is a major risk to their population. Before the regulations change ...
[63]
Insights into catch-and-release survivorship and stress-induced ...
This study assessed the post-capture survivorship of tail-hooked adult and sub-adult common thresher sharks using pop-up satellite archival tags (PSATs)
[64]
Best practices for catch-and-release shark angling: current scientific ...
Best practices included: (1) using non-stainless steel circle hooks, (2) not removing sharks from the water, (3) reviving sharks prior to release, and (4) ...Missing: pursuits | Show results with:pursuits
[65]
Thresher Shark Fishing Trips - BaitYourHook
Browse selection of the best Thresher Shark fishing charters, lodges & guides. All trips come with the Best Price Guarantee. Book your next adventure today!
[66]
Offshore - Thresher shark fishing 2025! | Bloodydecks - BD Outdoors
Jun 4, 2025 · Bait and switch fishing is a great way to go for both billfish and game sharks. I would just like to point out that it requires a crew of at ...Missing: recreational | Show results with:recreational
[67]
[PDF] Thresher sharks (Alopias spp.)
Including the genus Alopias in CITES Appendix II could improve fisheries and trade data, bolster compliance with existing protections, complement existing ...
[68]
Pacific Common Thresher Shark | NOAA Fisheries
Thresher sharks grow slowly, reaching lengths up to 18 feet. They live a long time, between 19 and 50 years. They mature when they reach about 5 years old and 5 ...About The Species · Biology · Fishery Management<|separator|>
[69]
[PDF] 2015-04409.pdf - Federal Register
Mar 3, 2015 · Commercial fishing of thresher sharks in the U.S. was eliminated by gill net regulations by 1990, and within a decade, the population began to ...
[70]
Hope for Thresher Sharks: Fishing Falls 91% in Indonesia
A recent study published in Oryx journal, reveals a groundbreaking 91% reduction in thresher shark catches among fishers who received alternative livelihood ...
[71]
[PDF] Thresher Sharks
Thresher Sharks are exceptionally vulnerable to overfishing due to slow growth, late maturity (4–14 years), lengthy gestation (9–12 months), and few young (2–4 ...
[72]
[PDF] petition to list the common thresher shark under the ESA ... - NOAA
Aug 22, 2014 · Both annual catches and mean weights of Alopias vulpinus have fallen as a result of fishing mortality in the Moroccan driftnet fishery, ...
[73]
The role of fisheries and the environment in driving the decline of ...
Additionally, Alopias vulpinus was occasionally reported separately before ... The most probable cause of such decline appears to be overfishing. This ...
[74]
The case of the thresher shark landing-ban in Sri Lanka
The ban appears effective in halting targeted fisheries; however, persistent bycatch was reported by fishers. Further, bycatch appears to be widely unrecorded ...
[75]
Global shark fishing mortality still rising despite ... - Science
Jan 11, 2024 · Over the past decade, the plight of the world's sharks has received much attention, resulting in increased regulation and finning bans.
[76]
Community-based conservation cuts thresher shark fishing by 91 ...
Mar 28, 2025 · A thresher shark conservation effort in eastern Indonesia focusing on alternative sources of income has reduced up to 90% of catches of the globally endangered ...
[77]
a case study on pelagic thresher sharks (Alopias pelagicus) in the ...
Dec 19, 2024 · Our results indicate that the fishing method targeting sharks in Southwest Aceh is highly specialised, with similarities to other small-scale ...