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Contesting

Contesting, also known as radiosport, is a competitive activity in amateur radio where operators strive to make the maximum number of valid radio contacts with other stations during a defined operating period, adhering to specific rules that govern frequencies, modes, and exchange information such as signal reports, serial numbers, or geographic locations.^[1]^[2] The origins of contesting trace back to the early days of organized amateur radio, with the first recorded event being the American Radio Relay League's (ARRL) Transatlantic Tests in 1921, which aimed to demonstrate long-distance communication capabilities across the Atlantic Ocean.^[3]^[4] By the 1930s, contesting had evolved into a regular feature of the hobby, highlighted by the introduction of the ARRL Sweepstakes in 1930, an annual event that encourages contacts within the Americas using a unique exchange of members' names. Post-World War II, international participation surged, exemplified by the CQ World Wide DX Contest launched in 1948, which remains one of the largest global events focused on long-distance (DX) contacts between continents.^[5] Today, hundreds of contests occur annually worldwide, tracked through calendars like the WA7BNM Contest Calendar, spanning formats from short sprints to multi-day marathons.^[6] Contests are categorized by operating mode—such as continuous wave (CW) Morse code, single-sideband (SSB) voice, or digital modes—frequency bands (e.g., high frequency HF for global reach, very high frequency VHF for regional), and participant constraints like power output (low, high, or QRP under 5 watts), number of operators (single or multi), and assistance levels (no internet aid or unlimited).^[1]^[7] Participants employ strategies like "running" (broadcasting calls via CQ to attract contacts) or "search and pounce" (tuning to find active stations), logging interactions manually or with software for later submission to organizers for scoring based on contact totals, multipliers (e.g., unique countries or zones), and penalties for errors.^[1]^[8] Beyond competition, contesting serves as a vital training ground for emergency communications, equipment testing, and skill development, drawing operators from novices to elites who participate in events like the World Radiosport Team Championship (WRTC), a biennial olympics-style showdown for top contesters.^[9]^[10] It fosters a global community through publications like the ARRL's National Contest Journal and QST magazine's contest columns, while emphasizing ethical operation under international regulations from bodies like the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).^[1]

Fundamentals of Contesting

Definition and Basics

Contesting, also known as radiosport, is a competitive activity in amateur radio where operators aim to establish as many valid contacts (QSOs) as possible with other stations within a specified time period, using various operating modes such as Morse code (CW), voice (phone), and digital modes.^[1]^[2]^[11] Each contact requires the exchange of specific information defined by the contest rules, such as a signal report, serial number, or location, and must be logged accurately to count toward the score.^[1]^[2] The activity emphasizes non-commercial, recreational communication and is open to licensed amateur radio operators worldwide, with contests sponsored by organizations like the American Radio Relay League (ARRL).^[2] At its core, scoring in contesting is based on the number of valid contacts, often multiplied by additional factors known as multipliers to reward geographic or technical diversity, such as contacts with different countries, states, or grid squares.^[2]^[11] Power levels are categorized (e.g., low power up to 100 watts or high power up to legal limits) to ensure fair competition across varying station capabilities.^[1] Success relies on operators' skills in propagation—understanding how radio signals travel via ionospheric reflection or other paths—along with efficient operating techniques like "running" (calling CQ to attract multiple stations) or "search and pounce" (tuning to find active stations), and optimizing equipment for signal strength and clarity.^[1]^[2] Contests typically occur on allocated amateur frequency bands, primarily high frequency (HF) bands like 160m through 10m, where long-distance communication is feasible, though VHF/UHF contests focus on regional contacts.^[1] Participation in contesting requires an amateur radio license, which verifies operators' knowledge of regulations, operating practices, and technical fundamentals; in the United States, this begins with the entry-level Technician license (35-question exam on basic theory and rules) but often requires upgrading to General or Extra class for full HF access used in most contests.^[12]^[2]^[11] Common goals include enhancing station infrastructure (e.g., antennas and transceivers), refining operating proficiency for faster and more accurate exchanges, and promoting global connections that demonstrate the reach of amateur radio technology.^[2]

Types of Contests

Amateur radio contests are categorized by their primary objectives, geographic focus, and operational constraints, allowing participants to select events that align with their equipment, skills, and interests. DX contests emphasize long-distance communications, typically across international borders, where operators aim to contact stations in as many different countries or entities as possible, often on HF bands to exploit ionospheric propagation for global reach.^[13] Domestic contests, in contrast, focus on contacts within a single country or region, such as state QSO parties in the United States, prioritizing contacts with specific geographic sections or grids to encourage local and regional activity.^[13] Sprint contests are short-duration events, usually lasting 3 to 4 hours, designed to test rapid operating skills under time pressure, with rules limiting band changes and emphasizing efficiency in making contacts.^[14] Field Day stands out as an annual event simulating emergency preparedness, where groups set up temporary stations in outdoor locations to demonstrate portable operations and self-sufficiency over a 24-hour period.^[15] Operating categories further classify entries based on station configuration and resources, ensuring fair competition across diverse setups. Single-operator categories require one person to handle all transmitting, receiving, and logging, divided into low-power (typically up to 100-150 watts output) and high-power (up to legal limits, often 1500 watts) subclasses to account for equipment differences.^[16] Multi-operator categories allow multiple participants, with subclasses like two-operator or multi-multi (unlimited operators and transmitters, but one per band at a time), enabling larger teams to maximize contacts through coordinated efforts.^[16] Assisted operation permits use of spotting networks or packet clusters for real-time station information, contrasting with unassisted modes where operators rely solely on their own listening and searching, which tests individual proficiency.^[13] Contests operate across various modes and frequency bands, adapting to propagation characteristics and operator preferences. Continuous Wave (CW), or Morse code, is prevalent in many events for its efficiency in weak-signal conditions, particularly on HF bands like 160m to 10m.^[17] Single Sideband (SSB) voice mode supports conversational exchanges on the same HF bands, favoring higher power for reliable propagation.^[17] Digital modes, including Radioteletype (RTTY) for text-based communication and FT8 for weak-signal digital contacts, have gained popularity in dedicated contests, often on HF but extending to VHF and UHF for regional events.^[18] VHF contests target 6m to 2m bands for line-of-sight and sporadic-E propagation, while UHF events on 70cm and above emphasize local and satellite-assisted contacts.^[19] Unique formats introduce specialized challenges beyond standard QSO exchanges. Foxhunts, also known as radio direction finding contests, involve locating hidden low-power transmitters using directional antennas and signal strength techniques, often on VHF/UHF bands in local or regional hunts.^[20] Satellite contests require contacts via amateur radio satellites, typically using linear transponders or digital modes on UHF/VHF uplink/downlink pairs, with events like AMSAT Field Day awarding bonus points for satellite QSOs.^[21] Duration varies widely, from intensive 6-hour sprints that demand quick decision-making to extended 48-hour marathons like the CQ World Wide DX Contest, allowing sustained operation across multiple bands and modes.^[16]

