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Conus textile

Conus textile, commonly known as the textile cone or cloth of gold cone, is a venomous species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Conidae.^[1] It is characterized by a glossy, heavy shell typically 9–10 cm in length, with a maximum of 15 cm, featuring a moderately high spire with a pointed apex, straight or slightly concave sides, and a distinctive pattern of white or bluish-white background overlaid with irregular brown or yellowish bands and triangular markings, resembling fine textile weave.^[1]^[2] This species inhabits shallow, sandy or rubbly bottoms under rocks, coral slabs, and boulders in the lower intertidal and subtidal zones, primarily in the Indo-Pacific region from the Red Sea and eastern Africa through the Indian Ocean to Australia, Japan, Hawaii, and French Polynesia.^[1]^[2]^[3] As a molluscivore, C. textile preys on other gastropods and bivalves, employing a harpoon-like radular tooth to inject venom that rapidly immobilizes its targets; it exhibits cannibalistic behavior when prey is scarce.^[2] The venom, composed of a complex cocktail of peptide toxins known as conotoxins, is among the most potent of cone snails and poses a significant risk to humans, with envenomations causing severe pain, paralysis, and potentially fatal respiratory failure if untreated.^[2]^[1] Despite this danger, conotoxins from C. textile have garnered attention in medical research for their potential as analgesics and tools to study ion channels, with specific components like cono-RFamide targeting acid-sensing ion channels and others demonstrating pain-relieving effects in experimental models.^[4]^[5] Currently assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List (as of 2011) due to its wide distribution and lack of major threats, C. textile reproduces by laying egg capsules containing 500–700 eggs under rocks, with veliger larvae spending about 16 days in the plankton before settling.^[3] However, localized collection for shells and curios may impact populations in accessible areas, underscoring the need for caution in handling live specimens.^[1]^[2]

Taxonomy

Synonyms

The species Conus textile was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae (10th edition), establishing the binomial name based on specimens from the Indo-Pacific region.^[6]^[7] Over the subsequent centuries, numerous synonyms were proposed, largely owing to the pronounced intraspecific variation in shell coloration, patterning, and sculpture, which early malacologists interpreted as distinct taxa or regional forms.^[6] Taxonomic revisions, drawing on detailed comparative morphology and, more recently, molecular analyses, have consolidated these names under C. textile by demonstrating that the differences represent phenotypic plasticity rather than species-level divergence.^[6]^[8] Key historical synonyms, including junior subjective synonyms and alternative representations, are listed below, with attribution to their original descriptions and notes on the basis for synonymy where documented in authoritative catalogs.^[6]^[9]

Conus (Cylinder) textile Linnaeus, 1758: Alternative representation incorporating the subgenus Cylinder Montfort, 1810, reflecting early subgeneric groupings based on shell shape; accepted as the valid name without the parenthetical subgenus in modern usage.^[6]^[10]
Conus communis Swainson, 1840: Described from Indo-Pacific material showing uniform patterning; later reclassified as a synonym upon recognition of shared radular and anatomical features with C. textile.^[6]^[11]
Conus corbula G. B. Sowerby II, 1858: Based on small, reticulated shells; determined to be a junior subjective synonym through comparative studies of type material revealing no diagnostic differences.^[6]
Conus dilectus A. A. Gould, 1850: Erected for variants with fine lattice patterns; synonymized following revisions that attributed variations to environmental influences rather than taxonomic distinction.^[6]
Conus cholmondeleyi Melvill, 1900: Named for specimens with bold, interwoven markings from the Indian Ocean; accepted as a junior subjective synonym after morphological reexamination showed conspecificity.^[6]^[12]
Conus estellae T. Cossignani, 2020: Recent proposal for color variants; rapidly synonymized as infraspecific based on genetic and shell data aligning with C. textile.^[6]
Conus vezzarochristophei T. Cossignani, 2018: Described from patterned forms; classified as a junior subjective synonym due to insufficient differentiating traits.^[6]
Darioconus osullivani Iredale, 1931: Australian variant with subdued colors; synonymized upon broader phylogenetic assessments.^[6]
Darioconus textilis osullivani Iredale, 1931: Subspecific name for the same material; treated equivalently as a synonym.^[6]

Additional infraspecific forms and unavailable names, such as Cylinder textile f. duofasciata Bozzetti, 2016 and Conus textile f. vezzaroi T. Cossignani, 2015, have been proposed but lack nomenclatural validity under ICZN rules and are not considered formal synonyms.^[6] Comprehensive catalogs, including those by Tucker and Tenorio, emphasize that these synonymies clarify the literature and prevent misidentification in conchological studies.

