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Conservation easement

A conservation easement is a voluntary legal agreement in which a landowner permanently restricts certain uses of their property to protect its natural, scenic, agricultural, or historic resources, while retaining ownership and compatible rights such as farming or residence.^[1]^[2]^[3] The easement is held by a qualified land trust or government entity, enforceable against future owners, and often qualifies for federal income tax deductions based on the value of the forgone development rights.^[4] Emerging in the United States during the mid-20th century as a private alternative to public land acquisition, conservation easements gained legal and tax framework through state statutes and the federal Tax Reform Act of 1976, enabling widespread adoption for preserving open space without full government purchase.^[5]^[6] These instruments have protected over 27 million acres nationwide, supporting biodiversity, wildlife habitat, and farmland viability amid urban pressures.^[7] Despite their conservation successes, easements have sparked controversies, notably through syndicated schemes where partnerships acquire land, secure inflated appraisals, and claim deductions exceeding 2.5 times the investment, prompting IRS designations as abusive transactions and regulatory crackdowns to prevent tax shelter exploitation.^[8]^[9]^[10] Such abuses have eroded program integrity, leading to court challenges and settlements that distinguish legitimate preservation from opportunistic deductions.^[11]^[7]

Definition and Legal Framework

Core Elements and Purpose

A conservation easement constitutes a voluntary, legally binding restriction on the use of real property, granted by the landowner (grantor) to a qualified holder—typically a governmental entity or a charitable organization dedicated to conservation—intended to preserve specified conservation values such as natural habitats, scenic landscapes, open spaces, or historically significant features.^[4] Core elements include the precise delineation of prohibited or limited activities (e.g., subdivision, commercial development, or resource extraction) in the easement document, alongside the landowner's retention of fee simple title and certain compatible rights like selective timber harvesting or low-impact recreation, provided they do not impair the protected values.^[12] The agreement must establish a "baseline condition" documenting the property's pre-easement state, serving as the standard for ongoing enforcement, and typically requires perpetual duration, binding successors in title under state property law, often validated by statutes modeled on the Uniform Conservation Easement Act.^[13]^[14] The fundamental purpose of conservation easements is to enable private landowners to contribute to public environmental and cultural preservation goals by permanently limiting land uses that could degrade ecological integrity, biodiversity, or aesthetic qualities, without necessitating outright government purchase or eminent domain.^[15] This mechanism aligns property rights with societal interests in habitat protection, watershed maintenance, and agricultural viability, as evidenced by the conservation of over 40 million acres across the United States by 2020 through such instruments, predominantly on forests and farms facing development pressures.^[16] By transferring development rights rather than land ownership, easements reduce fiscal burdens on public budgets while providing landowners with economic incentives, though their efficacy hinges on vigilant stewardship by holders to prevent violations or erosions in protected values over time.^[17]

Enforceability and Qualified Holders

Conservation easements derive their enforceability from state statutes modeled on the Uniform Conservation Easement Act (UCEA) of 1985, which has been adopted in some form by 48 states and the District of Columbia as of 2023, validating them as legally binding restrictions on land use even if they deviate from traditional easement doctrines such as privity of estate or touch and concern. These instruments impose perpetual negative burdens or affirmative obligations on the burdened property, enforceable indefinitely unless specified otherwise, and are created, conveyed, and recorded in the same manner as other conveyances of real property interests.^[18] Courts may enforce violations through injunctions, proceedings in equity, or actions at law for damages, with the holder bearing primary responsibility for monitoring compliance via baseline documentation and periodic inspections.^[18] Qualified holders under the UCEA include governmental bodies empowered to acquire and hold interests in real property for conservation or preservation purposes, as well as charitable corporations, associations, or trusts whose charters or bylaws explicitly include such objectives.^[18] For federal income tax deductibility of donated easements, Internal Revenue Code Section 170(h)(3) restricts qualified organizations to governmental units described in Section 170(b)(1)(A)(v) or eligible 501(c)(3) entities under Sections 170(b)(1)(A)(vi), 509(a)(1), 509(a)(2), or 509(a)(3), which must demonstrate a committed intent to preserve the easement's conservation purposes and possess adequate resources, including legal authority, to enforce restrictions perpetually.^[19] Such organizations function as eligible donees by maintaining the right to inspect the property, compel adherence to terms, and, in cases of potential extinguishment due to imminently impending external factors like urban expansion, allocate any judicially approved proceeds proportionally to further conservation efforts elsewhere.^[19] Enforceability extends potentially to third parties in states following UCEA provisions, where governmental bodies or qualified charitable organizations granted explicit enforcement rights in the easement document may intervene, though primary standing resides with the holder and burdened landowner.^[18] Federal regulations under 26 CFR §1.170A-14 reinforce this by requiring that conservation purposes remain protected indefinitely through recorded, legally enforceable restrictions, with donor-retained interests or subsequent mortgages (post-February 13, 1986) subordinated to prevent impairment.^[19] Challenges to enforceability have arisen in "exacted" easements imposed as permit conditions, where courts in some jurisdictions question validity absent voluntary consent or adequate compensation, potentially rendering them unenforceable under takings clause analyses; however, voluntarily granted easements held by qualified organizations consistently withstand scrutiny when properly documented and stewarded.^[20] The Internal Revenue Service has disallowed tax deductions in cases of inadequate holder stewardship or easement modifications inconsistent with terms, underscoring the linkage between enforceability and organizational capacity, though the underlying property restriction remains binding under state law.^[4]

Historical Development

Origins in Property Law

Conservation easements trace their legal foundations to the common law doctrines of easements and servitudes, which have governed non-possessory interests in real property since medieval English law. An easement traditionally grants a right to use or limit the use of another's land without transferring ownership, categorized as either appurtenant—benefiting an adjacent dominant estate—or in gross, held personally by an individual or entity. Negative easements, prohibiting actions by the servient landowner such as obstructing light or diverting water, were recognized but strictly limited under common law to prevent undue burdens on alienated property; courts disfavored broad or novel restrictions as contrary to the policy favoring free transferability of land.^[21]^[22] These principles were adapted for conservation purposes through restrictive covenants and equitable servitudes, which impose use limitations enforceable in equity if they "touch and concern" the land, provide notice, and demonstrate intent to bind successors. Real covenants required privity of estate for enforcement at law, while equitable servitudes relaxed some formalities but still demanded horizontal privity between original parties. Early conservation restrictions, emerging in the mid-20th century, leveraged these tools to preserve open space or historic sites, but their perpetual duration, in-gross nature, and expansive prohibitions—often lacking a reciprocal benefit—clashed with common law precedents that viewed such servitudes as personal licenses rather than transferable property rights. Judicial reluctance stemmed from concerns over alienability and the rule against perpetuities, rendering many pre-statutory attempts vulnerable to invalidation.^[21]^[23]^[24] The awkward fit of conservation easements into traditional easement law—described as a "square peg in a round hole"—arose because they prioritize public or conservation values over private reciprocal interests, diverging from the bilateral structure of appurtenant servitudes. Common law courts occasionally upheld limited conservation-like restrictions, such as in cases involving scenic views or wildlife habitats, but only where they mirrored established negative easement types; broader applications risked being deemed unenforceable nudum praeceptum (bare commands without consideration). This doctrinal tension necessitated state enabling statutes starting in the late 1950s, which statutorily validated conservation servitudes by abrogating common law barriers like the in-gross transfer prohibition and perpetuity rules, while affirming their status as real property interests.^[24]^[23]^[6]