Historical Development

Origins and Early History

The origins of contesting in amateur radio trace back to the early 20th century, rooted in the need to enhance communication skills among operators following the disruptions of World War I. The American Radio Relay League (ARRL), founded in 1914 by Hiram Percy Maxim, initially focused on establishing relay networks to extend message transmission beyond the limited range of early equipment, typically around 25 miles on 200-meter wavelengths.^[22] This emphasis on traffic handling—relaying formal messages between stations—laid the groundwork for competitive activities, as operators practiced efficient QSOs (contacts) within amateur radio clubs to support emergency and routine communications.^[23] In the 1920s, informal contests emerged as extensions of these traffic-handling practices, with ARRL organizing QSO parties and relay tests to build operator proficiency post-World War I. The war had demonstrated the value of amateur radio skills for military applications, prompting ARRL to promote structured events for skill development after the 1917-1918 blackout of amateur transmissions.^[24] A key early event was the 1921 Transatlantic Tests, where American operators attempted cross-ocean contacts, marking the shift toward competitive challenges beyond routine relays. By 1923, ARRL introduced the All-Section Sweepstakes Contest, a precursor to the modern November Sweepstakes, which encouraged participants to contact stations in all ARRL sections; notably, a single QSO sufficed for first place that year, reflecting the nascent stage of organized competition.^[25] Pre-1950 developments further formalized contesting, with international elements introduced to foster global connections. In 1929, ARRL launched the International Relay Party, the first major international contest, where operators exchanged traffic messages across borders to simulate real-world relay scenarios.^[26] World War II interrupted these activities, as amateur radio was again suspended from 1941 to 1945 to prioritize wartime communications, underscoring contesting's role in preparedness training.^[27] These early efforts, driven by ARRL's advocacy, transformed informal practices into structured events that emphasized speed, accuracy, and endurance in message handling.^[3]

Key Milestones and Evolution

Following World War II, amateur radio contesting underwent a period of rapid growth in the 1950s, driven by the influx of surplus military equipment that made advanced stations more accessible to operators. This era saw a boom in participation, with awards like the ARRL's Worked All States (WAS) program—introduced in 1936 but gaining renewed prominence post-war—encouraging state-focused operating that paralleled and influenced early contest formats by promoting efficient contact-making across the U.S.^[28]^[3] The establishment of the CQ World Wide DX Contest in 1948 by CQ magazine marked a pivotal event, quickly becoming one of the largest global contests and setting standards for international scoring and rules.^[3] In the 1960s, contesting expanded internationally under the guidance of the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU), which held regional conferences—such as those in Folkestone (1960) and Malmö (1963)—to coordinate spectrum use and promote cross-border events, fostering greater global participation beyond North American dominance.^[29] These efforts built on the IARU's foundational role since 1925 in organizing international contests, helping standardize practices amid growing amateur populations worldwide.^[30]^[3] The digital era brought transformative shifts starting in the 1990s, when internet-accessible spotting networks like the DX PacketCluster—developed by Dick Newell (AK1A) in the late 1980s and widely adopted via telnet clusters—enabled real-time station announcements, dramatically enhancing contest strategy and multiplier hunting.^[31]^[32] By the 2000s, the rise of software-defined radios (SDRs) further evolved contesting, with affordable models emerging around 2007 that integrated digital signal processing for superior filtering and multi-band monitoring, allowing operators to compete more effectively without high-end hardware.^[33] Recent milestones from the 2010s to 2025 highlight the integration of advanced digital modes and adaptive practices; notably, FT8—released in 2017 by Joe Taylor (K1JT)—expanded contest opportunities for weak-signal work, leading to dedicated events like the ARRL International Digital Contest in 2022, which emphasized non-RTTY digital modes including FT8 for grid-square exchanges.^[18] The COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2022) accelerated the adoption of remote multi-operator contesting to enable safe participation amid lockdowns, as seen in increased entries for remotely operated categories in major events.^[34]^[35] Parallel to these changes, inclusivity evolved through expanded low-power (≤100W) and portable categories since the early 2000s, such as the introduction of dedicated QRP categories in major ARRL contests in 1987 and further accommodations for QRP enthusiasts and mobile/portable operations in the early 2000s, broadening access for resource-limited participants.^[36]

Operational Practices

Contesting Activities and Strategies

In amateur radio contesting, operators employ two primary operating strategies to maximize contacts: running and searching and pouncing (S&P). Running involves selecting a clear frequency and repeatedly calling "CQ contest" to attract multiple stations, which is effective for high-signal stations aiming for sustained rates of 100-200 contacts per hour on popular bands.^[1] In contrast, S&P entails tuning across the band to find active stations and calling them, allowing weaker-signal operators to target multipliers like rare entities without competing for frequency control.^[37] Band planning plays a crucial role in these strategies, with operators adhering to established segment allocations—such as phone above 3.8 MHz on 80 meters—to minimize interference during crowded events; violations can lead to disputes or reduced efficiency. Propagation forecasting enhances strategy by predicting signal paths using tools like VOACAP, which models ionospheric conditions based on solar flux and geomagnetic data to optimize band and time choices for long-distance contacts.^[38] Contest activities vary in intensity and duration, with weekend marathons like the ARRL DX Contest spanning 48 hours and drawing thousands of participants for immersive operation, compared to daily sprints such as the NA Sprint events that last 4-6 hours and encourage quick, focused sessions.^[1] Participation peaks during favorable solar conditions, particularly during the peak of Solar Cycle 25 in October 2024, with a smoothed sunspot number of 160.9, enhancing high-frequency propagation and boosting scores by up to 50% over minimum years.^[39] Operators balance these levels by monitoring solar indices to align efforts with openings on bands like 10 and 15 meters, where activity surges during cycle peaks.^[40] Participant profiles range from casual operators, who join sporadically for enjoyment and skill-building without high-stakes goals, to competitive ones who dedicate extensive time to top rankings, often operating multi-band setups for thousands of contacts per event.^[10] Training for both groups includes practice events like Field Day simulations and software-based contests, as well as simulators such as WriteLog's Contest Super Simulator, which replicates real-time CW and SSB exchanges to hone timing and error handling.^[41] Risk management is essential to sustain performance and avoid penalties, with operators monitoring antenna loads to prevent overheating during prolonged transmissions—limiting duty cycles to 50% on high-power modes—and strictly following band plans to evade interference citations from contest committees.^[42] Pre-event checks on equipment and rule compliance, including no prearranged contacts, help mitigate deductions that can nullify up to 20% of a score in major events.

