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Cutworm

Cutworms are the larval stage of various moth species in the family Noctuidae (order Lepidoptera), recognized as significant agricultural pests due to their habit of severing the stems of young plants at or near the soil surface, often leading to plant death.^[1]^[2] These caterpillars, which can grow up to 2 inches (5 cm) in length, are typically smooth, hairless, and dull-colored in shades of gray, brown, or black, and they curl into a characteristic "C" shape when disturbed.^[3]^[4] Cutworms exhibit nocturnal feeding behavior, hiding in the soil or under plant debris during the day to avoid predators and desiccation, which makes them challenging to detect in infested fields.^[3]^[5] Their life cycle includes egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages, with the larval phase lasting several weeks depending on species and environmental conditions; adults are stout-bodied moths with wingspans of about 1–1½ inches (2.5–4 cm), often featuring inconspicuous gray or brown patterns.^[6]^[7] Common species include the black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon), which prefers moist soils and targets corn and vegetables; the variegated cutworm (Peridroma saucia), identifiable by its mottled appearance and broad host range; and the dingy cutworm (Feltia jaculifera), known for climbing plants to feed.^[8]^[9]^[10] These pests affect a wide array of hosts, including field crops such as corn, soybeans, and tobacco; vegetables like tomatoes, peppers, and cabbage; and turfgrasses, where they can cause irregular patches of dead grass.^[1]^[8]^[6] Damage is most severe in spring on seedlings and transplants, with larvae capable of clipping multiple plants per night, potentially leading to significant yield losses if populations are high.^[11]^[12] Management typically involves cultural practices like tillage to expose larvae, monitoring with pheromone traps for adults, and targeted insecticides when thresholds are exceeded, emphasizing integrated pest management to minimize environmental impact.^[13]^[5]

Taxonomy and Classification

Definition and Etymology

Cutworms are the caterpillars, or larvae, of various species of nocturnal moths belonging primarily to the family Noctuidae, recognized as significant agricultural pests due to their habit of severing the stems of young plants at or just below ground level, often leading to the collapse of seedlings.^[3] This feeding behavior typically occurs at night, with the larvae hiding in soil or debris during the day.^[14] The term "cutworm" derives directly from this destructive action of "cutting" plants, reflecting the observable damage in fields and gardens.^[15] The name first appeared in English agricultural literature in the mid-18th century, with the earliest known use recorded in 1766.^[15] Despite encompassing larvae from over a dozen genera and numerous species—such as Agrotis ipsilon (black cutworm) and Peridroma saucia (variegated cutworm)—the category "cutworm" is not a formal taxonomic group but a functional one based on shared behavioral traits, particularly their subterranean or surface-feeding on plant bases.^[16] This behavioral classification aids in pest management but underscores the diversity within the Noctuidae family.^[14] Cutworms are the larval stages of moths primarily belonging to the family Noctuidae, commonly known as owlet moths, which is one of the largest families in the order Lepidoptera with over 12,000 described species distributed across approximately 1,150 genera worldwide.^[17] This family encompasses a diverse array of moths, many of which are nocturnal and play varied ecological roles, from pollinators to herbivores. Within Noctuidae, cutworms are predominantly found in the subfamily Noctuinae, a large and well-supported clade that includes significant agricultural pests whose larvae exhibit specialized soil-dwelling behaviors.^[17] Key genera producing cutworm larvae in Noctuinae include Agrotis (e.g., black cutworm A. ipsilon), Peridroma (e.g., variegated cutworm P. saucia), Euxoa (e.g., army cutworm E. auxiliaris), and Apamea (e.g., glossy cutworm A. devastator).^[18] These genera highlight the subfamily's evolutionary adaptations for subterranean larval life, such as robust, cylindrical bodies suited for burrowing and feeding on plant stems at ground level, which have contributed to their success as pests in agricultural systems.^[19] Spodoptera species, also in Noctuinae, produce larvae often classified as cutworms but are distinguished as armyworms due to their gregarious, migratory behavior in contrast to the more solitary, non-migratory habits of typical cutworms.^[20] While Noctuinae focuses on cutworm producers, the broader Noctuidae includes related pest groups like loopers from the subfamily Plusiinae, which differ in their looping locomotion and foliar feeding rather than soil-based cutting.^[21] The family also encompasses numerous non-pest species, such as harmless owlet moths in genera like Mythimna and Ochropleura, which feed on wild grasses and contribute to biodiversity without economic impact, underscoring the taxonomic diversity beyond agricultural concerns.^[17] Phylogenetic analyses confirm Noctuinae's position within Noctuidae, with molecular data supporting its monophyly in recent revisions, though ongoing studies address polyphyletic elements to refine evolutionary relationships.^[17]

