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Directivity

Directivity is a fundamental parameter in physics and engineering that quantifies the concentration of radiated or received power in a preferred direction relative to an isotropic source, with applications in antenna theory, acoustics, and optics. In antenna theory, it measures the concentration of radiated or received electromagnetic power in a preferred direction relative to an isotropic radiator, which would distribute power uniformly in all directions. It is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a particular direction to the average radiation intensity averaged over all directions, mathematically expressed as D(\theta, \phi) = \frac{4\pi U(\theta, \phi)}{P_{\mathrm{rad}}}, where U(\theta, \phi) is the radiation intensity and P_{\mathrm{rad}} is the total radiated power integrated over the sphere.^[1] This parameter is dimensionless and assumes lossless conditions, highlighting the inherent directional selectivity of the antenna's radiation pattern.^[2] Directivity differs from gain, which incorporates the antenna's radiation efficiency \eta by the relation G(\theta, \phi) = \eta D(\theta, \phi), where \eta accounts for ohmic losses and other inefficiencies, typically approaching unity for well-designed antennas.^[1] The maximum directivity D_{\max} occurs along the principal axis and is inversely related to the beam solid angle, approximately D_{\max} \approx \frac{4\pi}{\Omega_A} for narrow beams, where \Omega_A is the solid angle subtended by the main lobe.^[2] For common antennas, such as a short dipole, directivity is 1.5 (or 1.76 dB), while a half-wave dipole achieves about 1.64 (2.15 dB).^[2] By reciprocity, directivity applies equally to transmitting and receiving antennas, linking it to the effective aperture area via A_e = \frac{\lambda^2 D}{4\pi}, where \lambda is the wavelength, which is essential for predicting link budgets in communication systems.^[1] In practice, higher directivity enables longer ranges and reduced interference but requires larger apertures or arrays, influencing designs in radar, satellite communications, and 5G networks.^[3]

Basic Concepts

Definition

Directivity is a key parameter used in fields such as antenna theory and acoustics to measure the degree to which radiated or received energy is concentrated in a particular direction compared to an isotropic distribution. It represents the ratio of the radiation intensity in a specified direction to the average radiation intensity over all directions, assuming the total radiated power remains constant. This metric highlights how effectively a system focuses its energy, with higher directivity indicating greater concentration and thus improved performance in directed applications like communication or sensing. The concept of directivity originated in acoustics, where the term was introduced by Harry F. Olson in his 1940 book Elements of Acoustical Engineering to describe the directional properties of sound sources and receivers, such as microphones and loudspeakers;^[4] it was later extended to electromagnetics in antenna design during the mid-20th century. In antenna contexts, directivity specifically evaluates the pattern of electromagnetic radiation without considering material losses. A critical distinction exists between directivity and gain: directivity pertains solely to the directional shaping of the radiation pattern under ideal, lossless conditions, while gain factors in the antenna's efficiency by multiplying directivity by the radiation efficiency (a value between 0 and 1 that accounts for ohmic and other losses). For example, an isotropic radiator, which emits power uniformly across a sphere, has a directivity of 1 (or 0 dB), serving as the baseline reference for all other patterns.

Mathematical Formulation

The mathematical formulation of directivity establishes it as a measure of how much the radiation intensity in a particular direction exceeds the average intensity over all directions. For an antenna or radiating system, the directivity D(\theta, \phi) at angles \theta and \phi is given by

D(\theta, \phi) = \frac{U(\theta, \phi)}{U_{\text{avg}}},

where U(\theta, \phi) is the radiation intensity in the direction (\theta, \phi), and U_{\text{avg}} is the average radiation intensity.^[5]^[6] The average radiation intensity U_{\text{avg}} is determined by the total radiated power P_{\text{rad}} divided by the total solid angle of a sphere, $4\pi steradians:

U_{\text{avg}} = \frac{P_{\text{rad}}}{4\pi}.