Subspecies

The recognized subspecies of Conus textile include C. t. neovicarius and C. t. vaulberti, in addition to the nominotypical subspecies C. t. textile. These taxa are distinguished primarily by geographic isolation and subtle variations in shell coloration and patterning, reflecting local adaptations within the broader Indo-Pacific distribution of the species.^[6] C. t. neovicarius was described in 1982 by A. J. da Motta from specimens collected in the Red Sea, particularly around the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Aden. This subspecies exhibits shell pattern variations, such as more pronounced tented markings and finer reticulations compared to typical C. textile forms, often resulting in a denser, more intricate mosaic-like appearance on a white to pale ground.^[13]^[14] C. t. vaulberti was described in 2012 by F. Lorenz from material originating in Mauritius, where it is endemic. It features distinct shell patterns with bolder, script-like axial lines and reduced tenting, setting it apart from mainland Indian Ocean populations of C. textile. This subspecies was previously considered a form akin to C. textile f. scriptus.^[15] Other names proposed as subspecies, such as C. t. dahlakensis (also described by da Motta in 1982 from the Dahlak Archipelago in the Red Sea), have been reclassified as synonyms of the nominotypical C. textile due to insufficient diagnostic differences.^[6]

Physical Description

Shell Characteristics

The shell of Conus textile is elongated and conical, characterized by a narrow aperture and a rounded shoulder, with a moderately high spire ending in a pointed apex.^[6] The body whorl is convex, featuring straight or slightly concave sides and a short spine, resulting in a heavy, highly glossy surface.^[2] Adult shells typically measure 9 to 10 cm in length, with maximum sizes reaching up to 15 cm.^[2]^[6]^[16] The coloration and patterning are distinctive, with a background of yellowish-brown or white overlaid by intricate brown or black zigzag lines that form lattice-like bands composed of white triangular and parallelogram spaces.^[2] The aperture is white, providing a stark contrast to the ornate exterior.^[2] These patterns, generated by pigmentation deposited by the mantle during shell growth, exhibit high variability in intensity and hue, ranging from light brown reticulations on pale grounds to darker, more pronounced markings.^[2]^[17] Across populations in the Indo-Pacific, shell variations include differences in pattern density and color tones, reflecting morphological diversity.^[2]^[17] Growth occurs through incremental accretion at the aperture, preserving the conical profile while allowing the diagnostic textile-like motifs to develop spirally from the protoconch onward.^[17] This intricate shell design aids in camouflage among coral rubble and sandy substrates in shallow habitats.^[2]

Soft Body Features

The soft body of Conus textile, a predatory marine gastropod, exhibits specialized anatomical features adapted for envenomating prey and navigating coral reef habitats. These structures include a modified radular apparatus, an extensive venom production system, a muscular foot for locomotion, an extensible siphon and proboscis for sensory and capture functions, and various sensory organs that enhance prey detection and environmental awareness.^[18] The radula of C. textile is highly modified, consisting of a ribbon-like structure within a radular sac that houses hollow, barbed teeth functioning as harpoon-like projectiles up to 10 mm in length. These teeth, numbering approximately 29 in the short arm and 46 in the long arm of the sac, are propelled by rapid muscular contractions to penetrate prey and deliver venom, enabling efficient predation on mollusks and fish.^[18] Adjacent to the radular system, the venom gland forms an elongated, convoluted duct running along the esophagus, connected to the pharynx via a muscular bulb that facilitates toxin expulsion. This gland synthesizes a complex mixture of conotoxins and enzymes tailored for prey immobilization, with proteomic analyses revealing diverse peptide components that underscore its role in rapid envenomation.^[18]^[19] The foot is a broad, muscular organ that supports crawling across substrates and burrowing into sand during diurnal rest, while also aiding nocturnal prey pursuit; it extends from the shell aperture to facilitate movement and stability. Complementing this, the siphon—an extension of the mantle—serves dual roles in respiration and chemosensation through its embedded osphradium, which filters water to detect chemical cues from potential prey. The extensible proboscis, a tubular extension of the mouth, deploys the radular tooth and envelops captured prey for ingestion, integrating seamlessly with the venom delivery system.^[18] Sensory capabilities in C. textile are mediated by paired tentacles bearing eyes positioned midway along their length, which detect light gradients for orientation, and chemosensory structures including the osphradium and tentacular receptors that perceive dissolved chemicals in the water column. These adaptations collectively support the snail's ambush predation strategy by enabling precise localization of prey in low-visibility environments.^[20]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

