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Curcuma

Curcuma is a genus of 174 accepted rhizomatous perennial or annual herbs in the family Zingiberaceae, native to tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, including India, Southeast Asia, southern China, and extending to northern Australia.^[1] These plants typically grow 50–200 cm tall, featuring fleshy, aromatic, branched rhizomes that produce ellipsoid or conical tubers, lanceolate to broad basal leaves, and inflorescences with spiral, colorful bracts enclosing flowers that often have a single flexible anther.^[2] The genus is distinguished by polyploidy and asexual reproduction via rhizomes in many species, contributing to its morphological diversity and ornamental appeal.^[2] The most economically significant species is Curcuma longa, commonly known as turmeric, whose rhizomes yield the bright yellow spice and dye curcumin, widely used in cuisine, traditional medicine, and textiles across Asia and globally.^[3] Other notable species include Curcuma zedoaria (white turmeric), valued for its anti-inflammatory properties and use in treating digestive and skin ailments, and ornamental varieties like Curcuma alismatifolia (Siam tulip), prized for their vibrant, cone-shaped flower bracts in horticulture.^[2] Species of Curcuma are adapted to humid, forested environments at elevations from sea level to 1,500 m, often in teak or dipterocarp forests, and many exhibit bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, terpenes, and phenolics that underpin their pharmacological applications for conditions like inflammation, diabetes, and rheumatism.^[4]^[2] Taxonomically, Curcuma was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 and belongs to the tribe Zingibereae, with ongoing revisions due to hybridization and cryptic speciation, particularly in Southeast Asia where Thailand hosts approximately 80 species.^[1]^[5] While primarily wild in their native ranges, several species have been introduced and naturalized in other tropical areas, including parts of the Americas, Africa, and the Pacific, for cultivation as spices, medicinals, or garden plants.^[1] The genus's diversity supports both biodiversity conservation efforts and biotechnological research into its antioxidant and antimicrobial potential.^[2]

Taxonomy and Etymology

Name Origin

The genus name Curcuma originates from the Arabic term "al-kurkum," which refers to saffron and alludes to the vibrant yellow color of the rhizomes used as a spice. This Arabic word, meaning "yellow" or evoking the hue of saffron, entered Latin as "curcuma" and was formally adopted by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum in 1753 to describe the genus within the Zingiberaceae family.^[6] In ancient India, where Curcuma species like C. longa (turmeric) have been cultivated for millennia, the plant was known by the Sanskrit name "haridra," signifying its golden-yellow pigmentation and reflecting its deep cultural and medicinal significance in Ayurvedic traditions dating back over 4,000 years. This term underscores the plant's indigenous roots in South Asia, where it was valued not only as a dye and flavoring agent but also for its purported health benefits.^[7] The evolution of common names for Curcuma across cultures highlights its widespread trade and adaptation, often emphasizing its color and rhizomatous form. In English, it became known as "Indian saffron" due to its saffron-like yellow tint, a moniker that emerged during medieval European trade routes when the spice was imported as a cheaper alternative to true saffron. In Chinese, it is called "jiang huang," translating to "yellow ginger," acknowledging its botanical relation to ginger while noting its distinctive hue, a name that has persisted in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries.^[7]^[8]

Taxonomic History

The genus Curcuma belongs to the family Zingiberaceae within the order Zingiberales.^[9] This placement reflects its position among monocotyledonous flowering plants characterized by rhizomatous growth and aromatic properties typical of the ginger family.^[1] The genus was formally established by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum in 1753, where he described Curcuma longa as the type species based on specimens from India, initially recognizing a limited number of species.^[10] Subsequent botanical explorations in tropical Asia during the 19th and early 20th centuries expanded the known diversity, with explorers and taxonomists like William Roxburgh and Karl Ludwig Blume adding new species descriptions, though early classifications often relied on limited morphological traits such as rhizome structure and inflorescence form.^[11] Modern taxonomic revisions, driven by molecular phylogenetics and detailed morphological analyses, have significantly refined the genus boundaries since the late 20th century. As of 2025, Plants of the World Online accepts 174 species in Curcuma, a marked increase from historical estimates of 80–120 species prior to 2020, reflecting ongoing discoveries and re-evaluations in Southeast Asia.^[1]^[12] Key debates have centered on generic circumscriptions, complicated by polyploid speciation and homoploid hybridization, which have prompted reclassifications such as the incorporation of species from related genera like Paracautleya and Laosanthus into a broadened Curcuma based on plastid and nuclear DNA evidence.^[13] These revisions emphasize the role of integrative taxonomy in resolving longstanding ambiguities within Zingiberaceae.^[14]

Description and Biology

Morphological Characteristics

Curcuma species are perennial, rhizomatous herbaceous geophytes in the Zingiberaceae family, typically reaching heights of 50 to 200 cm.^[2]^[15] These plants feature thick, fleshy, aromatic rhizomes that branch sympodially and often bear ellipsoid or conical tubers attached to fibrous roots; rhizome interiors vary in color across species, such as yellow-orange in Curcuma longa, light yellow in Curcuma amada, deep yellow in Curcuma zedoaria, and blue-grey in Curcuma caesia.^[2]^[15]^[16] Pseudostems, formed by the overlapping sheaths of the leaves, arise from the rhizomes and support the foliage; the leaves are basal, simple, and distichous, generally lanceolate, oblong, or broad in shape, with lengths of 30 to 70 cm and widths of 7 to 25 cm, occasionally displaying purple patches or pubescence on the lower surfaces.^[2]^[15]^[16] Inflorescences emerge as large, compound spikes that are either terminal on leafy shoots or lateral from the rhizome, resembling pine cones due to their spiral arrangement of vividly colored bracts, which can be green, pink, or purple; these bracts subtend tubular flowers featuring a prominent labellum and a single versatile anther, with corolla colors ranging from white and pale yellow to pink and yellow across the genus.^[2]^[15]^[16] Morphological variations, including rhizome texture and inflorescence details, occur across the genus, reflecting its taxonomic diversity.^[16]^[2]