Thus, the directivity can be equivalently expressed as

D(\theta, \phi) = \frac{4\pi U(\theta, \phi)}{P_{\text{rad}}}.[5]

The total radiated power P_{\text{rad}} is obtained by integrating the radiation intensity over the entire sphere:

P_{\text{rad}} = \int_{0}^{2\pi} \int_{0}^{\pi} U(\theta, \phi) \sin \theta \, d\theta \, d\phi.[5]

This integration accounts for the power distribution across all directions, with the \sin \theta \, d\theta \, d\phi element representing the differential solid angle on the spherical surface.^[5] The maximum directivity D_{\max} (often denoted D_0) occurs in the direction of maximum radiation intensity U_{\max}:

D_{\max} = \frac{4\pi U_{\max}}{P_{\text{rad}}}.[5]

Directivity is a dimensionless quantity, representing a ratio normalized to an isotropic radiator, which has a directivity of 1.^[6]

Antenna Applications

Directivity in Single Elements

Directivity in single antenna elements quantifies how much the radiation pattern concentrates power in preferred directions relative to an isotropic radiator, assuming no losses. For standalone elements, directivity depends primarily on the element's geometry and current distribution, without contributions from array interactions. Common examples include wire antennas like dipoles and monopoles, as well as aperture antennas like horns, each exhibiting distinct pattern shapes that determine their directivity values.^[7] The infinitesimal (or short) dipole, modeled as a Hertzian dipole with uniform current along its short length, has a directivity of 1.5 (1.76 dBi). This arises from its doughnut-shaped radiation pattern, with maximum radiation perpendicular to the axis (θ = 90°) and nulls along the axis (θ = 0°, 180°). A half-wave dipole, with length λ/2 and sinusoidal current distribution peaking at the center, achieves a slightly higher directivity of 1.64 (2.15 dBi) due to a more focused pattern in the equatorial plane.^[7]^[8] For a quarter-wave monopole over a perfect ground plane, the directivity doubles to 3.28 (5.16 dBi) compared to the half-wave dipole, as the image principle confines radiation to the upper hemisphere, effectively concentrating power.^[9] Horn antennas, particularly pyramidal types, can reach directivities of 20–30 dBi or higher, scaling with aperture area relative to wavelength (approximately 10 × A_e / λ² for efficient designs), making them suitable for high-gain applications.^[10] Several factors influence the directivity of single elements, including length, shape, and feed point location. For wire dipoles, increasing length beyond λ/2 narrows the beamwidth and boosts directivity, though patterns develop multiple lobes; for instance, a full-wave dipole has directivity around 3.3 (5.2 dBi) but with reduced broadside efficiency. Shape variations, such as tapered or folded designs, alter the current distribution to enhance directivity by suppressing sidelobes. The feed point affects impedance matching and pattern symmetry; center-feeding a dipole maximizes broadside radiation, while off-center feeds can tilt the pattern, modestly increasing directivity in specific directions. These elements assume the general directivity formulation D(θ, φ) = 4π U(θ, φ) / ∫ U(θ, φ) dΩ from basic concepts.^[7]^[11] An example calculation for the short dipole illustrates directivity derivation. The power pattern is proportional to sin²θ, where θ is the angle from the dipole axis. The radiation intensity U(θ) = (3/8π) sin²θ × (total radiated power P_rad / (4π)), normalized such that the maximum U_max = (3/8π) P_rad at θ = 90°. The average intensity U_avg = P_rad / (4π). Thus, directivity D_max = 4π U_max / P_rad = (4π × (3/8π) P_rad) / P_rad = 1.5. This assumes an ideal, lossless element with triangular current approximation for finite short lengths.^[7] Directivity calculations for single elements assume ideal conditions, such as uniform media, negligible ohmic losses, and perfect current distributions, which real implementations approximate but rarely achieve exactly. Minor losses from conductors or dielectrics reduce realized gain below directivity, though for high-quality elements like thin-wire dipoles, the difference is small (efficiency >95%). These limitations highlight that measured directivity may vary slightly from theoretical values due to environmental factors or fabrication tolerances.^[7]

Directivity in Arrays

In antenna arrays, directivity is significantly enhanced compared to single elements through the constructive interference of fields from multiple radiating elements, governed by the array factor that depends on element spacing, number of elements, and progressive phase shifts. For large uniform arrays consisting of identical elements, the total directivity D_{\text{array}} is approximately the product of the number of elements N and the directivity of a single element D_{\text{element}}, i.e., D_{\text{array}} \approx N \cdot D_{\text{element}}, assuming the element patterns are sufficiently broad to not limit the array's beam narrowing.^[5] This enhancement arises from the array factor, which multiplies the individual element pattern to concentrate radiation in preferred directions while suppressing others. The array factor for a uniform linear array of N elements spaced by distance d is given by