Station Setup and Locations

A contest station's core components revolve around reliable transceivers for multi-band operation, such as the Icom IC-7610 or Yaesu FT-DX101, which provide dual receivers and advanced filtering to handle dense contest environments.^[43]^[44] Linear amplifiers, including models like the Elecraft KPA1500 or Acom 2000A, enable output up to the FCC-authorized 1500 watts peak envelope power, significantly extending propagation range during high-stakes events.^[43]^[44] Antenna tuners, often automatic units from brands like LDG or MFJ, match impedances dynamically to maintain efficiency across HF bands, minimizing standing wave ratio and protecting equipment.^[45] Power supply considerations are critical for high-power operations, where transceivers and amplifiers demand stable 13.8V DC at currents exceeding 30A to avoid performance degradation or overheating.^[46] Dedicated switching power supplies, such as the Samlex SEC-1235M, provide clean output with low ripple and built-in protections against short circuits and overcurrent, essential for sustained contesting sessions that can last 48 hours.^[47] In multi-radio setups, parallel supplies or higher-capacity units like 40A models ensure uninterrupted power, with grounding and fusing to mitigate electrical noise and safety risks.^[48] Location selection profoundly influences contest outcomes, with rural sites offering superior advantages over urban ones due to reduced electromagnetic interference from power lines and electronics, enabling clearer signal reception and higher scores.^[49] DXpeditions to remote areas, particularly Pacific islands like those in Oceania, activate rare country multipliers on the DXCC list (340 entities)—boosting contest totals by attracting global chasers in events like the CQ World Wide DX Contest.^[50]^[51] Portable configurations shine in ARRL Field Day, where operators deploy temporary stations in non-urban venues like parks or fields, using battery power and wire antennas to demonstrate emergency readiness while competing for bonus points.^[52] Environmental factors in densely populated regions impose significant constraints on antenna deployment, often prohibiting tall towers due to zoning ordinances and neighborhood aesthetics, which can degrade low-band performance by limiting takeoff angles.^[53] Operators adapt with stealthy alternatives, such as inverted-V wire antennas suspended from trees or buildings, which require minimal footprint and blend into surroundings, or compact verticals like the Hustler 4-BTV mounted on rooftops for omnidirectional coverage.^[54] These choices prioritize compliance while preserving viability, though they typically yield 3-6 dB less gain than rural tower-supported arrays.^[49] Legal compliance governs all setups, with the FCC's PRB-1 policy mandating that local authorities reasonably accommodate amateur antennas by avoiding blanket height bans that impair effective communication, though site-specific reviews for structures over 200 feet remain required.^[55]^[56] RF exposure limits, outlined in OET Bulletin 65, require evaluation of maximum permissible exposure at 50 MHz-6 GHz, with routine assessments for stations exceeding 50% of thresholds or using amplifiers above 1000 watts, ensuring safe operation near controlled environments.^[57] These guidelines, reaffirmed in recent FCC rulemakings, emphasize exclusion zones and power density calculations to protect public health without curtailing amateur activities.^[58]

Typical Contest Exchanges

In amateur radio contesting, the core of a valid QSO (contact) is the exchange of specific information as defined by each contest's rules, typically including the other station's call sign, a signal report, a serial number, and location details such as an ARRL section or grid square.^[1] These elements verify the contact for scoring and multipliers, with operators repeating only the necessary parts if not copied correctly.^[1] Precedence indicators, like "Q" for QRP (low-power, ≤5 watts) operations, may also be required in certain contests to denote entry category.^[59] Exchanges vary by operating mode to suit the medium's efficiency. In continuous wave (CW) mode, a standard format might be "599 001 NY," where "599" represents the RST (Readability-Strength-Tone) signal report, "001" is the consecutive serial number starting from 1, and "NY" indicates the ARRL section (New York).^[1] For single sideband (SSB) voice mode, the phrasing is more conversational but equally concise, such as "W1AW, you're 5-9 in Connecticut, number 42," delivering the call sign, "5-9" readability-strength report, state or section, and serial number.^[1] In digital modes like FT8, predefined macros automate the process, transmitting call signs, 73 (signal report), and contest-specific data such as a 4-digit grid square in one or two 15-second cycles.^[18] Contest etiquette prioritizes brevity and rhythm to maximize QSO rates, often limiting exchanges to 10-20 seconds; unnecessary chatter, such as equipment details or greetings, is avoided to prevent disrupting the flow.^[60] During pileups—clusters of stations calling a popular frequency—running stations (those initiating CQs) repeat their call and partial exchange, like "CQ Contest W1AW 59 NY," to allow multiple responders to break in efficiently.^[60] These practices ensure high contact volumes while maintaining clarity. Exchange formats differ by contest type to align with objectives. In DX-oriented events like the ARRL International DX Contest, W/VE stations send a signal report plus state or province (e.g., "59 CT"), while DX stations transmit a signal report plus output power (e.g., "59 100"), omitting serial numbers to focus on geographic multipliers.^[61] Domestic contests, such as the ARRL November Sweepstakes, include serial number, precedence (e.g., "Q" for single-operator QRP), a check (derived from licensing year), and ARRL section.^[59] Shorter formats appear in sprints, like the North American SSB Sprint, where the exchange comprises the other station's call, your call, serial number, name, and state or province, emphasizing rapid turn-taking over extended multipliers.^[62] These logged exchanges are later submitted for verification and scoring.^[1]