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Curcuma species primarily reproduce asexually through rhizome division, where underground stems branch and produce new shoots, allowing for efficient clonal propagation in both wild and cultivated settings.^[17] This method dominates due to the frequent sterility of flowers in many species, such as Curcuma longa, which rarely produce viable seeds.^[18] Sexual reproduction occurs via seeds in fertile species, involving the development of fruit capsules from pollinated flowers, though it is uncommon in cultivation and limited by low pollen viability and stigma receptivity in hybrids.^[19] The life cycle of Curcuma is perennial and herbaceous, characterized by periods of growth and dormancy tied to seasonal moisture. Dormant rhizomes, which store nutrients during dry periods, sprout in the wet season under warm, humid conditions, giving rise to leafy shoots and inflorescences.^[18] Flowers emerge in bracts, typically pollinated by insects such as bees (e.g., halictid and blue-banded bees), facilitating pollen transfer from male to female phases within the inflorescence.^[17] Successful pollination leads to capsule formation containing seeds, though fruit set is often low (e.g., up to 87.5% in compatible crosses among C. alismatifolia accessions).^[19] Following seed maturation, plants enter seasonal dormancy in response to dry conditions, with foliage wilting and rhizomes persisting underground until the next wet cycle.^[18] Hybridizations are noted in certain Curcuma species complexes, particularly among closely related lineages like subgenus Curcuma, where gene flow occurs despite reproductive barriers, contributing to polyploidy and reticulate evolution.^[20] In wild populations, genetic diversity is maintained through clonal propagation, as evidenced by high polymorphism levels in species such as C. caesia (263 bands via RAPD/ISSR markers), allowing persistence of varied genotypes via rhizome spread despite predominant asexuality.^[21]

Distribution and Habitat

Native Range

The genus Curcuma is native primarily to Southeast Asia, southern China, the Indian Subcontinent, New Guinea, and northern Australia, where its species occur in wild populations across diverse tropical landscapes. This distribution reflects the genus's origins in the Indo-Malayan region, with phytogeographic evidence indicating eastward and westward dispersals facilitated by ancient tectonic connections and climatic shifts during the Tertiary period. For instance, species like Curcuma australasica are documented in northern Australian rainforests and extend to New Guinea, highlighting natural range extensions across Wallacea.^[22]^[23] Curcuma species thrive in tropical, humid climates characterized by high rainfall exceeding 1500 mm annually and temperatures between 20–30°C, favoring loose, friable loamy or sandy soils with good drainage and partial shade from forest canopies or understory vegetation. Elevations range from sea level to approximately 1500 meters, allowing adaptation to lowland rainforests, hill slopes, and montane margins, though most diversity concentrates below 1000 meters. These preferences align with the genus's rhizomatous growth habit, which supports persistence in seasonally moist, nutrient-poor substrates.^[24]^[25] Centers of diversity are concentrated in India and Indochina, where India hosts approximately 40–45 species, many endemic to the Northeast and Western Ghats, while Southeast Asia exhibits high diversity, with Thailand hosting approximately 90 species and Vietnam around 40 species as of 2024, contributing to over 100 species in the Indochinese region amid high endemism.^[26]^[27]^[28] Recent discoveries, such as a new species in Nagaland, India in 2024, continue to expand the known diversity of the genus.^[29] Islands such as Java and Sumatra exhibit notable endemism, with species like Curcuma zanthorrhiza restricted to Javanese forests and C. sumatrana to Sumatran highlands, underscoring Sundaland's role as a hotspot for speciation driven by isolation and varied microhabitats. Historical distributions prior to the 20th century, inferred from herbarium records and early botanical surveys, mirror these patterns, with no evidence of significant pre-colonial range shifts beyond natural phytogeographic processes.^[23]^[30]

Introduced Areas

Several species of Curcuma have become naturalized in regions beyond their native Indo-Malay distribution, including tropical Africa, Central America, Florida in the United States, and various islands in the Pacific and Caribbean.^[31] These introductions trace back to historical trade networks, with turmeric (C. longa) reaching East Africa by the 8th century and West Africa by the 13th century, while further spread to the Caribbean, such as Jamaica, occurred in the 18th century during colonial exchanges.^[32] The primary drivers included the spice trade for C. longa's rhizomes used as a condiment and dye, ornamental cultivation of species like C. alismatifolia for their showy inflorescences in tropical gardens, and accidental dispersal through agricultural practices involving ginger family plants.^[32] Today, Curcuma species have successfully established self-sustaining populations in humid, tropical environments mirroring their native habitats, often in disturbed areas like roadsides and forest edges.^[31] In wet tropical zones, such as northern Queensland in Australia, where ornamental and spice varieties are widely cultivated, there is noted potential for weedy spread, though active management limits broader invasion.^[33] Ecological impacts in these introduced ranges include occasional hybridization among Curcuma taxa, which can lead to novel genetic variants, and localized displacement of native understory plants in shaded, moist habitats through competitive growth and resource allocation.^[34]^[31]