Key U.S. Legislation and Growth (1976–Present)

The Tax Reform Act of 1976 marked the inception of federal tax incentives for conservation easements by authorizing an income tax deduction for the charitable contribution of a qualified interest in real property, specifically easements or restrictions of at least 30 years' duration granted to a governmental unit or qualified charitable organization for purposes such as preserving open space, natural habitats, or historic structures.^[25]^[26] This provision, codified under Section 170 of the Internal Revenue Code, initially limited deductions to the donor's basis in the property but catalyzed early adoption by addressing prior uncertainties in IRS recognition of such gifts, which had begun tentatively in 1964 rulings.^[6] Subsequent federal legislation expanded and refined these incentives. The Tax Treatment Extension Act of 1980 rendered the deduction permanent, removing prior temporary status and facilitating broader use beyond short-term arrangements.^[6] The Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 further advanced the framework by permitting deductions based on the full fair market value of perpetual easements, rather than just the donor's basis, provided the restrictions served a qualified conservation purpose enforceable in perpetuity.^[27] At the state level, the Uniform Conservation Easement Act, promulgated by the Uniform Law Commission in 1985 and adopted by over 20 states by the early 1990s, standardized legal recognition and enforceability of easements, enabling private holders like land trusts to accept and defend them against challenges such as changed circumstances doctrines.^[27] Later acts addressed enhancements and abuses. The Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 and American Jobs Creation Act of 2004 allowed qualified farmers and ranchers to deduct up to 100% of adjusted gross income for easement donations on working lands, spurring agricultural conservation.^[28] The Pension Protection Act of 2006 imposed stricter substantiation requirements, including qualified appraisals for deductions exceeding $5,000, to curb inflated valuations in syndicated partnerships.^[29] More recently, Treasury regulations finalized in 2023 targeted "syndicated" easements, disallowing deductions where partnerships inflate values through promoted interests exceeding 2.5 times the cash investment, following IRS designations of such schemes as abusive transactions since 2016.^[4] These legislative developments drove exponential growth in easement usage. Pre-1976, easements protected negligible acreage nationwide; by 1992, land trusts held easements on approximately 2 million acres.^[30] The 2015 Land Trust Alliance census reported 16.8 million acres (67,923 km²) under perpetual easements held by nongovernmental organizations.^[31] By 2020, estimates indicated 40 million acres preserved via conservation easements across the U.S., reflecting a compound annual growth rate peaking at 16% during 1985–1988 amid tax incentive expansions and land trust proliferation from fewer than 100 in the 1970s to over 1,000 by the 2000s.^[32] Total land trust conservation, including easements, reached 61 million acres by 2020, though federal scrutiny of valuation abuses has tempered recent syndicated activity without halting overall private land protection trends.^[33]

Types and Operational Mechanisms

Perpetual Versus Limited-Term Easements

Conservation easements are typically structured as perpetual restrictions on land use, binding current and future owners to preserve specified conservation values indefinitely. Under U.S. federal tax law, specifically Internal Revenue Code § 170(h), a qualified conservation contribution requires the restriction to be granted "in perpetuity," ensuring that the conservation purpose remains protected against subsequent development or incompatible uses.^[19]^[34] This perpetuity clause is enforced through deed recordation, making the easement a permanent encumbrance on the property title that survives transfers of ownership.^[35] Limited-term conservation easements, by contrast, impose restrictions for a defined duration, such as 30 years, after which the easement expires unless renewed. These are permitted under certain state laws, particularly for agricultural or temporary protection scenarios, but they do not qualify for federal income tax deductions due to the absence of perpetual protection.^[13]^[36] For instance, Montana law explicitly allows landowners to choose term easements alongside perpetual ones, often for flexibility in land management.^[37] However, upon expiration, the land reverts to unrestricted use, potentially exposing conserved areas to development pressures if economic conditions change.^[38] The preference for perpetual easements stems from their superior long-term efficacy in safeguarding biodiversity and open spaces, as term easements risk lapsing without renewal, undermining conservation goals. Empirical analyses indicate that perpetual instruments outperform limited-term alternatives in maintaining restrictions over time, with lower rates of reversion to non-conserved status.^[38] States enabling term easements, such as Georgia or Texas for agricultural programs, often limit them to shorter horizons to balance landowner incentives with fiscal constraints, but federal oversight prioritizes perpetuity to justify public tax subsidies.^[26] Amendments to perpetual easements are tightly restricted, allowable only under extraordinary circumstances like imminent threat to conservation values, further distinguishing them from the inherent temporality of term variants.^[39]