Technology and Tools

Equipment and Antennas

In amateur radio contesting, core equipment centers on multi-band transceivers capable of operating across HF and VHF frequencies with high performance for rapid signal detection and transmission. The Icom IC-7610, for instance, is a widely adopted HF/50 MHz all-mode transceiver delivering 100 watts output, featuring dual direct-sampling receivers with 110 dB RMDR for extracting weak signals from dense pileups, making it suitable for contest environments where monitoring multiple frequencies simultaneously is essential.^[63] Linear amplifiers enhance output power for high-power classes, such as the ACOM 500S, a solid-state model providing 500 watts PEP across 160-4 meters without manual tuning, designed for continuous duty in demanding operations like extended contests.^[64] Antenna systems are critical for maximizing signal strength and directivity in contesting, with Yagi beams favored for their high gain and directional properties on bands like 20 meters and 15 meters, often stacked in arrays (e.g., four 5-element Yagis at varying heights) to achieve broad coverage and low takeoff angles for long-distance contacts.^[65] Dipoles serve as versatile multi-band options, particularly when elevated (e.g., at 70 feet) for omnidirectional patterns on higher frequencies, offering simplicity and effectiveness for operators with space constraints.^[65] Rotatable installations, such as Yagi beams on motorized towers, allow dynamic pointing toward propagation paths to optimize signal-to-noise ratios during band changes, whereas fixed antennas like directional wire beams or verticals provide reliable, low-maintenance coverage for specific sectors, reducing mechanical wear in multi-operator setups.^[65] Innovations in antenna design have significantly boosted contesting efficiency, including phased arrays that combine multiple elements (e.g., four-square verticals on 80 meters) to deliver enhanced gain and pattern control on low bands, enabling better rejection of interference.^[65] Remote antenna switching systems facilitate seamless selection among multiple antennas without physical intervention, using relay-based controllers to connect up to eight feeds to two radios, minimizing downtime in single-operator-two-radio (SO2R) configurations.^[66] In the 2010s and 2020s, software-defined radios (SDRs) have transformed transceiver capabilities by leveraging digital signal processing for superior filtering and spectrum visualization, allowing contesters to cover wide frequency ranges (e.g., 0.03 to 60 MHz) with spectrum spans of up to several MHz for simultaneous monitoring and adapt to varying conditions more effectively than traditional superheterodyne designs.^[67] Recent examples include FlexRadio's Aurora series transceivers, introduced in 2025, offering 500 W output on HF/6 m bands with advanced SDR features for high-performance contesting.^[68] Proper maintenance ensures reliable performance during 24/7 contest operations, with tuning for low standing wave ratio (SWR) below 1.5:1 critical to prevent power loss and equipment damage, achieved by adjusting element lengths or using automatic tuners while monitoring with inline meters.^[69] Weatherproofing involves sealing connections with vinyl tape or coaxial seals and using UV-resistant materials for elements and supports to withstand prolonged exposure, maintaining structural integrity in outdoor installations integrated with tower-based station setups.^[70]

Software and Logging Systems

In amateur radio contesting, logging software plays a central role in automating contact recording and operational efficiency. N1MM Logger+ is a widely used free program that supports real-time scoring by calculating points and multipliers as contacts are logged, preventing errors through dupe checking that alerts operators to previously worked stations.^[71] It also facilitates export of logs in the Cabrillo format, the standard for submitting contest entries to organizers.^[72] Similarly, Win-Test provides advanced logging features including background CW generation for type-ahead entry, real-time dupe sheet display, and integrated scoring with multiplier tracking, along with Cabrillo export capabilities.^[73] Advanced tools enhance situational awareness during contests. Cluster spotting networks like DX Summit aggregate real-time DX reports from users worldwide, allowing operators to monitor active stations and propagation paths via a web interface.^[74] Propagation prediction applications, such as VOACAP, model HF signal paths based on ionospheric conditions, helping contesters select optimal bands and times by generating hourly forecasts between specified locations.^[75] For single-operator two-radio (SO2R) operations, controllers like those from MicroHAM enable seamless switching between radios using a single computer interface, with software such as N1MM Logger+ and Win-Test integrating SO2R functionality for dual-band monitoring and transmission.^[76]^[73] Integration of digital modes has expanded contesting options. WSJT-X software supports FT8 protocols optimized for weak-signal conditions, including a contest mode that automates exchanges of callsigns, grid locators, and serial numbers for rapid QSO completion in events like the ARRL VHF contests. Logging programs like N1MM Logger+ incorporate automation macros to interface with WSJT-X, streamlining digital contact entry and scoring.^[71] Recent developments in the 2020s include cloud-based logging systems for remote operations. Platforms like WaveLog offer web-based interfaces that allow operators to log QSOs, track awards, and integrate with remote radio setups without local software installation, supporting contest exports and multi-user access.^[77] HAMLOG provides similar cloud functionality, enabling synchronized logging across devices for remote station control during contests.^[78]

Outcomes and Community

Scoring, Logs, and Verification

In amateur radio contesting, logging involves recording details of each QSO (radio contact) to ensure accurate score calculation and verification. Traditional paper logging requires operators to manually note entries in a physical logbook, often using pre-formatted sheets with columns for essential data, though this method is increasingly rare due to its labor-intensive nature and higher error risk.^[72] Most participants now use electronic logging via specialized software, which automates data entry, prevents duplicates, and generates standard output files like Cabrillo for submission; this shift has become dominant since the 1990s as computers became ubiquitous in stations.^[72] Required fields in contest logs, whether paper or electronic, include the date and time in UTC, frequency or band, mode (e.g., CW for Morse code or PH for phone), the contacted station's callsign, and exchange details such as serial numbers, signal reports, or location identifiers (e.g., state or country prefix).^[79] In the Cabrillo format— the de facto standard for electronic submissions—these are structured in a plain-text file with headers for contest and operator information followed by QSO lines specifying sent and received exchanges to facilitate automated processing.^[79] For instance, a typical QSO line might read: "QSO: 14000 CW 2025-11-14 1200 W1AW 1 M 38 CT K8MM 2 Q 92 MI," capturing all necessary elements for validation.^[79] Scoring in contests follows formulas defined by sponsors to reward contacts and multipliers while penalizing errors. A basic structure assigns QSO points—often 1 to 3 points per valid contact based on factors like distance or continent—then multiplies the total by unique multipliers, such as countries, zones, or ARRL sections worked per band.^[16] For example, in the CQ World Wide (CQ WW) contest, QSO points are 3 for inter-continental contacts, 2 for intra-North American international contacts, and 1 for same-continent international ones, with the final score being total QSO points times the sum of distinct CQ zones and countries per band.^[16] Penalties apply to invalid contacts: duplicates score zero, while "busts" (incorrect callsign logging) or "NIL" (not-in-log) errors often deduct points equivalent to one or two times the QSO value, depending on the ruleset, to discourage inaccuracies without overly punishing minor mistakes.^[16]^[80] Log checking, or adjudication, is performed by contest sponsors after the submission deadline to validate claimed scores. Sponsors use custom software to process Cabrillo files, identifying issues like invalid frequencies or out-of-band contacts, followed by manual review for complex cases.^[72] Tools such as those developed by the World Wide Radio Operators Foundation (WWROF) automate much of this, flagging errors like incorrect callsigns (busts) that occur when operators mishear or mistype a station's identifier.^[16] Typical error rates in checked logs range from 2.7% to 5.4%, with higher rates in digital modes due to decoding challenges, though submitting a log—even with errors—helps confirm contacts for others without personal penalty in most modern contests.^[81]^[82] Verification standards emphasize cross-checking submitted logs against each other to confirm QSO validity, ensuring a contact is only credited if both parties record matching details for time, frequency, and exchanges.^[2] This process, often yielding detailed log-checking reports from sponsors like the ARRL, quantifies matches and errors to adjust scores fairly.^[83] For awards, high match rates are required—typically over 95% for full credit—though not always 100%, as minor discrepancies may be overlooked if corroborated by multiple logs; top entrants may submit audio recordings to resolve disputes.^[16]