Cultivation and Production

Methods of Cultivation

Curcuma species are primarily propagated vegetatively through rhizome division, adapting their natural reproductive strategy of rhizome sprouting for agricultural use. Planting occurs by selecting healthy, disease-free rhizomes with at least one or two buds, which are planted 5-7 cm deep in well-drained, loamy soil enriched with organic matter to promote root establishment and nutrient uptake. The soil pH should ideally range from 5.5 to 7.5, with partial shade provided to mimic the understory conditions of their native habitats and prevent leaf scorch. Rhizomes are spaced 30-50 cm apart within rows, with row spacing of 45-60 cm to allow adequate air circulation and growth.^[35]^[36]^[37] Cultivation requires maintaining high humidity levels, typically above 60%, through regular irrigation that keeps the soil consistently moist but not waterlogged during the active growth phase, with watering reduced as leaves begin to yellow near maturity. Fertilization involves incorporating well-decomposed organic matter such as compost or farmyard manure at 10-20 tons per hectare prior to planting, supplemented by split applications of balanced nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) at 2-4 month intervals to support vigorous foliage and rhizome development. Harvesting takes place 8-10 months after planting, once the above-ground leaves senesce and turn yellow-brown, indicating rhizome maturity; the crop is dug up manually or with machinery in dry conditions to minimize damage.^[38]^[37] Pest and disease management focuses on preventing fungal infections like rhizome rot caused by Pythium aphanidermatum, which thrives in poorly drained soils and leads to soft, decaying rhizomes. Control measures include crop rotation with non-host crops such as maize or legumes every 2-3 years to reduce soil inoculum, pre-planting treatment of rhizomes with fungicides like metalaxyl or carbendazim, and maintaining optimal soil drainage to limit pathogen spread. Biological agents, such as Trichoderma species, can also be applied as soil amendments for eco-friendly suppression.^[39]^[40]^[41] Differences in cultivation arise between spice production, primarily from Curcuma longa, and ornamental varieties like Curcuma alismatifolia or Curcuma roscoeana, where the focus shifts from rhizome yield to floral display. Ornamental Curcuma are harvested or displayed after 4-6 months when inflorescences emerge in late spring to summer, allowing energy allocation to colorful bracts and flowers rather than extended rhizome bulking, whereas spice cultivars require the full 8-10 month cycle for optimal curcumin-rich rhizome development.^[31]^[42]

Global Production

India dominates global Curcuma production, primarily through the cultivation of Curcuma longa for turmeric, accounting for approximately 80% of the world's output with an annual yield of 1.116 million metric tons in 2024-25.^[43] Other key producers include Myanmar, China, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, which together contribute the remaining significant shares, though their outputs are substantially lower, often in the range of 0.2 to 0.1 million tons each annually.^[44]^[45] This concentration in Asia reflects the plant's adaptation to tropical climates and the established agricultural infrastructure in these regions. In January 2025, the Indian government inaugurated the National Turmeric Board in Nizamabad, Telangana, to support farmers, enhance marketing, and target doubling production to 2 million metric tons along with $1 billion in exports by 2030.^[46] The global turmeric market reached a value of approximately $4.8 billion USD in 2023, fueled by rising demand for spices, natural colorants, and bioactive compounds in pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals.^[47] Export dynamics underscore India's pivotal role, with the country shipping over 70% of the world's turmeric trade volume, primarily to the United States, United Arab Emirates, and European markets.^[48] These economic scales highlight Curcuma's importance as a cash crop, supporting livelihoods for millions of smallholder farmers across producing nations. Recent trends in Curcuma production include a post-2020 surge in organic farming adoption, driven by consumer preferences for chemical-free products and premium pricing in international markets.^[49] However, climate variability, such as prolonged droughts and irregular monsoons in South and Southeast Asia, has increasingly impacted yields, leading to production declines of up to 15-20% in affected areas during 2023-2024.^[50]^[51] Production of non-turmeric Curcuma species remains niche and limited, centered on ornamental varieties like Curcuma alismatifolia in Thailand for cut flowers and potted plants, and similar cultivation in Hawaii for decorative and cultural uses.^[52]^[53] These efforts contribute minimally to overall genus economics, focusing instead on horticultural markets rather than bulk commodity trade.

Uses and Cultural Significance

Culinary Applications

Curcuma longa, commonly known as turmeric, is primarily utilized in culinary contexts through its rhizomes, which are dried and ground into a vibrant yellow powder that imparts both flavor and color to dishes. In Indian cuisine, this powder is a staple ingredient in curries, rice preparations such as biryani, and beverages like golden milk, where it provides an earthy, slightly bitter taste and enhances visual appeal.^[7] Similarly, in Southeast Asian cuisines, turmeric features prominently in Thai curries and fresh pickles made from the rhizomes, contributing to the aromatic profiles of these regional specialties.^[7]^[54] As a natural colorant, turmeric's primary pigment, curcumin, delivers a bright yellow hue to various foods, serving as an affordable substitute for saffron, often referred to as "Indian saffron." It is commonly added to mustards, cheeses, and butter to achieve this coloration, and extends to canned beverages and sauces for aesthetic enhancement.^[7]^[54] In Moroccan cuisine, turmeric colors tagines, while in other applications, it tints boiled rice in South African dishes.^[7] Turmeric also plays a role in food preservation, with its antimicrobial properties inhibiting bacterial growth, such as histamine-producing strains in seafood, thereby extending shelf life in pickled rhizomes and prepared foods. Rhizomes are often pickled or used to brew teas in Eastern traditions, where they add both flavor and preservative qualities to these items.^[7]^[54] From a nutritional standpoint within dietary contexts, turmeric contributes antioxidants like curcumin, which help combat oxidative stress when incorporated into everyday meals, with typical Asian consumption of turmeric ranging from 200 to 1000 mg per day. This antioxidant presence supports its integration into balanced diets through spiced foods, though its impact is tied to culinary usage rather than isolated supplementation.^[7]^[54]