Donation, Bargain Sale, and Purchase Processes

Donation of a conservation easement involves a landowner voluntarily transferring the easement to a qualified organization, such as a land trust or government entity, in exchange for a federal income tax deduction equal to the easement's fair market value, which is the diminution in the property's value post-easement.^[4] The process begins with the landowner contacting a qualified holder to evaluate the property's conservation values through a site visit and baseline documentation report detailing existing uses, conditions, and resources.^[40] A qualified appraisal by a licensed appraiser, compliant with IRS Uniform Standards of Professional Appraisal Practice, must establish the before-and-after values, with the donation qualifying only if the easement is perpetual, meets one of four IRC Section 170(h) conservation purposes (e.g., wildlife habitat or open space), and is granted to an eligible holder.^[29] Legal drafting follows, incorporating restrictions on development while allowing compatible uses like farming; the easement deed is then recorded in public records, and the donor files IRS Form 8283 for substantiation, attaching the appraisal for deductions exceeding $5,000.^[41] Deductions are limited to 50% of adjusted gross income annually (100% for qualified farmers/ranchers), with carryover for up to 15 years, but IRS scrutiny has increased for inflated appraisals, as seen in disallowances where values exceeded 2.5 times the post-easement land value under 2023 regulations.^[42] A bargain sale combines elements of sale and donation, where the landowner sells the easement to a qualified holder for less than its appraised fair market value, treating the difference as a charitable contribution eligible for tax deduction while receiving partial cash proceeds.^[43] The process mirrors donation in initial steps—contacting the holder, site assessment, baseline reporting, and appraisal—but includes negotiation of a discounted purchase price, often around 50% of value to balance affordability for the buyer with donor benefits.^[44] The sale portion generates capital gains tax on the proceeds (potentially offset by basis allocation), while the donated portion qualifies for income tax deduction under the same perpetuity and conservation purpose rules as full donations, requiring Form 8283 and appraisal substantiation.^[45] Closing involves payment to the landowner, recording the deed, and potential state incentives like Maryland's bargain sale credits enacted in 2001 and expanded in 2016.^[46] This method stretches limited conservation funding, as the tax deduction effectively subsidizes the unpaid portion, though it demands careful IRS compliance to avoid recharacterization as a full donation if the sale price is deemed nominal.^[47] Purchase of a conservation easement entails a qualified holder, such as a land trust or government agency, acquiring the easement through outright payment at or near appraised value, funded by private donations, grants, or public programs without relying on donor tax incentives.^[48] The process starts with landowner outreach to the holder for property evaluation, followed by approval based on conservation priorities, independent appraisal to determine value, and drafting of the easement deed specifying restrictions and reserved rights.^[49] Surveys and title reviews ensure enforceability, with closing involving monetary transfer to the landowner and deed recording; for example, New York's Forest Conservation Easements for Land Trusts Program provides matching grants for such acquisitions since its inception.^[50] Unlike donations, purchases avoid tax deduction complexities but require holder due diligence on long-term stewardship costs, including monitoring, as the easement remains perpetual and enforceable against successors.^[51] Land trusts must adhere to standards like obtaining title insurance and environmental assessments to mitigate risks, with over 1,000 U.S. land trusts facilitating thousands of such transactions annually to protect habitats without full land ownership.^[52]

Tax Incentives and Economic Drivers

Federal Income Tax Deductions and Limitations

Under Section 170(h) of the Internal Revenue Code, donors of qualified conservation contributions—perpetual restrictions on real property granted to qualified organizations exclusively for conservation purposes—may claim a charitable deduction equal to the fair market value (FMV) of the contributed interest.^[53] The FMV is generally calculated via a qualified appraisal comparing the property's value unencumbered by the easement to its restricted value, with deductions requiring substantiation for claims exceeding $5,000 through IRS Form 8283 and an independent appraisal. Contributions must meet strict criteria, including protection in perpetuity against uses inconsistent with the conservation purpose, such as preservation of open space, habitat, or historic structures, and grant to a government entity or section 501(c)(3) organization capable of enforcement.^[15] Deduction limits for individuals tie to adjusted gross income (AGI): up to 50% of AGI annually for most taxpayers, with any excess carried forward for up to 15 years subject to the same percentage cap each year.^[15] Qualified farmers and ranchers—those deriving more than 50% of AGI from farming or ranching activities—face a higher threshold of 100% of AGI, also with a 15-year carryover, incentivizing agricultural land preservation.^[54] Corporations are limited to 10% of taxable income for qualified contributions, with a five-year carryover.^[55] These enhanced limits for conservation easements, enacted via the 1976 Tax Reform Act and expanded in 2006, exceed standard charitable deduction caps (e.g., 30% AGI for appreciated property), but require the easement to yield no private inurement or tax-advantaged development exceptions beyond baseline rights.^[53] Additional limitations address valuation integrity and abuse prevention. The IRS mandates that deductions reflect genuine FMV, not speculative "highest and best use" projections untethered from comparable sales or income approaches, with heightened scrutiny on partnerships or pass-through entities where individual shares exceed 2.5 times the partnership's adjusted basis.^[41] Final regulations under Section 170(h)(7), effective for contributions after December 29, 2022, disallow deductions for "syndicated" easements promoted with inflated appraisals promising returns exceeding 2.5 times investors' basis, targeting schemes where promoters bundle interests for tax sheltering rather than bona fide conservation.^[42] Non-compliance, such as failure to record the easement or inadequate monitoring by the holder, can void deductibility retroactively, as evidenced by IRS challenges disallowing billions in claimed deductions from 2010–2020 due to overvaluations averaging 5–10 times actual worth in audited cases.^[15]

State Credits, Estate Tax Exclusions, and Property Tax Reductions

Several U.S. states offer income tax credits for donations of qualified conservation easements, providing an additional financial incentive beyond federal deductions by directly reducing state tax liability. As of 2022, programs exist in at least 15 states, including Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Maryland, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia.^[56] ^[57] These credits are typically calculated as a percentage of the easement's fair market value, ranging from 25% to 50%, and are often capped per taxpayer or donation; many allow credits to be carried forward, transferred, or sold to other taxpayers for liquidity.^[56] Specific examples illustrate variation: In Georgia, donors qualify for credits equal to 25% of the appraised easement value, up to a $250,000 annual cap, with unused portions transferable and eligible for carryover.^[58] Colorado issues transferable tax credit certificates redeemable against state income taxes, requiring perpetual easements and certification by qualified holders.^[59] New York provides an annual credit of 25% of the property taxes paid on the encumbered land, applicable against state income tax and available indefinitely while the easement is held.^[60] Such mechanisms aim to encourage conservation by offsetting the income forgone from development restrictions, though credit availability may be limited by annual state allocations in some programs.^[61] State estate tax exclusions or reductions for conservation easements primarily derive from the decreased fair market value of the encumbered property, rather than standalone state statutes mirroring federal provisions. In states imposing estate or inheritance taxes—such as Connecticut, Hawaii, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington—the easement lowers the taxable estate's valuation, potentially reducing or eliminating tax liability proportional to the development rights surrendered.^[62] ^[63] This valuation effect complements the federal exclusion under Internal Revenue Code §2031(c), which permits up to 40% (capped at $500,000) exclusion of the land's post-easement value if the easement meets perpetuity and conservation purpose requirements.^[64] ^[65] Few states enact unique estate tax exclusions; instead, they often conform to federal taxable estate calculations, amplifying the easement's impact where state rates apply to values above federal exemptions.^[66] Property tax reductions commonly result from conservation easements across most states, as the restrictions diminish the land's highest and best use, prompting local assessors to lower its taxable assessed value based on remaining agricultural, open space, or restricted uses.^[67] This mechanism operates under general ad valorem taxation principles, with the easement's terms dictating the extent of value diminution, often verified through appraisals.^[58] In Florida, for example, easement-protected land qualifies for a 50% to 100% exemption from property taxes, depending on public access provisions.^[68] States like California, Connecticut, Nevada, Oregon, and Tennessee mandate that easements be factored into preferential assessments for open space preservation, preventing taxation at undeveloped potential values.^[67] Additional state-specific property tax benefits include exemptions or credits for qualifying conserved properties; Maryland offers a property tax credit for land under easement, alongside potential agricultural use valuations.^[69] In Georgia, forested easement land exceeding 200 acres may receive reduced ad valorem taxes under forest land programs.^[58] These reductions persist perpetually, aligning with easement duration, but require ongoing compliance with conservation terms to avoid reassessment.^[70] Overall, such incentives vary by jurisdiction and easement details, with landowners advised to consult state revenue departments for precise applicability.^[71]