Biology and Life Cycle

Physical Description

Cutworm larvae, the primary damaging stage, possess cylindrical, hairless bodies that measure up to 5 cm in length at maturity.^[3] Their coloration varies widely, ranging from dull gray and brown to black, often with stripes or spots that provide camouflage against soil.^[3]^[22] The skin appears smooth and glossy or dull, bearing few hairs, and the larvae feature three pairs of true legs on the thorax and five pairs of fleshy prolegs on the abdomen.^[23] A distinctive trait is their ability to curl into a tight C-shape when disturbed, aiding in identification.^[3] Adult cutworms are stout-bodied moths with wingspans of 2 to 5 cm and body lengths around 2.5 cm.^[3]^[24] The forewings are drab brown or gray, typically patterned with irregular spots, bands, or splotches in shades of gray, brown, black, or white, while the hindwings are lighter, usually whitish to pale gray with darker-veined margins.^[3]^[22]^[16] Variations in forewing markings occur across species, such as triangular patches or fine lines, but the overall appearance remains inconspicuous.^[25] Larvae progress through 5 to 9 instars, most commonly 6 or 7, progressively increasing in size from less than 1 cm to full maturity, with early instars often displaying paler colors like green or tan that darken to brown or black in later stages.^[24]^[26] The final instar, reaching maximum size, is responsible for the majority of crop damage due to its enhanced feeding capacity.^[24] Sexual dimorphism in adults is minor, primarily involving slight differences in size, with females often slightly larger than males, and antennal structure, where males possess more elaborate, bipectinate antennae for pheromone detection compared to the filiform antennae of females.^[27]^[28]^[29]

Developmental Stages

Cutworms undergo complete metamorphosis, consisting of egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages, with the entire life cycle typically spanning 35 to 60 days under favorable conditions.^[23]^[30]^[16]^[31] The duration of each stage is heavily influenced by environmental factors, particularly temperature, which accelerates development at higher levels within tolerable ranges.^[16] In temperate regions, cutworms may produce one to four generations per year, with multivoltine cycles in warmer climates allowing multiple broods from spring through fall.^[16] Overwintering varies by species and region; pupae in soil in milder climates, while in colder northern areas, species like the black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon) overwinter as adults in the south and migrate northward annually.^[16]^[23] The egg stage begins with females laying small, spherical, ribbed eggs, typically in clusters of 10 to 30 on foliage, grasses, weeds, or soil surfaces near host plants.^[23]^[30]^[16]^[31] These eggs, measuring about 0.4 to 0.6 mm in diameter with 35 to 40 longitudinal ribs, are initially white but darken to gray or brown before hatching.^[16] Incubation lasts 3 to 10 days, with warmer temperatures shortening this period; eggs can tolerate cooler conditions better than later stages.^[23]^[30]^[16]^[31] Larvae emerge as tiny caterpillars and progress through 5 to 9 instars, most commonly 6 or 7, over 20 to 40 days, or roughly 3 to 6 weeks.^[23]^[30]^[16]^[31] Feeding intensifies in later instars, where larvae grow to lengths of 35 to 50 mm, hiding in soil during the day and becoming more destructive nocturnally.^[16] Development time varies with diet quality and temperature, extending in cooler conditions.^[23]^[30] Pupation occurs in earthen cells 3 to 12 cm below the soil surface, where larvae form spindle-shaped pupae, initially orange-brown and darkening to mahogany.^[16] This stage lasts 12 to 20 days, or about 2 to 3 weeks, with higher temperatures hastening emergence.^[23]^[30]^[16]^[31] In temperate zones, pupae serve as the primary overwintering form in suitable climates, entering a state of dormancy triggered by shortening day lengths and cooling temperatures to survive winter.^[16] Adults are short-lived moths, surviving 7 to 14 days primarily to mate and oviposit, with flight activity peaking in spring and fall following emergence.^[16] Females deposit 1,000 to 1,900 eggs over several nights, often dispersing via wind currents.^[23]^[16]^[31] The adult stage aligns with reproductive focus, as moths nectar-feed minimally before laying eggs on suitable vegetation.^[23] Temperature is the dominant environmental trigger across stages, with optimal development around 27°C; below 15°C, growth slows significantly, while extremes above 35°C can be lethal.^[16] Photoperiod influences diapause in pupae for overwintering, preventing premature development in fall.^[16] Moisture and host availability also modulate cycle progression, with dry conditions potentially delaying larval feeding.^[23]