Medicinal Properties

Curcuma species, particularly Curcuma longa, have been utilized in traditional medicine systems for centuries. In Ayurveda, C. longa rhizome is employed as a bitter digestive aid and carminative to alleviate indigestion and abdominal discomfort.^[7] It is also applied topically for wound healing due to its antiseptic properties, promoting tissue repair and reducing inflammation in injuries.^[55] In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Curcuma rhizomes are valued for invigorating blood circulation, relieving pain associated with blood stasis, and supporting conditions like chest pain or menstrual disorders.^[56] The primary bioactive compound in C. longa is curcumin, which exhibits potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects by modulating pathways such as NF-κB and reducing oxidative stress markers.^[57] Clinical trials in the 2020s have demonstrated curcumin's efficacy in managing arthritis; for instance, supplementation reduced C-reactive protein (CRP) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels in patients with knee osteoarthritis, improving pain and function.^[58] For cancer prevention, early-phase trials indicate that curcumin may inhibit tumor growth and enhance chemoprevention in colorectal and hepatic carcinomas, though larger studies are needed.^[59] Recent advancements in formulations, such as nanoparticle delivery, have improved curcumin's bioavailability by up to 185-fold, addressing its historically low absorption and enabling therapeutic plasma levels.^[60] Other Curcuma species contribute to medicinal applications, with C. zedoaria noted for its antimicrobial properties against bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus and fungi such as Candida albicans, attributed to compounds like curzerenone and epicurzerenone.^[61] The World Health Organization (WHO) provides dosage guidelines for C. longa rhizome, recommending up to 3 g per day of dried powder for oral use in traditional preparations to support digestive and anti-inflammatory benefits.^[7] Safety considerations for Curcuma include potential drug interactions; curcumin may enhance the effects of anticoagulants like warfarin, increasing bleeding risk, and inhibit cytochrome P450 enzymes, altering metabolism of drugs such as chemotherapy agents.^[62] High doses exceeding 8 g per day of curcumin have been linked to rare cases of hepatotoxicity, including elevated liver enzymes and acute liver injury, particularly in susceptible individuals or with enhanced bioavailability formulations.^[63]

Ornamental and Industrial Uses

Curcuma species, particularly C. alismatifolia known as the Siam tulip, are valued in ornamental horticulture for their striking inflorescences resembling pinecone-like flowers in shades of pink, white, and lavender.^[64] These tropical perennials, native to Southeast Asia, thrive in full sun and subtropical conditions, making them popular for garden borders, containers, and mass plantings in warm climates.^[65] In temperate regions, they are cultivated in greenhouses or as potted houseplants, where their rhizomatous growth allows for easy propagation and seasonal blooming during summer.^[66] Industrially, curcumin extracted from Curcuma longa rhizomes serves as a natural yellow dye for textiles, providing vibrant shades on fabrics like cotton, silk, and wool when applied via exhaust dyeing methods.^[67] This eco-friendly alternative to synthetic dyes is biodegradable and non-toxic, enhancing color fastness when mordanted with biomordants such as chitosan.^[68] In cosmetics, purified curcumin imparts golden-yellow hues to products like skincare formulations and hair dyes, offering a stable, plant-derived colorant suitable for temporary coloring applications.^[69] Additionally, essential oils steam-distilled from Curcuma rhizomes contribute earthy, spicy notes to perfumes and fragrances, valued for their grounding aroma in natural perfume compositions.^[70] Beyond dyes and scents, Curcuma finds use in animal feed as a natural additive, where turmeric powder or extracts improve growth performance and feed efficiency in poultry and livestock without posing environmental risks.^[71] In Hindu ceremonies, particularly weddings, turmeric paste is applied during the haldi ritual to the bride and groom, symbolizing purification and auspiciousness through its bright yellow color.^[72] Emerging research in the 2020s explores Curcuma starch from species like C. caesia and C. angustifolia for biodegradable packaging films, blended with plasticizers like glycerol to create flexible, eco-friendly materials that degrade naturally and serve as alternatives to petroleum-based plastics.^[73] These starch-based films, often incorporating curcumin for added functionality, demonstrate potential in food packaging due to their barrier properties and renewability.^[74]

Species Diversity

Number and Distribution of Species

The genus Curcuma comprises 174 accepted species, according to the latest data from Plants of the World Online (as of November 2025).^[1] This count reflects a historical underestimation of diversity, as taxonomic revisions and new descriptions have increased the recognized number from around 80 species in the late 20th century to over 150 by the early 21st century, driven by splits within previously lumped taxa.^[12] The distribution of Curcuma species is centered in tropical and subtropical Asia, where the majority occur, with hotspots of diversity in India (at least 40 species) and Thailand (over 80 species).^[28] Fewer species are found outside this core area, including a limited number in northern Australia and New Guinea, representing extensions from Asian lineages. Endemism rates are particularly high in insular Southeast Asia, such as in Thailand and Indonesia, where many species are restricted to specific islands or regions; the genus also includes monotypic sections, highlighting isolated evolutionary lines.^[28] Molecular phylogenetic studies have revealed clades within Curcuma often correlated with variation in chromosome numbers, ranging from 2n=22 to 105 across species, though common counts include 2n=42, 63, and 84, reflecting polyploidy and hybridization events that have shaped genus diversity.^[75]^[76] These insights underscore the complex evolutionary history, with ancient introgression contributing to speciation patterns observed in the current distribution.^[77]