Implementation Practices

Role of Land Trusts and Government Entities

Land trusts, as nonprofit organizations dedicated to land conservation, serve as primary holders of conservation easements, acquiring them via voluntary donations, bargain sales, or outright purchases from landowners to restrict development and preserve ecological, agricultural, or scenic values.^[14]^[72] These entities retain a property interest that empowers them to monitor compliance perpetually, typically through annual on-site inspections, baseline documentation reviews, and recordkeeping protocols to detect violations such as unauthorized subdivisions or habitat alterations.^[73]^[74] Enforcement mechanisms include negotiation with landowners, legal action to restore the property, or, in extreme cases, acquiring fee title if perpetual protection is jeopardized.^[75]^[76] Collectively, U.S. land trusts and government agencies hold more than 220,000 conservation easements encompassing about 37.9 million acres, with land trusts driving much of the voluntary, private-sector growth in protected lands since the 1980s.^[77]^[78] Organizations like those affiliated with the Land Trust Alliance standardize practices, including stewardship endowments to fund long-term oversight, addressing the perpetual obligation inherent to easement durability.^[14] Government entities at federal, state, and local levels also implement conservation easements, often prioritizing public goods like biodiversity corridors or flood control through programs funded by taxpayer dollars rather than private philanthropy.^[79]^[80] For example, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service acquires easements to buffer national wildlife refuges, ensuring compatibility with habitat management via detailed easement language and collaborative monitoring with landowners.^[81] State-level initiatives, such as agricultural easement programs, have secured over 3.4 million acres by January 2022, leveraging matching funds to buy development rights from farmers and ranchers.^[82] These entities enforce terms through regulatory authority, including potential eminent domain in rare public-interest scenarios, though they forgo tax deductions unavailable to public holders.^[83] Both land trusts and government bodies report easement data voluntarily to repositories like the National Conservation Easement Database, facilitating oversight but revealing gaps in comprehensive tracking due to inconsistent participation.^[84]^[85] This dual structure enables scalable implementation, with private trusts emphasizing landowner incentives and governments focusing on strategic acquisitions, though perpetual enforcement demands robust funding to mitigate risks of under-resourcing.^[86]

Monitoring, Enforcement, and the National Database

Conservation easement holders, typically land trusts or government entities, are responsible for monitoring properties to ensure compliance with easement terms, which often mandate at least one annual inspection.^[73] These visits involve site inspections to verify restrictions on development, land use, or resource extraction, with documentation including dates, staff names, and observations of potential violations.^[81] Monitoring methods may include baseline documentation, photographic records, and GIS mapping to track changes over time, though resource constraints can limit thoroughness, as noted in U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service audits identifying staffing and funding shortages as barriers to consistent oversight.^[87]^[88] Enforcement authority resides with the easement holder, who retains the legal right to access the property, issue notices of violation, and pursue remedies such as injunctions or restoration orders in court if breaches occur.^[89] Easement documents specify enforceable provisions, including perpetual restrictions, and violations can trigger lawsuits to compel compliance or compensate for damages, with federal grant-funded easements allowing government intervention regardless of the primary holder.^[81]^[90] Land trusts must maintain stewardship funds to cover potential defense and enforcement costs, though financial limitations often challenge smaller organizations' capacity to litigate protracted disputes.^[91] The National Conservation Easement Database (NCED), launched in 2016 as the first comprehensive repository of U.S. easement data, aggregates records from land trusts and public sources to map over 130,000 easements encompassing approximately 24.7 million acres as of 2022, representing about 60% of known easements nationwide.^[92]^[93] Managed collaboratively by organizations including Ducks Unlimited and the Trust for Public Land, the NCED standardizes spatial and attribute data for analysis of conservation trends, though it ceased active updates and support in January 2025 due to funding shortfalls, limiting its utility for real-time monitoring.^[84]^[94] This database facilitates research into easement distribution and effectiveness but relies on voluntary submissions, potentially underrepresenting private or untracked holdings.^[95]

Claimed Benefits

Environmental Preservation and Biodiversity Impacts

Conservation easements preserve environmental quality by legally restricting land uses that could degrade habitats, such as subdivision, commercial development, and intensive agriculture, thereby preventing conversion to non-natural states.^[96] This mechanism addresses habitat loss and fragmentation, identified as the primary threats to biodiversity, by maintaining large contiguous parcels conducive to ecological processes.^[96] In the United States, where private lands encompass over 60% of the land area and support most biodiversity, easements protect approximately 37 million acres as of recent estimates, equivalent to more land than all national parks combined.^[97] ^[78] Empirical evidence supports these preservation outcomes. A 2011 study in Wyoming's sagebrush ecosystems, under high residential development pressure, found that easement-held properties had significantly lower structure densities (F₁,₃₂ = 4.7, p = 0.04) and smaller built structure areas compared to unprotected properties, correlating with greater wildlife use indicators such as mammal burrows and bird detections.^[98] These easements reduced fragmentation, preserving connectivity essential for species movement and gene flow.^[98] Similarly, analyses indicate that fewer than 10% of endangered species occur exclusively on public lands, underscoring the necessity of private land protections like easements for comprehensive biodiversity conservation.^[99] Targeted easements also yield measurable biodiversity gains. A 2025 analysis of wetland easements using eBird data from 2003–2023 demonstrated positive effects on bird abundance and species richness, particularly in woody wetlands, with a 0.1 standard deviation increase in easement intensity linked to approximately 50,000 additional birds per checklist and one extra species detected.^[100] Such findings affirm that well-designed easements enhance avian habitats by stabilizing wetland ecosystems against drainage or conversion.^[100] Overall, these instruments facilitate long-term habitat integrity, supporting native flora and fauna persistence amid urbanization pressures.^[31]