Behavior and Ecology

Feeding Patterns

Cutworms are herbivorous larvae that primarily feed on seedlings and stems of a wide variety of plants, including grasses, vegetables such as tomatoes and corn, and ornamental species.^[32] They often sever stems at or near the soil surface to access the nutrient-rich vascular tissue, pulling portions of the plant into their burrows for consumption.^[33] This girdling behavior disrupts water and nutrient flow, leading to rapid wilting of affected plants.^[34] Equipped with strong chewing mouthparts, cutworm larvae engage in nocturnal surface feeding on foliage or subsurface girdling of stems and roots, hiding in soil cracks or under debris during the day.^[35] Their feeding is voracious, with individual larvae capable of destroying up to five corn plants over the course of their development.^[33] In moist soils, they may feed directly on above-ground foliage, whereas in drier conditions, they chew into plants below the surface.^[33] Most cutworm species display a broad polyphagous nature, attacking over 100 host plants, though certain taxa exhibit preferences for specific crops; for instance, the black cutworm Agrotis ipsilon frequently targets cereals like corn and wheat.^[36] They preferentially target tender, nutrient-dense tissues to support rapid growth, contributing to their opportunistic foraging strategy.^[32] Feeding patterns shift across developmental stages, with early instars primarily consuming leaf surfaces and foliage, while later instars transition to feeding on tougher stems and roots for higher nutritional yield.^[35] This progression aligns with increasing larval size and burrowing capability, enhancing their ability to exploit subsurface plant parts.^[33]

Diurnal Hiding and Nocturnal Activity

Cutworms exhibit a pronounced diurnal-nocturnal behavioral rhythm, remaining concealed during daylight hours to minimize exposure and becoming active primarily under cover of darkness. During the day, larvae seek refuge by burrowing into the soil or hiding beneath plant debris, leaf litter, or soil clods, typically at depths of 5-10 cm to avoid desiccation and potential threats.^[37]^[3] In this resting state, they often adopt a characteristic C-shaped posture, curling their bodies tightly to further reduce their profile and enhance concealment.^[38] This hiding behavior is particularly evident in species like the black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon), where larvae retreat to shallow burrows near damaged plants after nocturnal feeding.^[39] As night falls, cutworms emerge from their refuges, driven by sensory responses to environmental cues. Their activity is triggered by the onset of darkness and favorable humidity levels, with larvae preferring moist soils that prevent dehydration during surface movement.^[40] Negative phototaxis plays a key role in this transition, as larvae actively avoid light sources, a response documented in laboratory studies on species such as the variegated cutworm (Peridroma saucia), where older instars show increasing aversion to illuminated areas.^[41] Once emerged, they crawl across the soil surface in search of food, capable of traveling distances up to 9 meters in a single night, as observed in black cutworm populations on turfgrass.^[39] Movement during these nocturnal forays is deliberate and surface-oriented, with larvae navigating via undulating crawling that allows them to cover ground efficiently while remaining close to potential hiding spots. Post-rain conditions often enhance aggregation in moist, weedy patches, where increased humidity facilitates greater surface activity and concentration of individuals.^[42] This pattern of emergence and retreat underscores the adaptive strategy of cutworms, aligning their foraging with periods of reduced visibility and optimal moisture to support survival and growth.^[43]