Notable Species

Curcuma longa, commonly known as turmeric, is a perennial herbaceous plant native to tropical South Asia, particularly India, where it has been cultivated for millennia. It is renowned for its rhizomes, which yield fresh harvests of approximately 15-20 tons per hectare under optimal conditions, serving as the primary source for the spice and dye industries. The plant features lance-shaped leaves and yellow flowers, thriving in warm, humid climates with well-drained soils.^[78] Curcuma zedoaria, or zedoary, is a rhizomatous herb endemic to subtropical regions of Southeast Asia, including Indonesia, Thailand, and parts of India. It is valued in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory and digestive properties, with rhizome extracts used to treat ailments like stomach disorders and rheumatism. Additionally, the essential oil derived from its dried rhizomes finds application in perfumery and soap production due to its aromatic compounds.^[79]^[80] Curcuma alismatifolia, the Siam tulip, is a tropical species native to northern Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, prized for its ornamental value. It produces striking inflorescences with pink bracts surrounding white or pale pink flowers, resembling tulips, which emerge in summer and make it popular in horticulture as a potted plant or cut flower. The plant grows from underground rhizomes in moist, shaded environments, reaching heights of up to 1 meter.^[81]^[82] Curcuma mangga, known as mango ginger, is distributed across Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia, where it is harvested for its rhizomes that emit a distinctive raw mango-like aroma and flavor. This culinary spice is incorporated into traditional dishes, pickles, and beverages for its tangy, refreshing taste, while also offering potential health benefits from its bioactive compounds. The plant features broad leaves and grows in tropical lowlands, with rhizomes used fresh or processed.^[83]^[84] Among recent discoveries, Curcuma nivea, described in 2025 from eastern Thailand, represents a compact species with horticultural potential, featuring short stems, white flowers accented by reddish lines on the labellum, and no yellow blotch typical of related taxa. This perennial herb, growing to about 30-50 cm tall, blooms in clusters and adapts well to cultivation, highlighting ongoing biodiversity exploration in the genus.^[28]

Ecology and Conservation

Ecological Role

Curcuma species primarily occupy the understory of tropical forests in Southeast Asia, where they form dense clumps that contribute to ground cover and help stabilize soil through their extensive rhizomatous networks. These rhizomes bind soil particles, reducing erosion in humid, shaded environments typical of dipterocarp and bamboo forest edges. The flowers of Curcuma attract pollinators such as bees, particularly Amegilla species, which are drawn to the nectar rich in sucrose for foraging. This interaction supports pollinator populations in forest understories, while seed dispersal in some species, like Curcuma stahlianthoides, occurs via ants attracted to the arillate seeds, facilitating short-distance propagation and contributing to local biodiversity. Butterflies may also visit related species, enhancing cross-pollination in these ecosystems.^[85]^[86] Curcuma plants form symbiotic associations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which extend hyphal networks into the soil to improve nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, in nutrient-poor tropical soils. Inoculation studies demonstrate that AMF can significantly increase phosphorus uptake and overall biomass in low-fertility conditions, aiding Curcuma's persistence in oligotrophic forest floors.^[87] In Asian agroecosystems, Curcuma is often intercropped with rice or legumes such as cluster bean and mung bean, promoting biodiversity by enhancing soil microbial abundance and nitrogen fixation, which supports diverse plant and microbial communities without reducing turmeric yields. This practice mimics natural forest interactions, fostering resilient agricultural landscapes.^[88]^[89]

Threats and Conservation Status

Curcuma species face multiple anthropogenic and environmental threats that jeopardize their survival across their native ranges in tropical Asia. Habitat loss, primarily driven by deforestation and conversion of forests to agricultural land and infrastructure, has significantly impacted populations, particularly in biodiversity hotspots like the Western Ghats where some species have experienced up to a 30% decline in the past few decades.^[90] Overharvesting for medicinal, culinary, and ornamental purposes exacerbates this pressure, as wild rhizomes are intensively collected without sustainable practices, leading to localized extirpations.^[91] Climate change further compounds these risks by altering rainfall patterns, increasing soil dryness, and disrupting flowering cycles in the understory habitats these geophytes depend on.^[91] The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed several Curcuma species as threatened, with statuses ranging from Vulnerable to Critically Endangered, though comprehensive genus-wide evaluations remain limited. For instance, Curcuma pseudomontana is classified as Vulnerable due to ongoing habitat degradation and collection pressures in India.^[92] Recent studies have provisionally assessed C. lindstromii as Vulnerable in Thailand, confined to two unprotected sites vulnerable to agricultural expansion and trade.^[93] Critically Endangered species include C. pygmaea in Vietnam, with an area of occupancy under 4 km² and facing severe habitat fragmentation; C. leonidii has been provisionally assessed as Critically Endangered in recent studies.^[94]^[95] Other examples encompass C. sparganiifolia as Near Threatened from tourism-related disturbances and C. rhabdota as Vulnerable due to forest clearance.^[94]^[95] Conservation efforts for Curcuma emphasize both in situ and ex situ strategies to mitigate these threats. In situ protections occur within national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, such as those in the Western Ghats and Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary in India, where habitat preservation and sustainable forest management help safeguard endemic species.^[96] Ex situ initiatives include seed banking, botanical garden cultivation, and in vitro propagation programs, with collections established at institutions like Prince of Songkla University in Thailand to preserve genetic diversity and support reintroduction.^[97] The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, contributes through broader Zingiberaceae conservation projects, including assessments and propagation protocols to ensure long-term viability.^[98] Significant gaps persist in conservation data for the genus, with many Curcuma species lacking formal IUCN assessments, often categorized as Not Evaluated or Data Deficient. Recent studies highlight the need for molecular approaches, such as genetic diversity analyses using markers like ITS2, to inform targeted conservation and address taxonomic uncertainties post-2020.^[99]