Property Rights and Economic Incentives for Landowners

Conservation easements enable landowners to retain fee simple ownership of their property while voluntarily granting a qualified organization—such as a land trust or government entity—a perpetual restriction on certain uses, typically those that would harm conservation values like natural habitats, open space, or agricultural viability.^[101]^[102] This arrangement preserves the landowner's rights to ongoing uses compatible with conservation objectives, including farming, ranching, forestry, or residential occupancy, and allows the property to be sold, subdivided (if permitted), or bequeathed, with the easement terms binding future owners.^[103] However, the easement encumbers the title, limiting development rights such as subdivision for urban expansion or commercial construction, which reduces the land's fair market value and must be disclosed in any transfer.^[104] Landowners retain flexibility to customize restrictions, potentially reserving rights to mineral extraction or limited improvements, though any third-party encumbrances require holder approval to avoid violating conservation purposes.^[105]^[81] The primary economic incentive for landowners is the federal income tax deduction for the donated easement's value, calculated as the difference between the property's fair market value before and after the restrictions are imposed, as determined by a qualified appraisal.^[56]^[106] Qualified conservation contributions allow deductions up to 50% of adjusted gross income (AGI) annually for most donors, with unused amounts carried forward for 15 years; qualified farmers and ranchers with at least 50% of income from agriculture can deduct up to 100% of AGI.^[56] These provisions, enhanced by the Pension Protection Act of 2006 and subsequent legislation, have driven easement adoption by providing substantial liquidity without liquidating the underlying asset.^[56] Additionally, the easement lowers the property's assessed value for local property taxes, reducing ongoing fiscal burdens, and diminishes the estate's taxable value for federal estate tax purposes, facilitating intergenerational transfers of family farms or ranches.^[107] Bargain sales—where the easement is sold below market value with the difference treated as a charitable donation—offer immediate cash inflows alongside tax deductions, appealing to landowners facing development pressures or needing capital for operations.^[107]^[108] In states like New York, credits against state income taxes equal to 25% of property taxes on eased land provide further relief.^[68] As of 2023, 14 states and territories administer transferable tax credits for easement donations, amplifying federal incentives and encouraging participation among those prioritizing long-term land stewardship over short-term development gains.^[56] These mechanisms align private property rights with public conservation goals by compensating for forgone economic opportunities, though their effectiveness depends on accurate valuations and donor awareness.^[16]

Criticisms and Abuses

Syndicated Investment Schemes and Promoter Exploitation

Syndicated conservation easement investment schemes involve promoters organizing partnerships or limited liability companies to acquire undeveloped land at low cost, subsequently donating a conservation easement to a land trust, and then claiming charitable tax deductions based on appraisals that assert dramatically inflated post-easement development values, often exceeding investors' capital contributions by factors of 2.5 or more.^[8]^[109] These schemes market participation to high-income investors as a means to generate tax benefits far surpassing initial outlays, with promoters typically retaining substantial fees—sometimes 20-30% of invested capital—for structuring the deals.^[110]^[8] Promoters exploit participants by leveraging aggressive appraisals that disregard substantive restrictions imposed by the easement, such as perpetual development bans, to fabricate basis step-ups and deductions that the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) deems unrealistic and abusive.^[111] In these arrangements, investors purchase fractional interests in the partnership shortly before the easement donation, enabling the entity to claim deductions proportional to the purported fair market value loss, which promoters tout as yielding effective returns of 300% or higher through tax savings.^[112] However, the IRS has challenged thousands of such transactions, asserting they constitute tax shelters rather than genuine conservation efforts, with audits revealing deductions totaling over $21 billion claimed by approximately 28,000 investors between 2016 and 2021.^[8] Notable cases illustrate promoter-led fraud, including a May 2025 sentencing of a Georgia attorney to 16 months in prison for orchestrating a scheme that generated over $1.3 billion in fraudulent deductions through syndicated easements.^[113] Similarly, in October 2024, two certified public accountants received prison sentences for roles in a billion-dollar syndicated easement fraud involving conspiracy, wire fraud, and false tax filings.^[114] Promoters often evade direct liability by disclaiming tax advice while directing investors to complicit appraisers and land trusts, though the U.S. Department of Justice has pursued charges for money laundering, aiding false returns, and defrauding the government.^[8]^[113] The IRS has intensified enforcement since November 2019, designating syndicated easements with deductions over 2.5 times the partnership's adjusted basis as "listed transactions" requiring disclosure, with final regulations issued in October 2024 expanding scrutiny to substantially similar abusive structures.^[111]^[115]^[42] These measures, including placement on the IRS "Dirty Dozen" list of abusive schemes in 2022, aim to deter exploitation by imposing penalties up to 40% of underpayments, promoter reporting obligations, and potential criminal prosecution, though challenges persist due to the schemes' profitability for organizers prior to disallowance.^[116]^[8]

Appraisal Fraud and Valuation Disputes

Appraisal fraud in conservation easements typically involves the submission of inflated valuations to substantiate oversized charitable contribution deductions under Internal Revenue Code Section 170(h). The fair market value (FMV) of an easement is determined by subtracting the property's post-easement value from its pre-easement value, often assuming a highest and best use (HBU) such as residential subdivision that promoters claim justifies dramatic appreciation.^[117] In syndicated schemes, partnerships acquire land at low cost—frequently from promoters—then secure "qualified" appraisals that multiply the basis by factors of 40 to 100 times, enabling investors to claim deductions exceeding their investments.^[110] ^[8] Such appraisals often rely on speculative HBU assumptions unsupported by comparable sales or market evidence, including hypothetical subdivisions into luxury lots despite zoning restrictions, lack of infrastructure, or environmental constraints that render them infeasible.^[111] The IRS has identified these as hallmarks of abuse, noting that legitimate easements rarely yield deductions exceeding 50-100% of basis, unlike the outsized returns in fraudulent cases.^[109] For instance, in a 2023 Department of Justice case, an appraiser pleaded guilty to conspiring in a billion-dollar scheme, submitting fraudulent appraisals for 18 easements that generated $467 million in invalid tax benefits by overstating values through fabricated development potential.^[118] Similarly, on May 14, 2025, an Atlanta attorney was sentenced for a syndicated scheme where appraisers produced inflated easement valuations, leading to disallowed deductions and criminal penalties.^[119] Valuation disputes frequently escalate to Tax Court, where courts apply strict substantiation rules under Treasury Regulation §1.170A-13(c) and §1.170A-14, requiring detailed comparables and development cost analyses. In Beaverdam Creek Holdings, LLC v. Commissioner (2025), the court rejected a $21.97 million easement valuation—claiming 97 times the partnership's $226,000 basis—as grossly overstated, imposing a 40% accuracy-related penalty for valuation misstatement under IRC §6662(h).^[120] The Eleventh Circuit affirmed this in a related appeal, upholding penalties despite taxpayer fraud claims, emphasizing that overvaluations independent of intent trigger penalties when exceeding 200% of correct value.^[121] Courts have consistently discounted promoter-linked appraisals lacking independence, as in Georgia cases where IRS challenges reduced claimed values by 90% or more based on post-audit evidence of market realities.^[122] These disputes underscore systemic issues with appraiser incentives in promoter ecosystems, where fees tie to deduction sizes, eroding objectivity.^[123] The IRS's 2016 notice designated syndicated easements with inflated appraisals (often >2.5 times basis) as "listed transactions" requiring disclosure, with final regulations in October 2024 expanding scrutiny to curb ongoing abuses despite court validations of core valuation methods.^[124] ^[10] Empirical patterns from enforcement actions show disallowances in over 90% of audited syndicated cases, with penalties averaging 40% plus interest, deterring but not eliminating the practice.^[125]