Results, Awards, and Recognitions

Contest results in amateur radio are typically published through a combination of immediate online scoreboards and periodic magazine summaries. The 3830 Scores website serves as a primary platform for contesters to submit and share claimed scores shortly after events conclude, enabling rapid community feedback and preliminary rankings since its inception in 2002.^[84] Official verified results, including detailed score databases and log-checking reports, are hosted on the ARRL Contest Portal, where participants can access comprehensive outcomes for ARRL-sponsored events.^[85] Additionally, the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) publishes contest-specific results articles in its monthly QST magazine, such as the annual Field Day summaries appearing in the December issue, providing in-depth analysis and highlights for members.^[86] Awards incentivize participation by recognizing top performers across various categories. Certificates are issued digitally for high scores in ARRL contests, downloadable directly from the Contest Portal using a participant's callsign, covering categories like single-operator and multi-operator entries.^[87] Plaques, often sponsored by clubs or individuals at a cost of $95 including shipping, are awarded to world and sectional winners in major events such as the ARRL November Sweepstakes and International DX Contest, commemorating record-breaking achievements.^[87] Cumulative honors, like the ARRL DX Century Club (DXCC) award, credit contest-derived contacts toward confirming QSOs with 100 entities, with certificates and plaques available for milestones including the Honor Roll.^[88] Higher levels of recognition elevate outstanding contributors within the global contesting community. Qualification for the World Radiosport Team Championship (WRTC), a prestigious quadrennial event akin to the Olympics of radio sport, is determined by top performances in designated major contests, selecting teams on a level playing field since the inaugural 1990 competition.^[89] The CQ Contest Hall of Fame, established in 1986 and managed by the World Wide Radio Operators Foundation, inducts individuals for significant contributions to contesting, such as innovative operating techniques or community support, with ongoing ceremonies honoring lifetime impacts.^[90] These outcomes profoundly shape participant trajectories, as strong results bolster personal rankings on leaderboards like those maintained by ARRL and CQ, often leading to invitations for elite events like WRTC or sponsorship opportunities for plaques. High achievers may also gain visibility for hall of fame nominations, fostering a cycle of motivation and peer recognition that sustains the competitive spirit in amateur radio.^[89]^[90]

Organizations and Controversies

The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) plays a central role in amateur radio contesting through its Contest Branch, which manages the organization's extensive portfolio of contests, including log submissions, score verification, and rule enforcement for events like the ARRL DX Contest and November Sweepstakes.^[91] The branch, led by Contest Program Manager Paul Bourque (N1SFE), also handles plaque sponsorships and club competitions to foster community engagement.^[92] Complementing ARRL efforts, CQ Communications, Inc., publishers of CQ Amateur Radio magazine, sponsors major international contests such as the CQ World Wide DX and CQ WPX series, providing administrative support through affiliated bodies like the World Wide Radio Operators Foundation (WWROF) for plaque programs and event oversight.^[93] The International Amateur Radio Union (IARU) coordinates international contest rules across its regions, particularly for VHF and UHF events, ensuring harmonized band plans and participation guidelines to promote global interoperability.^[94] A prominent global event is the World Radiosport Team Championship (WRTC), held every four years to showcase top contesters on a level playing field with standardized equipment and locations, with the next edition scheduled for July 2026 in East Anglia, United Kingdom.^[95] The WRTC emphasizes ethical competition by requiring adherence to strict operating standards and team qualifications based on prior contest performance, helping to elevate sportsmanship and fair play within the international contesting community.^[89] Contesting faces challenges from band overcrowding and excessive QRM (man-made interference), where high participant volumes during major events saturate frequencies, leading to signal overlap and reduced operability, particularly on HF bands during peak propagation.^[96] Debates persist over assisted versus unassisted categories, with assisted operations allowing real-time spotting networks like the Reverse Beacon Network for QSO finding, while unassisted entries rely solely on the operator's direct listening skills; proponents of unassisted argue it preserves traditional operating prowess, whereas assisted advocates highlight inclusivity for those with hearing limitations or remote setups.^[13] Instances of cheating, including fabricated logs to inflate scores, have undermined trust, prompting sponsors to enhance verification through cross-log checks and digital submission mandates.^[97] To address these issues, contest sponsors have implemented rule updates, such as clarifications in 2022 for assisted categories in events like the CQ World Wide RTTY DX Contest, defining permissible spotting assistance to prevent self-spotting abuse while maintaining category integrity.^[98] The National Contest Journal (NCJ), a key publication for contesters, promotes ethical standards through its endorsed Contesting Code of Ethics, which outlines principles like rule obedience, accurate logging, and respectful operation to guide participants and mitigate disputes.^[99] These measures, including IARU's band coordination, continue to evolve in response to community feedback for sustainable contesting practices.^[42]