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Cross-Compatibility in Interspecific Hybridization of Different ... - NIH
May 11, 2023 · The genus Curcuma has a complex genetic background with different chromosome numbers, viz., C. alismatifolia (2n = 32), C. thorelii Gagnep.1. Introduction · 2. Results · 4.4. Interspecific...
[19]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10220942/
[20]
Genetic diversity and gene differentiation among ten species of ...
Thus the present work is an attempt to study the genetic relationship existing within and among two different genera i.e., Zingiber and Curcuma. The objective ...Missing: propagation | Show results with:propagation
[21]
Curcuma australasica Hook.f. | Plants of the World Online
The native range of this species is Maluku to New Guinea, N. Northern Territory, N. Queensland. It is a rhizomatous geophyte and grows primarily in the wet ...
[22]
[PDF] Genetic diversity of the genus Curcuma in Bangladesh and ... - TIB
Nov 25, 2004 · The highest genetic variability was observed in the hilly population (Chittagong; 0.349 ± 0.128) and the lowest in the plateau lands. (Birganj; ...
[23]
[PDF] Genetic diversity of the genus Curcuma in Bangladesh and ... - TIB
Nov 25, 2004 · The species belonging to the genus Curcuma can be grown in diverse tropical conditions, from sea level to a height of 1500 m on the hilly slopes ...Missing: preferences | Show results with:preferences
[24]
Genetic resources of< italic> Curcuma: diversity, characterization ...
The genus Curcuma (family Zingiberaceae) comprising over 80 species of rhizomatous herbs, is endowed with widespread adaptation from sea level to altitude ...
[25]
https://www.academia.edu/1049382/Genetic_resources_of_italic_Curcuma_italic_diversity_characterization_and_utilization
[26]
[PDF] Rediscovery of Curcuma sumatrana (Zingiberaceae) endemic to ...
Jan 26, 2011 · During the exploration of West Sumatra, an interesting Curcuma species with orange-red inflorescences was collected in the wild at two different ...
[27]
Curcuma | North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox
The different species are native to parts of Southern China, Southeast Asia, India, Northern Australia, or New Guinea.
[28]
Curcuma longa (turmeric) | CABI Compendium
Turmeric reached China before the 7th Century, East Africa in the 8th Century and West Africa in the 13th Century. It was introduced into Jamaica in the 18th ...
[29]
Curcuma | NT.GOV.AU
Information about growing curcuma at home in the Northern Territory, including pests and diseases, harvesting and varieties of the plant.About Curcuma · Preferred Climate And Soil · VarietiesMissing: invasive | Show results with:invasive
[30]
Ancient hybridization in Curcuma (Zingiberaceae) - PubMed
Here, we present an account of several events of ancient hybridization in turmeric, the economically important plant genus Curcuma (Zingiberaceae), which ...Missing: migration fossil records
[31]
[PDF] cultivation_practices-TURMERIC-1.pdf
(a) Flat bed method: - Planting is done by dibbling rhizome in furrows behind the country plough. The seeds are then covered with loose soil from the ridge. The ...
[32]
Turmeric - UF/IFAS Gardening Solutions
In your prepared bed, insert each piece and cover with about 1 inch of soil. Space them 15 inches in the row and 15 inches between the row. Early in the spring ...
[33]
[PDF] Hawaiʻi Turmeric Production Guidelines - CTAHR
Primary finger rhizomes at least 6 inches long can also be used for planting without yield loss, but these have more market value than the corms and are less ...
[34]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37537754/
[35]
[PDF] IPM Package of Practices for Turmeric
Different management practices should be followed during the crop stages of turmeric. • Use of resistant varieties for rhizome rot. • Crop rotation with maize, ...
[36]
Protection of turmeric plants from rhizome rot disease under field ...
The rhizome rot caused by Pythium aphanidermatum is one of the most devastating diseases of the turmeric crop. Fungicides are unable to control the rapidly ...
[37]
Biological Control of Rhizome Rot of Turmeric (Curcuma longa</I ...
Disease suppressive role of the antagonistic microorganisms, Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma virens and VAM fungus against rhizome rot of turmeric (Curcuma ...
[38]
Curcuma longa - Grow Turmeric In Your Garden
### Life Cycle of Curcuma longa
[39]
Turmeric Market Analysis 2024: Global Production, Price Trends ...
Sep 10, 2024 · Major Player: India remains the largest producer of turmeric globally, supplying around 80% of the world's turmeric. 2024 Outlook: Favorable ...
[40]
Which Country is the Largest Producer of Turmeric in the World?
Jul 9, 2025 · India is the world's largest turmeric producer, growing around 1.16 million metric tonnes annually. Turmeric is cultivated widely across the country.
[41]
[PDF] ANGRAU Turmeric Outlook Report- June to May 2023-24
The global turmeric production stands at 13.5 lakh tonnes annually, with India leading the market by contributing 80%, followed by China (8%), Myanmar (4%), ...
[42]
Global Turmeric Market Size, Share, Trends 2032
Sep 10, 2024 · The global Turmeric Market, estimating its value at USD 4.77 Billion in 2023, with projections indicating that it will reach USD 7.65 Billion by 2032.Market Insights · Introduction · Market Growth Dynamics · Report Scope
[43]
Top Turmeric Exports & Imports by Country
Aug 5, 2025 · The 5 biggest turmeric exporters (India, Netherlands, Vietnam, Myanmar and Fiji) generated over four-fifths (80.9%) of globally exported ...
[44]
Turmeric Market Size & Share Analysis - Growth Trends 2030
Jul 24, 2025 · By geography, Asia-Pacific dominated the turmeric market with an 82% share in 2024. North America exhibited the highest growth rate, with a CAGR ...
[45]
Turmeric Market Is Projected To Surpass USD 7.8 Billion By 2033