IRS Crackdowns and Legal Reforms

The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) began targeting abusive syndicated conservation easement transactions in December 2016 with Notice 2017-10, which classified such arrangements as "listed transactions" subject to mandatory reporting under Treasury Regulations section 1.6011-4.^[126] These transactions typically involve promoters marketing partnerships that acquire land, impose easements, and promise investors charitable deductions exceeding 2.5 times their cash investment, often through inflated appraisals valuing the easement at 75% or more of the property's fair market value.^[126] The notice aimed to curb schemes where deductions far outpaced genuine conservation value, estimating billions in lost revenue; for instance, syndicated easements have been linked to over $36 billion in fraudulent deductions since 2010.^[127] Enforcement intensified in November 2019, with the IRS announcing expanded audits, promoter injunctions, and criminal referrals for syndicated conservation easements, which had appeared multiple times on the annual "Dirty Dozen" list of tax scams.^[111] However, Notice 2017-10 faced legal challenges; in February 2023, the U.S. Tax Court in Green Rock LLC v. United States ruled it invalid for failing to provide adequate public notice and comment under the Administrative Procedure Act, prompting temporary relief for some participants but not halting broader scrutiny.^[128] In response, the IRS acquiesced in part to an Eleventh Circuit affirmance of the invalidity in December 2024 but continued pursuing disallowances through audits and penalties.^[129] Congressional intervention came via the Charitable Conservation Easement Program Integrity Act of 2022, which amended Internal Revenue Code section 170(h) to disallow deductions if the easement deed fails to protect perpetuity by reserving donor rights exceeding 15% of the property's value, targeting "partial interest" loopholes that undermined permanent restrictions.^[130] Implementing final regulations were issued on June 28, 2024, clarifying enforcement of the perpetuity requirement but facing pushback; in April 2024, the Tax Court in Oakbrook Land Holdings, LLC v. Commissioner invalidated Treasury Regulation §1.170A-14(g)(6) as exceeding statutory authority, arguing it improperly presumed non-perpetuity from retained interests without case-by-case proof of impairment.^[131] Further regulatory action followed on October 8, 2024, with final regulations (TD 10007) reinstating syndicated conservation easements as listed transactions, adopting Notice 2017-10's four-part test— including promotional materials promising deductions over 2.5 times investment—and applying retroactively where substantially similar.^[132] To resolve disputes, the IRS launched time-limited settlement initiatives in March 2025, offering reduced penalties (e.g., 5% for negligence on misstatements) and partnership-level tax adjustments at a 21% rate for audited syndicated easement participants, aiming to expedite closures amid ongoing Tax Court rulings disallowing inflated deductions.^[11]^[133] These measures reflect causal efforts to align tax incentives with verifiable conservation outcomes, distinguishing legitimate easements from promoter-driven abuses that distort markets and erode fiscal integrity.^[111]

Empirical Assessments of Effectiveness

Conservation Outcomes from Longitudinal Studies

Longitudinal studies evaluating the conservation outcomes of easements, such as sustained prevention of development, habitat integrity, and biodiversity persistence, remain limited due to the relatively recent proliferation of these instruments and inconsistent long-term monitoring protocols.^[134]^[135] Most assessments rely on cross-sectional analyses or short-term compliance checks rather than multi-decade tracking of ecological or land-use changes attributable to easements.^[16] For instance, a review of rangeland conservation easements highlighted that while initial compliance monitoring is common, extended ecological surveillance beyond basic restrictions is rare, hindering causal inferences about long-term habitat outcomes.^[135] Empirical data on easement durability draw from surveys of modifications, terminations, and violations, revealing potential vulnerabilities to perpetual protection claims. A 2016 study analyzing over 1,000 conservation easements across multiple land trusts found that outright terminations are infrequent—occurring in fewer than 1% of cases—but modifications affect approximately 10-20% of easements, often for administrative adjustments like boundary clarifications or baseline updates, though some involve substantive alterations to permitted uses that could erode original conservation intent.^[136] Courts have occasionally approved terminations under doctrines like cy pres when changed circumstances render easements impracticable, as in a 2007 New Hampshire case where development pressures led to easement dissolution despite initial perpetuity language.^[137] These findings suggest that while most easements endure initial decades, legal flexibility and unforeseen socioeconomic shifts pose risks to indefinite enforcement.^[138] Violation rates further complicate long-term outcomes, with surveys indicating enforcement challenges tied to resource constraints at land trusts. A 2010 Land Trust Alliance poll reported that 10% of responding organizations had addressed easement breaches requiring action within the prior year, including unauthorized structures or land alterations, though many were resolved amicably without litigation.^[139] Modeling studies incorporating such data estimate that even low annual violation probabilities (1-5%) can diminish cost-effectiveness over 50-100 years by necessitating repeated interventions or legal defenses, potentially diverting funds from new acquisitions.^[139] Ecologically, targeted easements on high-quality, less-developed lands show reduced fragmentation in the short term, but longitudinal biodiversity metrics—such as species persistence or habitat connectivity—lack robust, easement-specific tracking, with sparse evidence linking them to measurable gains amid broader landscape pressures.^[140]^[141] In regions like the northeastern U.S., comparative analyses of ranchland easements indicate indirect positive outcomes, such as stabilized agricultural practices and landowner commitment to stewardship, but these rely on self-reported data rather than independent, time-series ecological audits.^[141] Overall, the paucity of comprehensive longitudinal research underscores uncertainties in achieving sustained conservation, with effectiveness hinging on vigilant monitoring and adaptive management rather than assumed perpetuity.^[142]^[134]