\text{AF}(\psi) = \frac{\sin(N \psi / 2)}{\sin(\psi / 2)},

where \psi = k d \cos \theta + \beta is the phase difference between adjacent elements, k = 2\pi / \lambda is the wavenumber, \theta is the observation angle from the array axis, and \beta is the progressive phase excitation.^[5] The maximum value of the array factor occurs when \psi = 0, yielding \text{AF}_{\max} = N, which contributes to the overall directivity by focusing energy. Directivity calculations based on this array factor reveal distinct behaviors for different array configurations; for example, in a broadside array where \beta = 0 and the main beam is perpendicular to the array axis (\theta = 90^\circ), the directivity approximates $2N for typical linear arrays with isotropic elements.^[12] In contrast, an endfire array, with \beta = -k d to direct the beam along the array axis (\theta = 0^\circ), achieves higher directivity up to $4N under optimized conditions like the Hansen-Woodyard criterion, which increases the phase shift to \beta = -(k d + 2.91 / \sqrt{N}) for enhanced forward gain.^[12] However, practical directivity in arrays is often lower than these ideal approximations due to mutual coupling between closely spaced elements, which alters current distributions and impedances, leading to pattern distortions. In dense arrays with element spacings below $0.5\lambda, mutual coupling can reduce the effective directivity by 10-20%, as observed in simulations of linear dielectric resonator arrays where gain (closely related to directivity for low-loss systems) drops by 12-17% in the principal planes due to coupling-induced mismatches.^[13] This effect is particularly pronounced in endfire configurations, where tight spacing exacerbates coupling, necessitating decoupling techniques like parasitic elements or metamaterials to approach theoretical limits.^[14]

Relation to Beamwidth

Directivity exhibits an approximate inverse relationship with the beam solid angle, providing a straightforward method for estimation based on angular coverage. The maximum directivity D_{\max} of an antenna is given by the approximation D_{\max} \approx \frac{4\pi}{\Omega_A}, where \Omega_A is the beam solid angle in steradians, representing the angular region over which the antenna's radiation is effectively concentrated. This relation arises because directivity measures how much the radiation intensity in the maximum direction exceeds that of an isotropic radiator, normalized by the total solid angle of $4\pi steradians. For antennas featuring rectangular or separable beam patterns in the principal planes—common in array configurations—a more practical empirical formula applies: D \approx \frac{41{,}253}{\theta_{\mathrm{HP}} \cdot \phi_{\mathrm{HP}}}, where \theta_{\mathrm{HP}} and \phi_{\mathrm{HP}} are the half-power beamwidths (HPBW) in degrees along the respective planes.^[15] This approximation assumes a uniform distribution within the main beam and negligible contributions from sidelobes, facilitating quick estimates without full pattern integration. The accuracy of these approximations holds best for high-directivity antennas, such as large reflectors or horns with pencil-like beams and low sidelobe levels, where the main beam dominates the solid angle.^[7] For broader beams or patterns with significant sidelobes, deviations can occur, with errors reaching up to 20% due to unaccounted radiation outside the main lobe.^[7] As an illustrative example, a parabolic dish antenna with a 1° HPBW in both principal planes yields an approximate directivity of D \approx 41{,}000, highlighting the high focusing capability of narrow-beam designs in applications like satellite communications.^[15]

Measurement and Expression

Directivity in Decibels

Directivity is frequently expressed in decibels within antenna engineering to simplify comparisons, specifications, and logarithmic manipulations in design processes. This logarithmic representation accommodates the broad dynamic range of directivity values, from near 1 for omnidirectional antennas to over 50 for highly focused systems, enabling additive handling of gains in cascaded systems and clearer visualization in data sheets.^[16] The standard formula for converting linear directivity D to decibels is

D_{\mathrm{dB}} = 10 \log_{10} D,

where the result is typically denoted in dBi, indicating reference to an isotropic radiator with unity directivity (0 dBi). This unit quantifies how much more power is concentrated in the maximum direction compared to an ideal isotropic source.^[17] An alternative convention, dBd, expresses directivity relative to a half-wave dipole, which itself has a directivity of 2.15 dBi; thus, the conversion follows \mathrm{dBi} = \mathrm{dBd} + 2.15. In antenna specifications, dBi is the predominant unit for directivity, facilitating standardized performance evaluations. For example, a typical multi-element Yagi-Uda antenna exhibits a directivity of 10 to 15 dBi, balancing compactness with directional enhancement for applications like television reception or wireless links.^[18] To illustrate conversion, a linear directivity of 100 equates to 20 dBi, as $10 \log_{10} 100 = 20, highlighting how the decibel scale exponentially scales perceived performance.^[17]