Conus textile is widely distributed across the Indo-Pacific region, encompassing the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean from eastern Africa, and extending eastward to French Polynesia, including Hawaii. Its range also reaches northward to Japan and southward to Australia.^[21]^[2] This broad distribution reflects the species' adaptation to tropical and subtropical marine environments, with records confirming its presence in diverse locales such as the Mascarene Basin and the tropical waters off Tanzania.^[1] In Australia, C. textile primarily inhabits coastal waters from Queensland southward to New South Wales, where it has been documented as far south as the Solitary Islands off Coffs Harbour. Recent observations indicate a southern expansion within this range, attributed to warming ocean temperatures; for instance, sightings in northern New South Wales increased notably in 2024, with marine experts reporting heightened encounters along the east coast.^[22]^[23] Such shifts align with broader climate-driven changes in species distributions, though specific projections for C. textile suggest potential contractions in Southeast Asia and Micronesia by 2050 under various warming scenarios.^[24] The species occupies shallow benthic habitats, typically from intertidal zones to depths of up to 10 meters, often under boulders or coral slabs in sandy or rubble substrates.^[3]

Environmental Preferences

Conus textile inhabits a variety of shallow marine environments in the Indo-Pacific region, including intertidal and subtidal zones characterized by clean sand, rubble, and coral structures.^[3]^[21] Individuals are commonly found buried in sand or concealed under stones, coral slabs, and rocks during the day, providing protection from predators and environmental stressors.^[2]^[21] These snails prefer coral reef habitats and rocky shorelines with intertidal rock pools, where they can access suitable substrates for shelter and foraging.^[25]^[21] The species thrives in tropical to subtropical waters, typically at depths ranging from 0 to 10 meters, in benthic environments with sandy or rubble bottoms that support their burrowing behavior.^[3]^[2] Water temperatures in their preferred range average 28.3°C, with tolerances extending from 23.9°C to 29.3°C, reflecting adaptation to warm, stable marine conditions.^[3] As fully marine organisms, they inhabit environments with typical seawater salinity levels around 35 ppt, though their intertidal presence suggests some resilience to minor fluctuations in salinity and temperature associated with tidal cycles.^[21]^[3] Conus textile exhibits nocturnal activity patterns, remaining sheltered during daylight hours and emerging at night to hunt, which aligns with reduced visibility and lower predation risk in their shallow habitats.^[3]^[25] This behavior enhances their survival in dynamic coastal ecosystems where diurnal exposure could increase vulnerability.^[21]

Biology and Ecology

Life Cycle

Conus textile reproduces through internal fertilization, with minimal sexual dimorphism between males and females, as the sexes are separate but morphologically similar.^[26] Females deposit egg capsules on hard substrates such as rocks or coral in shallow, protected reef environments, often in clusters to maximize survival against predation and environmental stress. Each capsule typically contains 500 to 700 eggs, providing a substantial investment in offspring despite high mortality rates during early development.^[2] The eggs undergo intracapsular development, incubating for 16 to 17 days before hatching into veliger larvae.^[2]^[27] This period allows the embryos to develop protected within the tough, gelatinous capsules, which are anchored by stalks to prevent dislodgement by currents. Hatching occurs when the larvae actively bore through the capsule walls using their radulae, emerging as free-swimming planktonic veligers.^[27] Post-hatching, the veliger larvae enter a dispersive planktonic phase lasting approximately 16 days, during which they feed on phytoplankton and drift with ocean currents to facilitate wide distribution across Indo-Pacific reefs.^[2]^[27] Settlement follows when competent larvae detect suitable benthic cues, metamorphosing into juveniles measuring about 1.5 mm in shell length.^[27] Juveniles grow rapidly in shallow habitats, reaching sexual maturity in 1 to 2 years at a shell length of around 50 mm, with an estimated lifespan of 5 to 10 years under optimal conditions.^[26]^[2]