References

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Contest Basics - ARRL
The goal of Amateur Radio contesting is to contact as many stations as possible during the contest period. Every contest has Contest Rules.
[2]
GUIDE - Contesting 101 - NORAC
Contesting (also known as radio sport) is a competitive activity pursued by amateur radio operators. In a contest, an amateur radio station, which may be ...
[3]
The history of contesting - Ham Journal
Jul 12, 2024 · The first recorded contest is believed to have been held in 1921, organized by the American Radio Relay League (ARRL). This early contest, known ...
[4]
The History of Amateur Radio: A Timeline - Anytone
Aug 6, 2025 · The first amateur radio contest, known as the Transcontinental Tests, took place in 1921 and marked the beginning of competitive events in ...
[5]
A Brief History of the CQ WW Contest
The modern CQ World Wide DX Contest began in 1948, three years after CQ magazine was first published. Presented here is a brief history of the CQ WW contest.
[6]
WA7BNM Contest Calendar: Home
This site provides detailed information about amateur radio contests throughout the world, including their scheduled dates/times, rules summaries, log ...8-Day · 12-Month · Perpetual · 5-Week
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https://www.wimo.com/en/contesting
[8]
How to Participate in Your First Ham Radio Contest
Discover essential steps and tips for joining your first ham radio contest, from choosing the right event to preparing your equipment and understanding...
[9]
About Ham Radio “Contesting” - WRTC 2014
59 teams of elite contesters from across the globe will assemble in 2014, for a single 24-hour marathon test of skill and will.<|control11|><|separator|>
[10]
Ham Radio Contesting 101: Winning, Losing, and Playing the Game
Jun 11, 2025 · A veteran ham radio contester offers great radio DX'ing and contesting advice to amateur radio operators looking to get into the hobby.
[11]
[PDF] Ham Radio Contesting
What Is Contesting? ❚ Also known as “Radiosport”. ❚ Competitive Amateur Radio Operating. Work As Many Stations As Possible.
[12]
Getting Licensed - ARRL
To earn the Technician license requires passing one examination totaling 35 questions on radio theory, regulations and operating practices.Finding an Amateur Radio Class · Teur-radio-license-exam-session · Exam PracticeMissing: contesting | Show results with:contesting
[13]
Contesting Jargon Explained - Nashua Area Radio Society
Oct 1, 2018 · Single-band contests. The ARRL 10m Contest is an example of a contest where all activity is limited to a single band. In single-band contests, ...
[14]
[PDF] Rules: 2025 North American Sprint (CW/RTTY)
CW: 0000 until 0359 UTC, September 14, 2025. RTTY: 0000 until 0359 UTC, September 21, 2025. These four contests are entirely separate 4-hour Sprints. 5. Mode: ...
[15]
Field Day Rules - ARRL
Entry Categories: Field Day entries are classified according to the maximum number of simultaneously transmitted signals, followed by a designator indicating ...Missing: domestic sprint
[16]
Rules - CQ WW
A. Single Operator Categories: One person (the operator) performs all operating and logging functions. There is no limit on operating time or band changes. Only ...
[17]
Contest Rules - ARRL
The goal of Amateur Radio contesting is to contact as many stations as possible during the contest period. Every contest has Contest Rules.
[18]
ARRL Digital Contest
ARRL Digital Contest. About. Contest Objective: Amateurs worldwide contact and exchange QSO information with other amateurs using any digital mode (excluding ...
[19]
[PDF] Rules for 2025 VHF Fall Sprint Contests
Rules for 2025 VHF Fall Sprint Contests. 1.0 Contest Purpose: Encourage weak signal VHF/UHF amateur radio operation & have fun. 2.0 Contest Time and Date: 1 ...
[20]
https://www.arrl.org/direction-finding
[21]
AMSAT Field Day on the Satellites
The AMSAT Field Day 2025 event is open to all Amateur Radio operators. Amateurs are to use the exchange as specified in ARRL rules for Field Day.
[22]
Ham Radio History - ARRL
In 1914 the American Radio Relay League was founded by Hiram Percy Maxim, who found that messages could be sent more reliably over long distances if relay ...
[23]
History of the National Traffic System - NTS
Beginning in the mid-1920s, as CW began to grow in popularity and more hams gained access to VFOs and multiple crystals, US state or ARRL Section traffic nets — ...Missing: QSO | Show results with:QSO
[24]
15. Amateur Radio After World War One (1919-1925)
Steps were taken to eliminate him, but they were unsuccessful. At the outbreak of the war, the government found thousands of amateurs ready for radio service.<|control11|><|separator|>
[25]
Two Contests | Ham Radio History
Jul 16, 2016 · In the first event, running from 18 through 31 January 1930 (GMT), stations in the US and Canada could work each other and exchange test ...
[26]
ARRL Letter
Feb 11, 2010 · First started in 1929 as the ARRL International Relay Party, the ARRL DX CW contest lays claim to the longest running contest in Amateur Radio.
[27]
ARRL November Sweepstakes Marks 80 Years!
Oct 29, 2013 · Amateur Radio was ordered off the air during World War II, so no Sweepstakes events took place during those years. The CW event is this weekend, ...Missing: 1923 history
[28]
https://www.arrl.org/was
[29]
Regional Conferences | International Amateur Radio Union (IARU)
Aug 20, 2024 · Region 1 Conferences ; 1960, Folkestone, United Kingdom ; 1963, Malmö, Sweden ; 1966, Opatija, Yugoslavia ; 1969, Brussels, Belgium ; 1972 ...
[30]
History of IARU
Jan 27, 2020 · Initially the IARU had individual members. Once there were enough members in a given country to do so, a section of the IARU would be formed.
[31]
DX Cluster - Paul SIMMONDS (VK5PAS)
The first DX cluster software, PacketCluster was realized by US radio amateur Dick Newell, AK1A in the late 1980s, and quickly became popular as a means of ...
[32]
Using the Spotting Net - eHam.net
Dec 18, 2007 · A somewhat touchy subject in Amateur Radio is the use of spotting nets for DX - whether VHF or HF -- and contesting. Many feel that the spotting ...
[33]
Amateur Radio Through the Decades
Jan 27, 2020 · After the war, surplus radio equipment was plentiful and inexpensive. This allowed amateurs to upgrade their stations and for the first time to ...
[34]
https://www.arrl.org/news/contest-entry-features-multiple-operator-locations-and-remote-transmitter-receiver-site