Diversity and Distribution

Major Species

Cutworms encompass several species within the family Noctuidae, with certain ones standing out due to their widespread occurrence and significant agricultural impact. Among the most prominent is Agrotis ipsilon, commonly known as the black cutworm, which is recognized as a major global pest affecting a broad range of crops including turfgrass, corn, and vegetables.^[22]^[4]^[44] Its larvae are greasy black without distinct stripes, featuring an inverted "Y" mark on the head capsule, while adults exhibit forewings with a characteristic bean-shaped spot and a small black dagger mark.^[31]^[45] Another key species is Peridroma saucia, the variegated cutworm, noted for its migratory behavior and damage to vegetable crops such as tomatoes, lettuce, and brassicas.^[22]^[46] The larvae are typically brown to gray with prominent pale longitudinal stripes along the body, and unlike many cutworms, they often climb plants to feed on foliage rather than solely cutting stems at ground level.^[47] Adult moths display mottled forewings in shades of brown and gray, aiding in their nocturnal dispersal.^[47] Euxoa auxiliaris, or the army cutworm, is particularly notorious for periodic outbreaks in prairie regions, where it targets cereals, canola, and forage crops.^[48]^[49] Larvae appear grayish-black with irregular patterns of gray and brown stripes running the length of the abdomen, and adults are gray-brown moths with forewings featuring a distinct orbicular spot and kidney-shaped reniform spot.^[50]^[51] This species often exhibits gregarious behavior during outbreaks, leading to army-like migrations across fields.^[42] The dingy cutworm (Feltia jaculifera) is another common species in North America, affecting a variety of crops including grains and vegetables. Larvae are dull brown or gray, often with a row of pale spots along the sides, and are known for climbing plants to feed on leaves and stems. Adults have forewings that are dark gray to blackish with white streaks and spots, including prominent orbicular and reniform marks.^[52] Identification of these species relies on differences in larval morphology, such as striping patterns—absent in A. ipsilon but prominent in P. saucia and E. auxiliaris—and adult wing venation or markings, which can overlap in distribution across North America and Europe, complicating field diagnosis without close examination.^[53]^[54] In terms of pest status, A. ipsilon ranks highest in damage potential globally, capable of causing up to 100% stand loss in susceptible crops during peak infestations, followed by P. saucia in vegetable systems and E. auxiliaris in dryland grains, according to agricultural extension reports.^[44]^[55] Lesser-known species, such as those in the genus Spodoptera (e.g., fall armyworm), exhibit behavioral overlap with cutworms through stem-cutting and nocturnal feeding habits, though they are typically classified separately as armyworms.^[9]

Geographic Range

Cutworms, the larval stage of various Noctuidae moth species, exhibit a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring on every continent except Antarctica.^[56] They are particularly prevalent in temperate agricultural zones, with significant populations in North America, Europe, and Asia, where arable lands provide ideal conditions for their development.^[42] In North America, many cutworm species are native, with hotspots in the Midwest and Great Plains regions, extending from southern Canada through the United States to Mexico.^[50] European species, such as those in the Agrotis genus, are indigenous across the continent, while in Asia, they thrive in diverse agroecosystems from the Mediterranean to East Asia.^[57] Several cutworm species have spread invasively through international trade and agricultural commerce, expanding beyond their native ranges. For instance, Agrotis ipsilon, one of the most widespread cutworms, has been introduced to Australia, where it is now established as a cosmopolitan pest affecting crops.^[36] This species, originally described from Europe, has similarly dispersed across the Americas and other regions via human-mediated transport.^[58] Cutworms are adapted to a broad climatic spectrum, primarily temperate to subtropical environments, though some species tolerate arid conditions in irrigated agricultural areas.^[36] Altitudinal limits vary by species; for example, the army cutworm (Euxoa auxiliaris) migrates to high-elevation talus slopes in the Rocky Mountains, reaching altitudes over 2,000 meters during summer aestivation.^[59] Prevalence is highest in fertile, moist soils of croplands and lowest in non-irrigated deserts, where suitable host plants are scarce.^[42] Climate change is projected to influence cutworm distributions, potentially enabling northward range expansions and increased habitat suitability in cooler regions through warmer temperatures and extended growing seasons.^[60] Modeling for related Noctuidae pests indicates gradual increases in suitable areas under future warming scenarios, particularly in temperate latitudes.^[61]