Feeding Mechanisms

Conus textile is a molluscivorous predator, targeting marine snails such as species in the genus Nassarius (typically under 30 mm in length).^[28]^[26] As an ambush predator, it remains buried in sand or sediment during the day and becomes active at night in shallow coastal waters, using its siphon to detect chemical cues from nearby prey.^[26]^[29] To capture prey, C. textile rapidly extends its highly distensible proboscis, hydraulically propelling a barbed, hollow radular tooth (resembling a harpoon) into the target.^[28] This tooth serves as a conduit for injecting venom, which rapidly paralyzes the prey by disrupting its nervous system; observations show that multiple successive stings (up to four) are common, with early injections slowing movement and later ones ensuring full immobilization.^[28] The venom's paralytic effects allow the snail to subdue even defensive molluscs without physical struggle. It exhibits cannibalistic behavior when prey is scarce.^[28]^[2] Once paralyzed, the prey is engulfed whole through the snail's expandable mouth and proboscis, with no chewing involved, as C. textile lacks functional jaws for mastication.^[26] Digestion begins externally via venom components that initiate tissue breakdown, followed by internal processing in the esophagus and stomach, where enzymes further decompose the soft body while the shell is typically regurgitated.^[30] This efficient mechanism enables C. textile to consume prey with shell volumes approaching 85% of its own shell capacity, supporting its survival in nutrient-variable shallow habitats.^[30]

Venom and Human Relevance

Venom Composition

The venom of Conus textile is composed of a highly diverse cocktail of small, disulfide-rich peptides known as conotoxins, which primarily target ion channels and receptors to immobilize prey. These conotoxins include analogs of RFamide neuropeptides, such as the cono-RFamide RPRFamide, which modulates acid-sensing ion channel 3 (ASIC3) activity.^[4]^[31] Specific classes of conotoxins in C. textile venom encompass alpha-conotoxins, which antagonize nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, and omega-conotoxins, which inhibit voltage-gated calcium channels, among others.^[32] More than 1,000 distinct conotoxins have been characterized in its venom, reflecting an extraordinary level of molecular diversity.^[33] These peptides are biosynthesized as prepropeptides in the venom gland, where they undergo proteolytic processing and post-translational modifications to achieve their bioactive forms. The complexity of this venom arsenal stems from evolutionary gene recruitment mechanisms, as demonstrated by 2025 genomic analyses of C. textile, which reveal how ancestral neuropeptide genes were co-opted into the venom repertoire and neofunctionalized into "doppelgänger" toxins with enhanced predatory efficacy. Evolutionarily, the venom of C. textile—a molluscivorous species—has adapted to subdue gastropod prey through specialized conotoxins, such as the χ-conotoxins, which represent an innovation countering mollusk defensive mechanisms like mucus secretion and shell closure; this specialization renders the venom less effective against fish prey compared to that of piscivorous Conus species.^[34]^[35]

Medical Applications

The venom of Conus textile contains conotoxins that have shown potential as scaffolds for developing non-opioid analgesics, targeting ion channels to block pain signals without the addictive risks associated with traditional opioids. This approach draws parallels to ziconotide, an FDA-approved peptide derived from the venom of Conus magus, which selectively inhibits N-type calcium channels to manage severe chronic pain. Studies on C. textile venom from the Persian Gulf have demonstrated significant analgesic effects in animal models, reducing pain responses through conotoxin-mediated inhibition of neurotransmitter release.^[36]^[5] In cancer research, crude venom extracts from C. textile exhibit selective cytotoxicity against U87MG human glioma cells by targeting mitochondria and inducing apoptosis via intrinsic pathways, sparing non-cancerous human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells. Recent investigations, including 2025 analyses, highlight how venom components disrupt mitochondrial membrane potential and elevate reactive oxygen species in glioma cells, positioning them as candidates for glioblastoma therapeutics. These findings underscore the venom's potential to overcome chemotherapy resistance in brain tumors through targeted cellular mechanisms.^[37]^[38] Neurological applications of C. textile conotoxins focus on their role as ion channel modulators, with potential for treating conditions like epilepsy and Alzheimer's disease by precisely regulating neuronal excitability. A 2025 genomic study revealed "doppelgänger" toxins in C. textile, derived from neuropeptide genes that have been co-opted into venom production, offering novel scaffolds for modulating receptors implicated in neurodegenerative disorders. These peptides' high specificity for ligand-gated ion channels could enable therapies that stabilize synaptic function without broad off-target effects.^[39]^[40] Currently, all medical applications of C. textile venom remain in preclinical stages, with no drugs specifically derived from this species approved for clinical use, though ongoing research highlights its promise for drug discovery in pain, oncology, and neurology.^[41]