Measurement Techniques

The primary method for measuring antenna directivity involves far-field pattern measurements in an anechoic chamber, where the antenna under test (AUT) is positioned on a rotating mount to capture the radiation intensity across multiple angles. A known input power is applied to the AUT, and the received power is recorded by a probe antenna or receiver at various azimuthal and elevation angles, forming a complete spherical power pattern. The total radiated power P_{\text{rad}} is obtained by numerically integrating the pattern over the full $4\pi steradians, while the maximum radiation intensity U_{\max} is identified from the pattern peak; directivity is then computed as D = \frac{4\pi U_{\max}}{P_{\text{rad}}}.^[19]^[20] For larger antennas where traditional far-field distances exceed practical chamber sizes, compact antenna test ranges (CATRs) simulate far-field conditions using a parabolic reflector illuminated by a feed horn to generate a quasi-plane wave over a quiet zone, typically 1-3 meters in diameter. The AUT is placed in this zone, and pattern measurements proceed similarly to the anechoic chamber method, enabling direct computation of directivity from the integrated power pattern without extrapolation. CATRs are particularly effective for high-directivity antennas operating from microwave to millimeter-wave frequencies, reducing required test distances to as little as 10-20 wavelengths.^[21]^[22] Measurement accuracy is influenced by several error sources, including ohmic losses in the AUT and feed system, which reduce effective radiated power if not calibrated, and near-field effects such as multipath or truncation errors if the measurement distance is insufficient. Corrections involve precise calibration of the range, accounting for probe polarization mismatch, and applying uncertainty budgets; the IEEE Std 149-2021 provides detailed guidelines for these, updating the 1979 standard with modern error analysis for ranges including anechoic chambers and CATRs.^[23] An alternative approach derives directivity from measured gain and radiation efficiency, using the relation D = \frac{G}{\eta}, where gain is obtained via the two-antenna or three-antenna method in a controlled range, and efficiency is assessed separately (e.g., via calorimetric or Wheeler cap techniques); however, pattern integration remains the direct and preferred method for directivity validation.

Polarization Considerations

Partial Directivity

Partial directivity quantifies the directional concentration of radiation for specific polarization components of an antenna's field, addressing scenarios where the transmitted or received wave may not align perfectly with the antenna's nominal polarization. In spherical coordinates, the partial directivities for the orthogonal θ- and φ-components are defined as

D_{\theta}(\theta, \phi) = \frac{4\pi U_{\theta}(\theta, \phi)}{P_{\mathrm{rad}}}

D_{\phi}(\theta, \phi) = \frac{4\pi U_{\phi}(\theta, \phi)}{P_{\mathrm{rad}}}

where U_{\theta}(\theta, \phi) and U_{\phi}(\theta, \phi) represent the radiation intensities attributable to each polarization component, and P_{\mathrm{rad}} is the total power radiated by the antenna over all directions.^[24] This formulation isolates the contribution of each vector field component, enabling analysis of polarization-specific performance independent of losses.^[7] The total directivity in a given direction satisfies D(\theta, \phi) \leq D_{\theta}(\theta, \phi) + D_{\phi}(\theta, \phi), with equality achieved when the polarization components are orthogonal, as is the case for the standard θ- and φ-basis in antenna patterns.^[24] This relation highlights how cross-polarization components can limit the effective directional focus compared to the sum of isolated partial directivities, particularly when the basis polarizations are not mutually orthogonal. In linearly polarized antennas, such as a vertical dipole, the partial directivity for the dominant θ-component significantly exceeds that of the φ-component, often by orders of magnitude in the principal plane, reflecting the antenna's intended polarization.^[7] However, the presence of cross-polarization—arising from imperfections like manufacturing tolerances or environmental effects—introduces a non-negligible φ-component, which reduces the effective directivity for a receiver matched to the co-polarization, as only the matching partial contributes meaningfully to the link. Partial directivity is particularly important in satellite communication systems, where polarization purity helps minimize mismatch losses that can degrade signal strength by up to 3 dB for 90° misalignments. High partial directivity in the desired polarization ensures robust links despite rotational variations between ground stations and satellites.