Economic Impact and Damage

Effects on Crops

Cutworms inflict significant damage to agricultural crops primarily through the feeding activities of their larval stages, which target young plants and seedlings. The most characteristic symptom is stem severance, where larvae chew through stems at or just below the soil line, causing plants to topple over and wilt rapidly, often leading to death if the growing point is affected.^[23] In heavier infestations, defoliation occurs as larvae consume foliage, resulting in ragged leaves and reduced photosynthetic capacity.^[62] Certain species, such as glassy and subterranean cutworms, also engage in root feeding, tunneling into underground plant parts and causing stunted growth or secondary susceptibility to pathogens.^[3] A wide range of crops are vulnerable to cutworm damage, particularly during early growth stages when plants are most susceptible. Row crops like maize, soybeans, and potatoes suffer stand reductions from severed seedlings, with maize often experiencing the most severe impacts in spring plantings.^[63] Horticultural crops, including lettuce and strawberries, face similar threats, with larvae clipping young transplants or feeding on crowns and leaves, potentially destroying entire beds.^[64] In untreated fields, yield losses can reach 20-50%, depending on infestation density and crop type, as reduced plant populations limit overall productivity.^[65] Detection of cutworm activity relies on visible signs in the field, such as clipped plants lying near the soil line or small piles of frass (dark, pellet-like droppings) around damaged areas.^[66] Scouting involves examining plants for wilting or missing stands, with thresholds for action typically set at 2-5% cut plants in early-stage crops like maize, escalating to 10% stand loss before considering replanting decisions.^[23]^[31] Beyond agriculture, cutworms impact non-crop areas, particularly turfgrass in lawns and golf courses, where larvae create irregular patches of dead grass resembling unrepaired ball marks or small depressions.^[67] Ornamental gardens experience similar defoliation and stem cutting on flowers and shrubs, disrupting aesthetic and structural integrity.^[14]

Historical Outbreaks

In the late 19th century, North American agriculture faced escalating cutworm outbreaks amid rapid expansion of monoculture farming, which provided expansive, uninterrupted food sources that facilitated rapid pest population growth and spread. These epidemics particularly devastated cereal crops like wheat, where cutworms severed seedlings at the soil line, leading to widespread crop failure and economic hardship for farmers.^[68] Species such as the black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon) were key contributors to these plagues.^[65] Australia encountered severe cutworm invasions in the 20th century, with a prominent example being the 1945 plague in Victoria's Gippsland region, where larvae decimated pastures and reduced milk production to local condenseries by more than 5,000 gallons daily. Earlier records from the early 1900s document recurrent outbreaks across southeastern Australia, often linked to the bogong moth (Agrotis infusa) and related species damaging emerging crops like cereals and vegetables.^[69]^[70] Outbreaks are frequently triggered by climatic factors, such as wet springs that enhance egg survival and larval development for species like the black cutworm, while successive dry conditions favor pale western cutworm (Agrotis orthogonia) populations. Monoculture practices further amplify these events by concentrating host plants and reducing natural predators, allowing infestations to escalate unchecked across large fields.^[71]^[42] Initial responses to these historical outbreaks involved rudimentary chemical interventions, including arsenic-based compounds like Paris green introduced in the 1880s, which were applied to soil and foliage to target cutworm larvae despite their toxicity to beneficial insects and humans. By the mid-20th century, particularly post-1950s, widespread resistance to early synthetic pesticides like DDT prompted a transition to integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, emphasizing scouting, crop rotation, and biological agents to mitigate cutworm damage more sustainably.^[68]^[72] In the 2010s, the Canadian prairies saw recurrent cutworm epidemics, notably from 2007 to 2010 when multiple species inflicted severe damage on canola, prompting widespread insecticide applications across affected regions. Mild winters during this decade boosted overwintering survival rates for larvae, while subsequent wet springs fueled population booms, with outbreaks impacting thousands of hectares of oilseed and cereal crops, underscoring the role of climate variability in modern pest dynamics.^[48]^[71]^[73] In recent years, as of 2025, cutworm risks in North America continue to be monitored through pheromone trapping networks, with black cutworm moth flights indicating potential threats to corn and other crops in the Midwest. Climate variability, including warmer temperatures and changing weather patterns, may contribute to increased outbreak frequency and severity.^[11]^[74]