Cost-Benefit Analyses and Market Distortions

Conservation easements are often promoted as a cost-effective alternative to outright land acquisition for preservation, with empirical analyses indicating that they encumber property rights at a fraction of the cost of fee-simple purchases, typically reducing land values by 18% to 50% depending on the restriction's permanence and location.^[143] ^[144] However, net benefits are diminished by ongoing monitoring and enforcement expenses, which can escalate with violations; one study found that dispute rates substantially lower the long-term cost-effectiveness of easements compared to direct purchases, as perpetual stewardship burdens transfer to land trusts or governments without guaranteed ecological returns.^[139] Positive externalities, such as elevated property values for adjacent parcels due to amenity effects, may partially offset fiscal impacts by boosting local tax revenues—potentially enabling self-financing mechanisms if easements are strategically placed to enhance surrounding development viability.^[143] Tax incentives underpinning easements introduce significant fiscal costs, with syndicated schemes exploiting deductions through inflated appraisals—claiming up to $9 in tax benefits per $1 invested—resulting in annual U.S. Treasury losses estimated at $1.2 billion to $2.1 billion as of 2017.^[145] ^[146] Deduction claims surged from $971 million in 2012 to $3.2 billion in 2014, concentrated in states like Georgia, where non-environmentally motivated transactions prioritized tax avoidance over genuine conservation, yielding dubious net societal benefits when foregone revenue exceeds verifiable preservation outcomes.^[147] These abuses, involving appraisals valuing marginal land at multiples of market rates (e.g., $786,000 per acre versus comparable sales at $2,125 per acre), erode the policy's efficiency by subsidizing low-quality or speculative easements rather than high-priority habitats.^[145] Market distortions arise from these incentives, which act as implicit subsidies skewing land allocation toward preservation irrespective of comparative advantage, potentially limiting developable supply and inflating urban rents while underutilizing easements for suboptimal sites selected for deduction maximization.^[143] Over-reliance on tax credits fosters dependency on federal expenditures, crowding out private transactions and creating inequities where high-income investors capture disproportionate benefits, as evidenced by partnerships generating billion-dollar write-offs with minimal incremental conservation beyond what market or regulatory pressures might achieve.^[145] ^[147] Economic models suggest that while easements can expand preserved acreage efficiently in theory, real-world implementation often fails to internalize enforcement risks or appraisal biases, leading to deadweight losses and questioning their superiority over alternative tools like targeted public acquisitions.^[148]