[35]
remote-contesting@groups.io | Topics
Remote Amateur Radio is here to stay, and especially in the contesting world with COVID! Note that this reflector is not moderated, but the rules of groups ...
[36]
Contesting: A Primer - Nashua Area Radio Society
Sep 26, 2018 · Radio contesting is concerned with competitions on the air. Contesting is like a fun run held on a Saturday morning where some people run ...
[37]
[PDF] Propagation Planning for Contests - ARRL
Propagation planning for a contest effort is quite similar to propagation planning for a. DXpedition (the latter work, titled Propagation Planning for ...Missing: forecasting amateur
[38]
NOAA/NASA Panel Concurs that Solar Cycle 25 will Peak in July 2025
Dec 11, 2019 · The panel's consensus calls for a peak in July 2025 (±8 months), with a smoothed sunspot number of 115.
[39]
[PDF] HF-Propagation-The-Rise-of-Solar-Cycle-25.pdf - Contest University
Steadily Increasing Solar Cycle 25 Sunspot Activity the last solar cycle 24 ... levels after an hour or two. Reduced absorption begins at higher.
[40]
Contest Super Simulator - WriteLog
The Contest Super Simulator is a simulation package that extends WriteLog to create a virtual contest in CW, SSB, and RTTY, supporting single and two radio ...Missing: amateur | Show results with:amateur
[41]
HF Contesting Guidelines
This document presents frequently asked questions and answers and additional material about common situations encountered in HF contesting, also known as ...
[42]
Ham Radio Contesting 101: The Contest Station Is Never Done
May 30, 2025 · An expert ham radio contester offers insight and advice for constantly improving your amateur radio station for better performance.
[43]
Understanding a Simple Yet Effective Amateur Radio Station
The Current Station Setup ... The current station consists of several key pieces of equipment: the Yaesu FT-710, the Icom IC-705, and an Acom linear amplifier.
[44]
Contesting Equipment Guide: Small Upgrades that Can Make a Big ...
Oct 25, 2019 · The INRAD W1 and the Heil Pro Set 6 are typical choices for competitive operating. Don't forget to get an adapter for your transceiver's ...
[45]
https://www.onallbands.com/contesting-equipment-guide-small-upgrades-that-can-make-a-difference/
[46]
Getting Started in Ham Radio - West Mountain Radio
1–2 day deliveryFirst, ensure safe power for your ham radio, usually 13.8V DC, with a tolerance of 13.8 +/- 15% (12V-15.87V). Aim for 13.8V DC for best performance.
[47]
How to Layout a 2-Radio Contest Station - mapAbility.com
All antennas for a band come to a single remote coax relay in the shack, which is connected to an amplifier that is tuned only for that band. The inputs to the ...
[48]
The Challenging Life of Urban Hams | Nuts & Volts Magazine
So much less hassle to live in a rural setting to be a Ham Operator. If you earn your license in a city atmosphere, plan on low power operations forever, or ...
[49]
About the Contest – Oceaniadxcontest.com
It is an annual competition between radio amateurs to make contacts on the HF (shortwave) bands, specifically DX (long distance) contacts with stations in ...
[50]
About Contesting - K9CT
Contesting is often combined with a DX-pedition, where amateur radio operators travel to a location where amateur radio activity is infrequent or uncommon.<|separator|>
[51]
https://www.k9ct.us/guest-operations/about-contesting
[52]
Local Antenna Restrictions - ARRL
Amateurs can face three types of antenna restrictions: Local government zoning restrictions; Covenant (also called CC&R and Homeowners Association) ...
[53]
[PDF] Ham Radio Antennas: What Does Federal Law Require of ...
Because amateur station communications are only as effective as the antennas employed, antenna height restrictions directly affect the effectiveness of amateur.
[54]
PRB - 1 (2001) - Federal Communications Commission
Apr 21, 2017 · In the Matter of Modification and Clarification of Policies and Procedures Governing Siting and Maintenance of Amateur Radio Antennas and Support Structures.
[55]
PRB - 1 (1985) - Federal Communications Commission
Apr 20, 2017 · Those rules do not limit the height of an amateur antenna but they require, for aviation safety reasons, that certain FAA notification and FCC ...
[56]
[PDF] Evaluating Compliance with FCC Guidelines for Human Exposure to ...
Applicants for new amateur licenses must demonstrate their knowledge of the FCC Guidelines through the examinations prepared and administered by the volunteer ...Missing: 2023 | Show results with:2023
[57]
[PDF] Federal Communications Commission FCC 25-77
Oct 29, 2025 · Commission's rules: § 22.379 (affirming obligation to comply with RF exposure requirements); §24.52 (same);. § 27.52 (same); § 30.207 (same); ...
[58]
Sweepstakes - ARRL
ARRL November Sweepstakes Contest Objective: To support amateur self-training in radiocommunications, including improving amateur operating skills.Missing: 1923 | Show results with:1923<|separator|>
[59]
HF Contesting - Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) - mapAbility.com
Q. How many digits is the serial number ? A. You should stick with three digits, until your number of contacts exceeds 999. In a CW contest ...
[60]
[PDF] ARRL International DX Contest Rules v 2.0
Contest Exchange - the required exchange consists of: 4.1 Signal report 4.2 Location or Power 4.2. 1 W/VE stations send a signal report and their state or ...
[61]
Rules | NA SSB Sprint Contest
Eligibility: Any Amateur Radio licensee may enter. · Object: For North American stations to contact as many radio amateurs as possible. · Entry Classification: ...
[62]
ICOM IC-7610 ICOM IC-7610 HF/50MHz All Mode Transceivers | DX Engineering
### Description of Icom IC-7610 and Its Use in Contesting
[63]
[PDF] Product Reviews April 2024 ACOM 500S 160-4-Meter Linear Amplifier
The ACOM 500S is a solid-state amplifier delivering 500W from 160-4 meters, easy to operate, compact, and portable, with 25-45W drive.Missing: ham | Show results with:ham
[64]
[PDF] Antennas for Contesters
Antennas for. Contesting – a BIG. Topic! ○ You could spend your entire ham life creating the best antenna farm. ○ Reality – Time, ...<|separator|>
[65]
[PDF] Station Automation Techniques & Recommendations
○ One +13.8V line in control cable selects one antenna port. Ameritron RCS-8V and RCS-10. 8- and 10-port Remote Coax Switches. 35. Page 36. ○ Controlled by a ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[66]