Management and Control

Cultural and Preventive Measures

Cultural practices play a crucial role in preventing cutworm infestations by disrupting their life cycle and reducing suitable habitats for egg-laying and larval development. Crop rotation involves alternating susceptible crops with non-host or less preferred plants to break the pest's reproductive cycle, as cutworm eggs and larvae overwinter in soil associated with host residues. For instance, rotating away from continuous grass or broadleaf crops toward small grains can limit populations, with recommendations for intervals of at least two years to minimize buildup in agricultural fields.^[75]^[76] Tillage practices are effective for exposing cutworm pupae and larvae to predators and environmental stresses. Shallow cultivation in fall or early spring, to a depth of about 2 inches, disrupts overwintering stages by bringing them to the surface where birds and other natural enemies can access them. However, no-till systems may increase risks if crop residues harbor eggs, as female moths prefer laying on dense vegetation; timely residue management is essential in such setups to mitigate this.^[77]^[78]^[3] Physical barriers provide direct protection for young plants during vulnerable early growth stages, coinciding with peak larval activity shortly after egg hatch. Installing collars made from sturdy materials like cardboard tubes, aluminum foil, or cut plastic bottles around seedling stems—extending 1-2 inches above and below the soil surface—prevents cutworms from reaching and severing plants. Planting timing can complement this by delaying sowing until after the main moth flight period, reducing the overlap with larval emergence and minimizing damage to seedlings.^[79]^[14]^[76] Habitat management focuses on eliminating alternate hosts and improving field conditions to deter cutworm establishment. Controlling weeds, particularly winter annuals and perennials around field margins at least 10-14 days before planting, reduces egg-laying sites and larval food sources, as moths are attracted to weedy areas. Incorporating cover crops enhances soil health but requires early termination to avoid providing additional oviposition substrates; this practice, when managed properly, supports overall ecosystem balance while suppressing pest pressures.^[22]^[1]^[3]

Chemical and Biological Controls

Chemical controls for cutworms primarily involve insecticides applied to target larval stages, with options including spinosad and, where permitted, chlorpyrifos.^[80]^[81] Spinosad, a spinosyn-class insecticide derived from soil bacteria, effectively suppresses cutworm populations by disrupting larval nervous systems upon ingestion or contact, often achieving high mortality rates in field applications.^[81] Chlorpyrifos, an organophosphate, has historically provided broad-spectrum control but faces significant restrictions; as of 2025, the U.S. EPA has revoked most food crop tolerances, limiting its use to non-food applications in select states like Michigan for asparagus.^[82] Application timing is critical: granular formulations are typically incorporated into soil at planting to target soil-dwelling larvae, while foliar sprays address surface-feeding stages during early crop growth.^[83] Baits, often iron phosphate-based or combined with insecticides, attract and kill larvae nocturnally, minimizing non-target exposure.^[84] Insecticide resistance has emerged in some cutworm populations since the 1990s, particularly to pyrethroids and organophosphates, and more recently to diamide insecticides like chlorantraniliprole in black cutworm populations; necessitating rotation of chemical classes to maintain efficacy.^[85]^[86] Biological controls offer environmentally friendly alternatives, focusing on microbial agents and nematodes that specifically target lepidopteran larvae like cutworms. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) subspecies kurstaki or aizawai produce crystal toxins that, when ingested, damage the larval gut, leading to starvation and death within days; these are highly selective for Lepidoptera and safe for beneficial insects.^[87] Bt products are applied as foliar sprays during larval emergence, with optimal results in cool, humid conditions.^[66] Entomopathogenic nematodes, such as Steinernema carpocapsae, provide soil-based control by actively seeking and infecting larvae; these nematodes release symbiotic bacteria that multiply inside the host, causing septicemia and death, with efficacy rates up to 90% in moist soils.^[88]^[89] Nematode applications are made via irrigation or sprays to turf or field soils, ideally in evenings to preserve viability.^[90] In integrated pest management (IPM), chemical and biological controls are deployed based on scouting and economic thresholds, such as 2-5% of plants cut with small larvae present in corn, or 4 or more larvae per square foot in small grains like alfalfa or wheat, to justify treatment and reduce unnecessary applications.^[91]^[51] Brief integration with natural enemies, like parasitoids, enhances overall suppression without relying solely on these interventions. Regulatory oversight ensures safety: the EPA has approved Bt formulations since 1961, with ongoing monitoring for resistance, and many are certified organic by the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) for use in certified operations.^[92]^[93] Spinosad and nematodes also hold EPA registrations, promoting their role in sustainable cutworm management.^[81]^[88]