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Conservation Easements Database of the U.S. - ArcGIS Hub
The National Conservation Easement Database (NCED) is the first national database of conservation easement information, compiling records from land trusts ...
[96]
[PDF] Conservation Easements: Biodiversity Protection and Private Use
... conservation easements for biodiversity conservation. Keywords: biodiversity ... effectiveness could involve government oversight, either at the ...
[97]
An Introduction to Conservation Easements - Unique Places to Save
Conservation easements have existed since the early 20th century. The concept began to take shape in the United States as a method of preserving land while ...
[98]
Effectiveness of conservation easements for reducing development ...
Here we compared biodiversity in sagebrush ecosystems and recent rates of change in road and structure densities on properties with and without easements.Missing: preservation | Show results with:preservation
[99]
[PDF] Conservation Easements in Context: A Quantitative Analysis of Their ...
Protecting biodiversity on privately-owned land is essen tial in the United States, where fewer than 10% of endangered species occur exclusively on public land ...
[100]
[PDF] Benefits of Conservation Easements to Biodiversity - AgEcon Search
Jul 27, 2025 · Abstract. This study investigates the ecological benefits of conservation easements on bird populations, specifically those established ...
[101]
What is a Conservation Easement?
A conservation easement is a voluntary, legal agreement that permanently limits uses of the land in order to protect its conservation values.
[102]
What is a Conservation Easement?
A conservation easement is a voluntary legal agreement between a landowner and a land trust (like Heritage Conservancy) or government agency that permanently ...
[103]
How to conserve your land - Land Trust Alliance
Conservation easement: Where landowners and a land trust enter a legal agreement to permanently limit the use of an area to protect conservation values.
[104]
Conservation Easements - Farmland Access Legal Toolkit
For a landowner to qualify for a federal tax benefit associated with a donated conservation easement, the easement must be permanent (also called a “perpetual ...
[105]
Frequently Asked Questions - Dutchess Land Conservancy
Conservation easements are flexible documents and can be written to fit the needs of the landowner while still conserving important resources on the property.<|separator|>
[106]
Tax Benefits - Mohawk Hudson Land Conservancy
Landowners who have donated a conservation easement or gift of land may qualify for an income tax deduction based on the fair market value of their gift.Missing: economic | Show results with:economic
[107]
Benefits of Conservation Easements | Wyoming Stock Growers Land ...
Conservation easements offer tax deductions, up to 100% for farmers/ranchers, and can lower estate taxes. Cash may also be available through bargain sales.Missing: economic | Show results with:economic
[108]
The Financial Basics of Conservation Easements
Conservation easements offer tax deductions, cash payments, potential estate tax and property tax reductions, and state tax credits.
[109]
IRS Rules That Syndicated Conservation Easements With Inflated ...
Dec 29, 2016 · Because the charitable deductions generated by conservation easements themselves cannot be sold, promoters circumvent this by selling interests ...Missing: exploitation | Show results with:exploitation
[110]
Finance Committee Releases Report on Syndicated Conservation ...
Aug 25, 2020 · These transactions involve promoters selling interests in tracts of land to taxpayers looking for large tax deductions. Following their initial ...Missing: exploitation | Show results with:exploitation
[111]
IRS increases enforcement action on Syndicated Conservation ...
Nov 12, 2019 · The IRS is fully committed to putting an end to abusive syndicated conservation easement transactions, and holding accountable the individuals ...
[112]
IRS and Justice Department Step Up Enforcement Actions Against ...
Mar 8, 2022 · In a syndicated conservation easement transaction, promoters sell ownership interests in land to investors through partnerships, and then grant ...Missing: exploitation | Show results with:exploitation
[113]
Atlanta Attorney Sentenced in Syndicated Conservation Easement ...
May 14, 2025 · Scheme Involved Sale of Over $1.3B in Fraudulent Tax Deductions. A Georgia attorney was sentenced today to 16 months in prison for ...Missing: investment | Show results with:investment
[114]
Two CPAs Sentenced in Conservation Easement Tax Scheme, DOJ ...
Oct 16, 2024 · Conservation easements · Criminal violations · Fraud, civil and criminal ... Two CPAs Sentenced in Billion-Dollar Syndicated Conservation Easement ...
[115]
Final regs. target syndicated conservation easement transactions
Oct 7, 2024 · The IRS issued final regulations Monday (TD 10007) that identify certain abusive syndicated conservation easement transactions and substantially similar ones ...
[116]
SYNDICATED CONSERVATION EASEMENTS – HIGH PRIORITY ...
Oct 17, 2025 · Abusive tax shelters can result in high penalties or even jail time for the taxpayer. “IRS data released in 2020 showed syndicated easement ...
[117]
[PDF] Conservation Easements and the Valuation Conundrum
A conservation easement donor claiming a deduction for an easement with a value of more than $5,000 (which almost always will be the case) must substantiate the ...
[118]
Appraiser in Billion-Dollar Conservation Easement Fraud Scheme ...
May 12, 2023 · Appraiser in Billion-Dollar Conservation Easement Fraud Scheme Pleads Guilty. Friday, May 12, 2023. For Immediate Release. Office of Public ...
[119]
Atlanta attorney sentenced in syndicated conservation easement tax ...
May 14, 2025 · Fake IRS email or message · Tax return preparer ... Appraisers generated fraudulent and inflated appraisals of the conservation easements.
[120]
Conservation Easement Was Grossly Overvalued; Penalty Applies
Jun 2, 2025 · that a false or fraudulent overstatement of the property value as described in the qualified appraisal or this Form 8283 may subject me to ...
[121]
Eleventh Circuit Upholds Gross Valuation Misstatement Penalty in ...
Sep 2, 2025 · The Eleventh Circuit dismissed both arguments as irrelevant to the valuation issue on appeal. Both the tax return and the amended fraud claim ...
[122]
Georgia Conservation Easement Valuation Disputes & Tax Cases
Jul 1, 2025 · These conservation easement lawsuits in the U.S. Tax Court highlight how the IRS is getting tougher on property valuations and deductions. They ...Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
[123]
Conservation Easement Fraud: Whistleblower's Guide to Reporting
Abusive conservation easement scams trick people into claiming inflated tax breaks for land, hurting the tax system.How Does Conservation... · How to Spot an Abusive... · Importance of Legit...Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
[124]
Final regs. target syndicated conservation easement transactions
Oct 7, 2024 · The IRS said court decisions have resulted in some syndicated partnerships' having their “grossly inflated easement valuations” reduced, for ...
[125]
[PDF] 20 Recent IRS Enforcement Actions in Conservation Easement ...
First, the appraiser calculates the FMV as if the property were put to its HBU, which generates the “before” value. Second, the appraiser identifies the FMV, ...<|separator|>
[126]
[PDF] Syndicated Conservation Easement Transactions Notice 2017-10
Dec 23, 2016 · For purposes of this notice, a qualified real property interest is referred to as a conservation easement. The Treasury Department and the IRS ...
[127]
IRS Cracks Down on Syndicated Conservation Easements
Mar 11, 2024 · Since 2010, fraudulent tax deductions taken through syndicated conservation easements have cheated the US Treasury out of $36 billion, according ...
[128]
Notice listing syndicated conservation easement transactions held ...
Feb 1, 2023 · Notice 2017-10, which identifies syndicated conservation easement transactions as listed transactions, was held invalid by the Tax Court.
[129]
IRS Will Acquiesce in Eleventh Circuit Case Invalidating Notice
Dec 23, 2024 · Notice 2017-10, which identifies certain syndicated conservation easement arrangements as “listed transactions,” invalid under the Administrative Procedure Act.
[130]
IRS final regulation to implement the Charitable Conservation ...
Jun 28, 2024 · The IRS issued final regulations on June 28 to implement the Charitable Conservation Easement Program Integrity Act, which Congress passed in 2022.
[131]
Tax Court Invalidates Conservation Easement Regulation
Apr 25, 2024 · In a recent decision regarding conservation easements, the Tax Court determined that an IRS Treasury Regulation was invalid. Learn more.Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
[132]
Syndicated Conservation Easement Transactions as Listed ...
Oct 8, 2024 · This document contains final regulations that identify certain syndicated conservation easement transactions and substantially similar transactions as listed ...
[133]
IRS settlement offers for Syndicated Conservation Easements
Feb 21, 2025 · The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) has recently sent settlement offers targeting Syndicated Conservation Easements (SCEs) under audit.
[134]
[PDF] Evaluating Conservation Effectiveness and Adaptation in Dynamic ...
Sep 23, 2011 · Detailed studies using qualitative methods reveal how particular conservation easements play out in different institutional and ecological ...
[135]
Monitoring Natural Resources on Rangeland Conservation ...
Although all easements were monitored for compliance, the lack of long-term monitoring beyond compliance for most conservation easements is another gap in ...Missing: outcomes | Show results with:outcomes<|control11|><|separator|>
[136]
[PDF] WHAT THE DATA SUGGEST ABOUT APPROPRIATE LEGAL RULE
Mar 21, 2016 · AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF. MODIFICATION AND TERMINATION OF ... Call for the End of Perpetual Conservation Easements, 30 STAN. ENVTL ...
[137]
An Empirical Study of Modification and Termination of Conservation ...
Nov 20, 2015 · An Empirical Study of Modification and Termination of Conservation Easements: What the Data Suggest About Appropriate Legal Rules. An Empirical ...
[138]
"An Empirical Study of Modification and Termination of Conservation ...
This article provides and analyzes a previously uncollected dataset that offers guidance on the appropriate rules of law for conservation easement modification.Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[139]
Effects of disputes and easement violations on the cost ... - NIH
Aug 13, 2015 · We show that easement violation and dispute rates substantially affect the estimated long-term cost-effectiveness of an easement versus land purchase strategy.
[140]
Conservation easements target high quality lands but do not ...
However, we found no evidence that after implementation easements were consistently less likely to be developed, or led to improved mesic ecosystem conditions.
[141]
[PDF] A Comparative Study of Private Ranchland Conservation Easements
Conservation easements have increased dramatically but their social and ecological outcomes are largely unknown. To examine the influence of social ...
[142]
[PDF] Conservation Easements - Lessard-Sams Outdoor Heritage Council
There has been little attention paid to measuring the intended outcomes of conservation easements, such as an increase in wildlife or cleaner water.
[143]
[PDF] The Economics of Conservation Easements
Conservation easements that restrict future development of land reduce the value of the land (this point is discussed later in this chapter). If property taxes ...
[144]
Valuing future development rights: The costs of conservation ...
In particular, for vacant agricultural land we find a statistically significant negative impact of conservation easements that ranges up to 50% of land values.
[145]
The Billion-Dollar Loophole - ProPublica
Dec 20, 2017 · “They're tax shelters masquerading as conservation easement transactions, based on highly inflated appraisals. Someone's using a charitable ...
[146]
https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2017/12/20/estimating-the-rising-cost-of-a-surprising-tax-shelter-the-syndicated-conservation-easement/
[147]
Abuse of tax deductions for charitable donations of conservation ...
Jun 1, 2017 · Abuse of the conservation easement deduction reduces tax revenue, raises the appearance of unfairness and inequity in the tax system, hinders ...Missing: distortions incentives
[148]
Easement or public land? An economic analysis of different ...
Mar 26, 2019 · The results suggest that ease- ments are not yet an economically viable alternative for in-fee conservation purchases. Our analysis is a first ...