Software Defined Radio - ARRL
Software Defined Radio or SDR is the use of digital signal processing to detect radio signals. While you don't have to know how it works to use it, ...
[67]
More About Antenna Tuners - ARRL
Mar 18, 2021 · Having an elevated SWR between the antenna and the antenna tuner can result in some portion of your power being lost as heat. How much is lost ...Missing: maintenance contesting
[68]
[PDF] Light and Sturdy Quad for 10 and 15 Meters - ARRL
Seal the coax and connections with vinyl electrical tape for weatherproofing. ... With the dimensions given, our antenna has an SWR of less than 1.1 at 21.25 ...
[69]
http://www.arrl.org/more-about-antenna-tuners
[70]
Contest Basics
### Summary of Contest Logging and Related Processes from ARRL Contest Basics
[71]
Win-Test
Win-Test is the new contest logging software written by Olivier F5MZN, the author of Editest (a reference in French contests logging software, now deprecated)Rubrique Downloads · Trial version · Buy Win-Test · Register Win-Test
[72]
DX Summit
The renowned DX Summit by OH8X has been a reliable source of current and historical DX activity on radio for many years.Missing: contesting | Show results with:contesting
[73]
VOACAP Voice of America Coverage Analysis Program
VOACAP is free professional high-frequency (3-30 MHz) propagation prediction software from NTIA / ITS , originally developed for Voice of America (VOA).VOACAP Online for Ham Radio · VOACAP DX Charts · VOACAP Online for 11M
[74]
Single Operator Contesting – N1MM Logger Plus
May 30, 2019 · Single Operator 2 Radio (aka SO2R) is an operating technique that when done properly, can add many extra QSOs and multipliers to your log.Missing: amateur | Show results with:amateur
[75]
Wavelog
Wavelog is a web-based, open-source amateur radio logging software with a web interface, mapping tools, and third-party service support. It is non-commercial.
[76]
HAMLOG - Cloud platform for active amateur radio operators
HAMLOG is a cloud platform for amateur radio operators to log QSOs, track awards, and manage logs from anywhere, and is an all-in-one portal.Missing: remote | Show results with:remote
[77]
Cabrillo Format & Tutorial
### Cabrillo Format Structure and Required QSO Fields
[78]
[PDF] Rules: 2026 North American QSO Party (CW/SSB/RTTY)
Call sign errors (bust) or call signs not in the other log (NIL) are removed and receive a penalty of one QSO point value. Proper logging requires including the ...
[79]
Log-Checking Reports — VHF Contests and Digital Modes - K5ND
Mar 28, 2024 · Log-checking reports needn't be a mystery. Here's how to read one, what it means, and how to turn in a clean log with digital contacts.
[80]
Log checking – Page 3 – CQ WW Blog
The median error rate was 2.7%. This is an amazingly good result when you consider the total number of contacts made during the contest. A few more statistics ...Missing: typical | Show results with:typical
[81]
ARRL Available LCRs - ARRL Contests
May 25, 2023 · Contests - Log Check Reports ... Enter a call sign (call used, operator call or host station call) associated with one or more ARRL contests in ...
[82]
3830 Scores Home
The site's purpose is to make it easier for contesters to share their claimed scores (score rumors) and comments immediately after a contest.Contest Summaries · List Posts · CQ Worldwide DX Contest, SSB · PreferencesMissing: publication | Show results with:publication
[83]
ARRL Contests
Your one-stop shop for all of your ARRL contest interests. From here you can access everything from the starting bell of a contest to your post-event hard- ...ARRL June VHF Contest · ARRL January VHF Contest · ARRL/LIMARC SCR Scores
[84]
2024 ARRL Field Day Results Published
Nov 8, 2024 · Results are available now on the ARRL Field Day website at https://field-day.arrl.org/fdresults.php and in the December issue of QST.
[85]
Plaques and Awards - ARRL
Certificates are now available for download on the new ARRL Contests Portal at contests.arrl.org. Click the "Certificates" tab on the top navigation bar.
[86]
https://www.arrl.org/news/2024-arrl-field-day-results-published
[87]
World Radiosport Team Championship – Official Web Site of WRTC ...
The World Radiosport Team Championship (WRTC) is an on-site ham radio competition held every four years.
[88]
Contest Hall of Fame | World Wide Radio Operators Foundation
The CQ Contest Hall of Fame was established in 1986 to recognize amateurs who have made major contributions to the art of radio competition.
[89]
Contests - ARRL
The ARRL Contests Portal is now your one-stop shop for all of your ARRL contest interests (Log Submission, Logs Received, Raw Scores, Searchable access to ...Contest Rules · Contests · The ARRL Contest Update · ARRL Staff & CAC
[90]
Notes from the ARRL Contest Branch
May 23, 2008 · This blog will cover both HF and VHF+ contests. I hope this will help keep you informed on happenings here at the Contest Branch. As always, I ...
[91]
Contact Us - CQ WPX RTTY
The CQ WPX RTTY Contest is sponsored by CQ Magazine. Visit www.cq-amateur-radio.com for more information. World Wide Radio Operator Foundation logo ...
[92]
VHF & up Contesting | International Amateur Radio Union (IARU)
Contest Rules (Updated 2024) ; Month, Date, Contest name ; April, 19 – 20, IARU Reg. 1 50 MHz MGM Contest ; May, 17 – 18, IARU Reg. 1 70 MHz MGM Contest ; June, 07 ...
[93]
WRTC 2026 UK | World Radiosport Team Championship
WRTC is a radio contest event, designed to provide a platform for high-achieving ham radio contesters to compete on a level playing field in the same geographic ...
[94]
Contesting 101: Dealing with QRM - OnAllBands
Jun 25, 2025 · Learn some tips and techniques for dealing with heavy radio traffic during your next amateur radio contest or DXpedition.Missing: overcrowding controversies
[95]
Getting very serious with ham radio contests - QRZ Forums
Oct 25, 2009 · So it should come as no surprise that amateur radio contests can be subject to cheating too. The issue is gaining greater publicity through the ...Missing: fabricated 2010s
[96]
[PDF] The 2022 CQ World-Wide RTTY DX Contest
Single Operator Assisted: Entrants in this category may use QSO finding assistance (see VIII.2). a. High Power Assisted (All Band or Single Band): Total output ...
[97]
[PDF] The Contesting Code of Ethics, annotated
1. I will learn and obey the rules of any contest I enter, including the rules of my entry category. Many people mistakenly ...Missing: NCJ National Journal