Risks to Humans

Conus textile poses significant risks to humans through its venomous sting, delivered via a harpoon-like tooth from its radula, which can penetrate skin and inject potent conotoxins.^[42] Although capable of causing severe envenomation, no verified human fatalities have been attributed specifically to C. textile in comprehensive reviews of cases from 1670 to 2017, contrasting with the 36 total deaths recorded across all Conus species, predominantly from C. geographus.^[43] As reviewed in 2016, 36 human deaths have been reported globally from cone snail envenomations, highlighting the genus's overall hazard.^[44] Envenomation symptoms from C. textile typically begin with intense local pain, swelling, and numbness at the sting site, often described as a burning sensation.^[43] Systemic effects may include blurred vision, lightheadedness, chest pain, difficulty breathing, headache persisting up to two weeks, and numbness or stiffness lasting about one week; in severe cases, these can progress to muscle paralysis and respiratory distress if multiple stings occur.^[43]^[42] Incidents primarily involve shell collectors, divers, or aquarium enthusiasts who handle live specimens, as C. textile can be aggressive when threatened or removed from its habitat.^[42] Unlike more predatory piscivorous species, C. textile—a molluscivore—is generally less aggressive toward humans but remains hazardous due to its defensive stinging behavior.^[43] First aid for C. textile envenomation emphasizes immobilizing the affected limb with a pressure bandage to slow venom spread, followed by immediate transport to a medical facility for supportive care, including pain management and monitoring for respiratory failure.^[42] Hot water immersion (40–50°C) may alleviate local pain, though evidence is anecdotal; no specific antivenom exists, and treatment relies on mechanical ventilation if paralysis develops.^[42] Prevention involves avoiding handling live cone snails, particularly in Indo-Pacific regions where C. textile is common.^[43]

Conservation

Status and Threats

Conus textile is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List (assessed 28 October 2011, published 2013), based on a comprehensive assessment of all 632 valid Conus species at that time, with no subsequent reassessment reported as of November 2025; the entry notes that it needs updating. This status reflects the species' extensive Indo-Pacific distribution, which spans from the Red Sea and East Africa to the central Pacific, providing resilience against localized pressures. Primary threats to C. textile include habitat degradation from coastal development and associated pollution, which disrupt shallow-water coral reef and sandy bottom environments where the species resides. Overcollection of its attractive, patterned shells for the curio and shell trade poses an additional risk, particularly in accessible tourist areas, though this is mitigated by the species' abundance in many regions. Climate change exacerbates vulnerabilities through rising sea-surface temperatures and ocean acidification, potentially altering habitat suitability and prey availability across its range. The wide geographic range of C. textile lowers its overall extinction risk compared to more restricted congeners, yet localized populations in heavily developed coastal zones remain susceptible to decline from cumulative anthropogenic impacts. No specific international trade regulations, such as CITES listing, apply to C. textile or its subspecies, though general marine protected areas in parts of its range offer indirect safeguards.

Population Trends

Conus textile has historically been considered abundant across the Indo-Pacific, spanning from the Red Sea to the central Pacific, with stable populations documented in early assessments.^[45] The species was widespread in coral reef and sandy habitats, contributing to diverse Conus assemblages in regions like Indonesia and Thailand, where up to 27 congeners co-occur.^[46] Until recent decades, no significant declines were reported, aligning with its classification as Least Concern by the IUCN in 2011.^[45] Recent trends indicate a range shift southward, with increasing sightings along Australia's east coast. In New South Wales, only about 60 historical records existed prior to 2024, but multiple observations suggest growing presence due to warming waters from climate change.^[23] Monitoring efforts for C. textile are constrained by sparse data, primarily from diver reports and citizen science initiatives like iNaturalist, which reveal variations in local abundance. Reef Life Survey data classify the species as rare, occurring at just 0.8% of surveyed sites across its range.^[47] Future projections model a contraction in suitable habitat within the tropical Indo-Pacific under climate scenarios, though poleward expansions like those in southern Australia may occur with ongoing warming.^[24] Ocean acidification poses additional risks, as elevated CO₂ levels have been shown to disrupt hunting behavior in cone snails, potentially reducing survival rates.^[48]

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The most diverse assemblages of the genus Conus known occur on fringing coral reefs in Thailand and Indonesia. As many as 27 congeneric species of these ...
[48]
(PDF) Diversity, habitats and size-frequency distribution of the ...
May 10, 2016 · ... Khon (1959) reported that Conus species is widespread in Hawaii with up to 25 species. Furthermore, 61 species are found in the Tamil Nadu ...
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Conus textile - Textile cone - Reef Life Survey
Conus textile. Textile cone. Conus textile, NSW, Australia, Photo: Ian Shaw ... Conservation and Rarity. IUCN Status: N/A. Occurrence: Rare (0.8% of sites).
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Cone snails wander in circles, lose focus with boosted CO 2
Feb 2, 2017 · Deadly cone snails wander in circles and become less capable hunters when exposed to higher levels of carbon dioxide in seawater.