Natural Enemies

Predators and Parasitoids

Cutworms are subject to predation and parasitism by a diverse array of natural enemies that target various life stages, including eggs, larvae, and pupae, thereby contributing to population regulation in agricultural ecosystems.^[36] Ground-dwelling predators such as carabid beetles (family Carabidae) actively forage on cutworm larvae in soil and surface litter, consuming them as a primary food source.^[1] Birds, including species like robins and thrushes, and amphibians such as toads also prey on exposed larvae, particularly after soil disturbance exposes them, with these generalist predators contributing to larval consumption in field settings.^[94] Aerial predators and parasitoids play a crucial role in targeting cutworm eggs and early instar larvae. Tachinid flies (family Tachinidae) are endoparasitoids that lay eggs on or in host larvae, with emerging larvae feeding internally and causing host death; studies have documented parasitism rates of 24-31% in recovered cutworm populations during outbreaks.^[95]^[96] Egg parasitoids like Trichogramma wasps (family Trichogrammatidae) oviposit directly into cutworm eggs, preventing larval development and achieving notable suppression in lepidopteran pests including cutworms. Soil-dwelling organisms provide stage-specific control, particularly against larvae and pupae buried in the ground. Entomopathogenic nematodes, such as those in the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis, infect and kill cutworm larvae by entering through natural openings and releasing symbiotic bacteria that cause septicemia, with natural infection rates contributing to larval mortality in moist soils.^[97]^[1] Entomopathogenic viruses, such as nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV), and fungi like Beauveria bassiana infect cutworms through ingestion or cuticle penetration, leading to disease and death, and have been observed in natural settings to target soil-inhabiting stages under favorable humidity conditions.^[23]^[95] Overall efficacy of these natural enemies is evident in field studies, where untreated plots exhibit approximately 40% mortality of cutworm populations attributable to predators, parasitoids, and pathogens combined, underscoring their role in mitigating outbreak severity without intervention.^[42]