Partial Directive Gain

The partial directive gain extends the concept of partial directivity by incorporating the antenna's input power and efficiency, providing a measure of the directional radiation intensity for a specific polarization component that accounts for losses.^[5] It is defined for the θ- or φ-polarization components in a given direction (θ, φ) as the ratio of the corresponding radiation intensity to the isotropic radiation intensity derived from the total input power.^[5] The formula is

G_{\theta,\phi}(\theta, \phi) = \frac{4\pi \, U_{\theta,\phi}(\theta, \phi)}{P_\mathrm{in}}

where U_{\theta,\phi}(\theta, \phi) is the radiation intensity for the specified polarization component, and P_\mathrm{in} is the power accepted at the antenna input.^[5] In contrast to partial directivity, which uses the total radiated power P_\mathrm{rad} in the denominator and thus reflects only the pattern shape independent of losses, partial directive gain is scaled by the radiation efficiency \eta = P_\mathrm{rad} / P_\mathrm{in}, making it suitable for practical assessments that include dissipative effects.^[5] This scaling yields the direct relation G_{\theta,\phi} = \eta \, D_{\theta,\phi}, where D_{\theta,\phi} is the partial directivity for the same component.^[5] Partial directive gain finds application in antennas employing polarization diversity, such as dual-polarization MIMO systems, to enhance capacity and reliability in multipath environments.

Partial Gain

Partial gain represents the realized performance metric for an antenna in a specific direction (\theta, \phi) and polarization component, incorporating directivity, radiation efficiency, and the effects of impedance mismatch. It is defined as

g_{\theta,\phi} = \frac{4\pi u_{\theta,\phi}}{P_\text{accepted}},

where u_{\theta,\phi} is the radiation intensity associated with the given polarization in that direction, and P_\text{accepted} is the power accepted at the antenna terminals after accounting for mismatch losses. This formulation ensures that partial gain reflects the actual power conversion efficiency for the polarization-matched component, distinguishing it from pure directivity measures by including ohmic and reflection losses. The relationship between partial gain and fundamental antenna parameters extends the scalar form for total gain, expressed as g = \eta D, where \eta is the radiation efficiency (ratio of radiated to accepted power), D is the directivity. For partial components, this becomes g_{\theta,\phi} = \eta D_{\theta,\phi}, isolating the contribution of the \theta- or \phi-polarized field while applying the same efficiency factors across the pattern.^[7] In practical wireless systems, partial gains are essential for accurate link budget calculations, as they quantify the effective radiated power for specific polarizations in the presence of losses and mismatches, directly impacting signal strength and coverage. For instance, in circularly polarized antennas used for satellite or GPS applications, the partial gain for the co-polarized sense (e.g., right-hand circular polarization) can exceed 10 dBic, while the cross-polarized component remains below 0 dBic, minimizing interference but requiring precise alignment to maximize performance.

Applications in Other Fields

Acoustics

In acoustics, directivity describes the extent to which a sound source or receiver, such as a loudspeaker or microphone, concentrates acoustic energy in preferred directions rather than radiating or capturing it uniformly. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity in a particular direction to the average intensity over all directions on an enclosing sphere, expressed as D = \frac{I_{\max}}{I_{\mathrm{avg}}}, where I denotes acoustic intensity.^[25] For an omnidirectional monopole source, which emits sound equally in all directions like a small pulsating sphere, the directivity is D = 1, corresponding to no directional preference.^[26] Practical examples illustrate this concept in audio devices. A cardioid microphone, valued for its heart-shaped sensitivity pattern that prioritizes frontal sound while attenuating rear incidence, typically achieves a directivity of approximately 4, enhancing signal-to-noise ratio in noisy environments.^[27] Similarly, loudspeaker arrays configured as line sources, such as those used in concert halls, exhibit directivity approximated by D \approx \frac{2L}{\lambda}, where L is the array length and \lambda is the wavelength; this allows narrower vertical dispersion and improved coverage control at lower frequencies.^[28] The directivity index, defined as \mathrm{DI} = 10 \log_{10} D in decibels, quantifies this effect on a logarithmic scale and is essential in room acoustics for predicting the direct sound field's dominance over reverberation.^[29] For instance, an omnidirectional source has \mathrm{DI} = 0 dB, while a cardioid microphone yields about 6 dB, emphasizing forward energy.^[30] Acoustic directivity differs from idealized free-field scenarios, where sound follows spherical spreading in three dimensions, due to near-field effects and enclosure boundaries that introduce reflections and alter propagation. These considerations were central to early advancements in the 1930s by Harry F. Olson, who utilized directivity principles to design pioneering directional microphones and arrays for broadcasting and public address systems.^[31]