Dec 23, 2024 · Climate Impact on Crop Yield: Turmeric cultivation is highly susceptible to weather conditions. · Shifts in Cultivation Area: Farmers are ...
[46]
Turmeric Market Trends and Projections for 2024
Jan 16, 2024 · The anticipated production of turmeric in 2024 is projected to decline by 15 to 20 percent compared to the previous year.
[47]
(PDF) The physiology of Curcuma alismatifolia Gagnep. As a basis ...
Aug 8, 2025 · C. alismatifolia Gagnep., called the Siam Tulip or Patumma, is widely cultivated as an ornamental Curcuma for cut flowers and potted plants ...
[48]
Curcuma | Plant Group Hawai'i, Inc.
Curcuma evolved in South East Asia's monsoonal climate, providing them with a convenient dormant cycle. This dormancy allows easy shipping and greater ...Missing: ornamental production
[49]
Turmeric and Its Major Compound Curcumin on Health - NIH
Thus, this review aims to offer an in-depth discussion of curcumin applications for food and biotechnological industries, and on health promotion and disease ...
[50]
Wound-Healing Effects of Curcumin and Its Nanoformulations
It has been used for ages as traditional medicine in the treatment of inflammation and healing of impaired wounds. The topical application of curcumin is ...
[51]
Curcuma Longa (turmeric): from traditional applications to modern ...
May 28, 2025 · Moreover, Curcuma longa has been used for treatment of the diseases related to blood and circulatory system, digestive system, musculoskeletal ...
[52]
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin - PubMed
In this review, we describe both antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin, the mode of action of curcumin, and its therapeutic usage.
[53]
Effects of curcumin on serum inflammatory biomarkers in patients ...
Jul 4, 2025 · Curcumin led to a decrease in the serum CRP and TNF-alpha levels in patients with knee OA. Additional large-scale studies or even synovial fluid ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[54]
Curcumin and Cancer (PDQ®) - NCI
May 13, 2025 · Results from early-phase trials of curcumin-containing products in the chemoprevention of colon, oral, and hepatic carcinoma appear promising.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[55]
Bioavailability of Oral Curcumin in Systematic Reviews - MDPI
Jan 28, 2024 · The innovative formulations have demonstrated an increase in curcumin bioavailability, ranging from 6.9- to 185-fold [7]. A comprehensive ...2. Results · 3. Discussion · 4. Materials And MethodsMissing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s<|control11|><|separator|>
[56]
Curcuma zedoaria Rosc (Zingiberaceae): a review on its chemical ...
Aug 23, 2021 · Sudipta et al. have reported antimicrobial activity of Curcuma zedoaria Rosc against two gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus ...
[57]
Turmeric - Uses, Side Effects, and More - WebMD
Medications that can harm the liver (Hepatotoxic drugs) interacts with Turmeric ... Medsafe Safety Communication- Turmeric/Curcumin Interaction with Warfarin.
[58]
Turmeric - LiverTox - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jun 16, 2025 · One reason given for the safety and lack of hepatotoxicity of curcumin ... Drug induced autoimmune hepatitis after turmeric intake.
[59]
Siam Tulip Care: Learn How To Grow Siam Tulips
Feb 13, 2023 · In lower zones, this tropical beauty easily grows indoors as a houseplant. Curcuma alismatifolia is also known as Curcuma or summer tulip, ...
[60]
Curcuma alismatifolia 'Pink' - Plant Finder - Missouri Botanical Garden
Curcuma alismatifolia, commonly called Siam tulip, is a rhizomatous tropical perennial in the ginger family that grows to 2' tall.
[61]
How to grow Siam tulips (Curcuma) | - GardenDrum
Mar 12, 2012 · They actually grow in grassland in full sun. The climate is subtropical and seasonal, with a dry season lasting for at least 6 months.
[62]
Eco-Friendly Extraction of Curcumin from Turmeric and Dyeability of ...
Being readily available and relatively easy to extract, curcumin can be used in textile dyeing, as a possible natural alternative to synthetic dyes. Studies in ...
[63]
Benefits of using Curcumin-based Natural Dyes - Imbarex
Oct 10, 2024 · Curcumin dyes offer anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties, are safe, non-toxic, biodegradable, and have potential for ...
[64]
Natural Alternative for Yellow 5 - Natpure Col Yellow LC113
Apr 16, 2025 · 100% natural yellow dye sourced from the root of Curcuma longa with skin benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and radiance.
[65]
Turmeric | Essential Oil - New Directions Aromatics
4.6 3K · 5-day delivery · 15-day returnsOur Turmeric Essential Oil offers a warm, earthy and spicy fragrance that is both grounding and uplifting. Sourced from the highest quality turmeric rhizomes ...
[66]
Turmeric (Curcuma longa): an alternative to antibiotics in poultry ...
Furthermore, the use of turmeric as a feed additive in the poultry industry has shown promise for improving the performance of broiler chickens. Studies ...
[67]
An In-Depth Look at Traditional Haldi Ceremonies - The Knot
Jan 6, 2023 · Turmeric is central to the haldi ceremony. According to Sen, "turmeric has a very auspicious significance in all Indian weddings. The color ...
[68]
[PDF] Exploring the potentials of Curcuma caesia starch in fabricating ...
Utilizing starch from Curcuma caesia could offer a dual benefit: value addition to medicinal plants and development of biodegradable packaging material ...
[69]
Organic Acids Modified Starch–CMC Based Biodegradable Film
Feb 3, 2023 · In this study, Curcuma angustifolia starch-CMC-based glycerol plasticized biodegradable films were modified with organic acids (lactic ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[70]
Chromosome Numbers and Genome Size Variation in Indian ...
Indian Curcuma species have six chromosome counts (2n = 22, 42, 63, >70, 77, 105) and genome sizes ranging from 1.66 pg to 4.76 pg.
[71]
Curcuma nivea (Zingiberaceae), a New Compact Species ... - MDPI