Optics and Photonics

In optics and photonics, directivity quantifies the concentration of light in a particular direction for beams and devices, playing a key role in applications requiring minimal divergence, such as laser systems and fiber coupling. For an ideal Gaussian beam, the directivity is given by the formula D = 8 \left( \frac{\pi w_0}{\lambda} \right)^2, where w_0 is the beam waist radius and \lambda is the wavelength. This expression arises from the beam's far-field divergence half-angle \theta = \frac{\lambda}{\pi w_0} and the Gaussian-specific beam solid angle \Omega = \frac{\pi \theta^2}{2}, yielding D = \frac{4\pi}{\Omega}.^[32]^[33] Photonic devices exhibit varying directivity based on their emission mechanism and diffraction-limited performance. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) typically have low directivity, ranging from 1 to 10, due to their broad emission patterns from spontaneous emission, resulting in large beam angles (often 60–120 degrees). In contrast, laser diodes achieve high directivity exceeding 1000, approaching the diffraction limit through stimulated emission, which produces a coherent, collimated beam with divergence angles as small as a few milliradians. This difference stems from the fundamental physics of the devices, with lasers confined by optical feedback in a cavity to enhance spatial coherence and directionality.^[34] The effective directivity of real beams is influenced by the beam quality factor M^2, which measures deviation from an ideal Gaussian profile (M^2 = 1 for perfect Gaussian). For non-ideal beams, the effective directivity is D_\text{eff} = \frac{D_\text{ideal}}{M^4}, as imperfect beams exhibit increased divergence proportional to M^2 in both near- and far-field regions, reducing overall directionality by the fourth power. This factor is crucial in high-power laser systems, where M^2 values above 1 (e.g., multimode lasers with M^2 > 10) significantly degrade performance compared to single-mode lasers. Seminal work on M^2 emphasizes its role in quantifying propagation invariance and brightness conservation. High directivity is essential for efficient coupling of light into optical fibers, where low divergence minimizes losses from beam spread and misalignment. In fiber optics, laser sources with directivity >1000 enable coupling efficiencies up to 80–90% into single-mode fibers by matching the beam waist to the fiber mode field diameter, reducing the need for complex optics. This is particularly important in telecommunications and sensing, where even small divergence increases can lead to substantial power penalties over long distances; for instance, diode lasers with optimized directivity achieve superior coupling compared to broader LED sources.^[35]

References

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antenna directivity, D(f,T,I), which is the ratio of power actually transmitted in a particular. direction to that which would be transmitted had the power PTR ...
[2]
Antenna Directivity and Effective Area - Richard Fitzpatrick
The directivity or gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the maximum value of the power radiated per unit solid angle to the average power radiated per ...
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None
### Summary of Directivity, Directive Gain, and Related Terms from Antenna Fundamentals Presentation
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None
Below is a merged summary of the directivity definition and mathematical formulas from Chapter 2 of Balanis' *Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design* (3rd Edition). To retain all information in a dense and organized manner, I will use a combination of text and a table in CSV format to capture the details from all provided summaries. The response consolidates definitions, formulas, total power integration methods, and useful URLs while avoiding redundancy and ensuring completeness.
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Jun 1, 2012 · NOTE—For planar apertures, the standard directivity is calculated by using the projected area of the actual antenna in a plane transverse to the ...
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Usually, this term is applied to antennas whose directivity is much higher than that of a half-wavelength dipole.
[7]
Half-Wave Dipole Antenna
The directivity of a half-wave dipole antenna is 1.64 (2.15 dB). The HPBW is 78 degrees. In viewing the impedance as a function of the dipole length in the ...
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[PDF] Image Theory / Monopoles
Example: A λ/4 monopole has a directivity of D = 2 × 1.64 = 3.28. In dB, it has 5.15 dBi of directivity (2.15 dBi + 3 dB). [1] W. L. Stutzman and G. A. Theile, ...
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Hence, we expect the half-wave dipole to exhibit slightly more directivity than its Hertzian counterpart. m = 36.5640I2 m. which is a useful operating point ...
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Introduction. Usually the radiation patterns of single-element antennas are relatively wide,. i.e., they have relatively low directivity.
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### Summary of Directivity Factor and Index in Acoustics
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