The genus Curcuma (Zingiberaceae) is a diverse group of plants widely distributed across tropical Asia, with several new species recently described in Thailand.
[72]
Chromosome Numbers and Genome Size Variation in Indian ...
The vast majority of nonaploid species undergo asexual propagation via rhizome branching and produce a high percentage of aborted pollen grains (Prana, 1977; ...Missing: division | Show results with:division
[73]
Ancient hybridization in Curcuma (Zingiberaceae)—Accelerator or ...
Aug 3, 2023 · Using phylogenetic network analysis, we show that the entire genus Curcuma as well as its most speciose lineage arose via introgression from the ...
[74]
[PDF] Short-term and Long-term Time Course Studies of Turmeric ...
Rhizomes are slow to multiply, and yields range from 15-20 tons per hectare. 15. (Balachandran et al., 1990). 16. Turmeric has been clonally propagated in ...
[75]
Immunomodulatory Effects and Mechanisms of Curcuma Species ...
C. zedoaria is widely cultivated in subtropical regions (Southeast Asia, Thailand, Indonesia, Japan, and China). From outside, C. zedoaria looks like ginger ...Missing: range | Show results with:range
[76]
Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. (white turmeric): a review of its chemical ...
Jan 8, 2010 · Curcuma zedoaria Rosc is a perennial herb found in tropical countries, such as India, Japan and Thailand. Various parts of this plant are used in Ayurveda and ...Missing: distribution | Show results with:distribution
[77]
The genomic and bulked segregant analysis of Curcuma ... - NIH
Oct 6, 2022 · This work provides data for understanding the mechanism of bract pigmentation and will accelerate breeding in developing novel cultivars with ...
[78]
Comparative Plastomes of Curcuma alismatifolia (Zingiberaceae ...
Aug 31, 2023 · A comparison between 11 representative C. alismatifolia accessions was conducted to identify mutational hotspots in the plastome. We found that ...Missing: debates generic reclassifications
[79]
Study of the genus Curcuma in Indonesia used as traditional herbal ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Sebagai bagian dari warisan budaya, beberapa spesies Curcuma seperti kunyit (Curcuma longa), temulawak (Curcuma xanthorrhiza), temu mangga ( ...
[80]
Storage Studies in Culinary Paste Prepared from Underutilized ...
Mango ginger (Curcuma mangga Val. et Zijp.) is an underutilized spice, rhizomes of which possess raw mango-like aroma. Product diversification is one of the ...
[81]
Geographic Distributions and Ecology of Ornamental Curcuma ...
The genus Curcuma is geographically wide spread in all regions of Thailand, but it is mostly found in the North and Northeastern regions.Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[82]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10531169/
[83]
Pollination biology of Curcuma aeruginosa (Zingiberaceae)
Sep 4, 2021 · The present study reports the details of phenology, floral biology, pollination biology and breeding system of C. aeruginosa (Zingiberaceae), in ...Missing: species | Show results with:species
[84]
http://www.agriculturejournal.org/volume12number3/storage-studies-in-culinary-paste-prepared-from-underutilized-medicinal-spice-mango-ginger-curcuma-mangga-val-et-zijp/
[85]
http://repository.ias.ac.in/123091/
[86]
Intercropping With Turmeric or Ginger Reduce the Continuous ... - NIH
Oct 8, 2020 · The results showed that intercropping turmeric and ginger with patchouli can improve soil microbial abundance, diversity, and community structure.Missing: Curcuma biodiversity
[87]
[PDF] Promising Curcuma species suitable for hill regions towards ...
Oct 14, 2017 · This species was reported to be common and abundant in the Western Ghats in the 1950s, however, the population has shrunk (by around 30 % in ...
[88]
Seven New Records of Curcuma L. (Zingiberaceae) for the Flora of ...
During recent field investigations in various parts of Laos, seven additional Curcuma species were identified and recorded, increasing the known diversity of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[89]
Vulnerable species: Significance and symbolism
Oct 12, 2025 · This includes plant species marked as at risk due to their threat status, and those that may suffer from over-exploitation or misidentification ...
[90]
[PDF] Curcuma lindstromii (Zingiberaceae - National Parks Board (NParks)
The exact number of Curcuma species has been estimated to exceed 120 species (Leong- Škorničková et al., 2015) although, since then, close to 30 new species ...
[91]
Diversity and Its Implications of Curcuma Subgenus Hitcheniopsis (Zingiberaceae) with a New Record for Vietnam
Summary of each segment:
[92]
Curcuma mukhraniae (Zingiberaceae), a new species from Western ...
A new species of Zingiberaceae, Curcuma mukhraniae from Western Ghats, Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary, Udupi Dist., Karnataka is described and illustrated.Missing: national parks
[93]
[PDF] Four new Curcuma species (Zingiberaceae) from ...
Jan 20, 2021 · Recently, the establishment of an in vitro collection of. Curcuma species has been initiated for sustainable use and conservation purposes at ...
[94]
[PDF] Botanic Gardens: Using biodiversity to improve human well-being
This project aims to conserve Indian Zingiberaceae, one of the most economically important families of monocotyledons.
[95]
Summary Statistics - IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
This table only presents figures for the comprehensively assessed species groups (i.e., where >80% of the species in the group have been assessed). Note ...Missing: Curcuma | Show results with:Curcuma
[96]
Analysis of genetic and chemical variability of five Curcuma species ...
Sep 5, 2023 · In this study, twenty-four samples were selected to study the genetic and chemical variability among five Curcuma species.Missing: source | Show results with:source<|control11|><|separator|>