Role in Integrated Pest Management

Integrated pest management (IPM) for cutworms emphasizes monitoring, economic thresholds, and layered tactics that integrate natural enemies with other strategies to minimize crop damage while reducing reliance on synthetic inputs. Monitoring involves scouting corn fields from seedling emergence through the V4-V5 growth stage, examining at least 20 plants per location across five sites for signs of cutting, wilting, or leaf feeding, and digging in soil near damaged plants to assess larval presence and size. Economic thresholds vary by region and larval stage; in the Midwest, treatment is warranted if 2-3% of plants show damage from small larvae or 5% from large larvae, while in southern states like Georgia, action is recommended at 10% cut plants with larvae present. Layered tactics include cultural practices such as weed control to disrupt cutworm habitats, alongside conservation of natural enemies through reduced tillage, which maintains ground cover and boosts populations of soil-dwelling predators like ground beetles, achieving epigeal predation rates up to 64% on sentinel prey in reduced-tillage systems.^[1]^[34]^[98] Enhancement of natural enemies forms a core component of cutworm IPM, with techniques such as releasing parasitoids like Meteorus leviventris or applying entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernema feltiae) to target larvae directly, potentially reducing feeding damage by up to 50%. Planting hedgerows or farmscaping with native vegetation around fields attracts avian predators like birds, which consume cutworm larvae and moths, while cover crops enhance habitat for parasitoids by providing alternative hosts and nectar sources. These approaches have contributed to success rates where naturally occurring and augmented biological controls suppress cutworm populations sufficiently to avoid economic thresholds in many cases, leading to reductions in chemical pesticide use by 30-50% in integrated systems.^[1]^[99]^[100]^[101] In the U.S. Corn Belt, IPM programs for black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon), the predominant species, have been implemented since the 1980s through extension services in states like Iowa and Wisconsin, relying on pheromone traps for moth monitoring and threshold-based decisions that incorporate natural enemy conservation to limit outbreaks in cornfields. These efforts, often coordinated by universities and USDA, have promoted scouting networks that forecast larval risks based on moth migrations, enabling timely integration of biological controls and reducing unnecessary treatments. Globally, adoption in organic farming systems, such as in Canadian canola fields and European vegetable production, highlights the scalability of enemy-focused IPM, where conservation tactics like hedgerows and nematode applications maintain yields without synthetic chemicals.^[31]^[10]^[48] A key challenge in cutworm IPM is balancing chemical interventions with natural enemy preservation, as broad-spectrum insecticides can cause direct mortality or sublethal effects on predators and parasitoids, disrupting biological control and potentially leading to pest rebounds. To address this, IPM guidelines recommend selective pesticides with low toxicity to beneficials, such as chlorantraniliprole, applied only when thresholds are exceeded, and timing applications to avoid peak enemy activity; conventional tillage exacerbates the issue by reducing predator habitats, underscoring the need for holistic practices. Despite these hurdles, integrating natural enemies has proven resilient in diverse agroecosystems, fostering sustainable suppression of cutworm damage.^[34]^[1]^[102]

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Managing Black Cutworm in Wisconsin Corn Fields - Crops and Soils
Jul 11, 2025 · The two cutworm species can be differentiated by the dark tubercles (wart-like nodules) along the body (Figure 4). Dingy cutworm tubercles are ...
[11]
Black cutworm in corn: Identification, impact, and control strategies ...
May 2, 2025 · Stem damage and leaf damage are the most common signs of cutworms. The type of feeding pattern depends on soil moisture and plant size. ...
[12]
[PDF] MF2954 Black Cutworms - KSRE Bookstore - Kansas State University
Black cutworms have a wide host range but are of most agricultural concern to corn producers. They can also be problematic for vegetable growers and in turf ...
[13]
Cutworms - Cornell CALS
Adults are generally gray or brown, 1 inch long (25mm) with 1½ inch wingspans. Their larvae aren't any fancier: brown or dark gray, 1¼-1¾ inches long (32-44mm), ...
[14]
Cutworms [fact sheet] - UNH Extension
Subterranean cutworms remain in the soil and feed on roots and the underground parts of stems. Cutworm larva, undisturbed. Credits: Alan T ...Missing: earliest mention American
[15]
CUTWORM Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of CUTWORM is any of various smooth-bodied chiefly nocturnal noctuid moth caterpillars which often feed on young plant stems near ground level.
[16]
EENY-395/IN703: Black Cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Insecta
The origin of black cutworm is uncertain, though it ... "Oviposition preferences of black cutworm moths among various crop plants, weeds, and plant debris.Description And Life History · Larva · Natural Enemies
[17]
https://academic.oup.com/isd/article/5/3/1/6262344
[18]
[PDF] High Tunnel Pest Management - Caterpillars
Common cutworm species in Utah include the army cutworm. (Euxoa auxiliaris), black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon), glossy cutworm (Apamea devastator), pale western.
[19]
[PDF] The granulate cutworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Nov 1, 2020 · Feltia subterranea (Fabricius), commonly known as the granulate cutworm, is a common species of owlet moths. (Noctuidae) of major agricultural ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[20]
[PDF] Winter Cutworm: A New Pest Threat in Oregon
Winter cutworm is the common name for the larval stage of the large yellow underwing moth (Noctua pronuba [Lepidoptera: Noctuidae]). The cutworm has tolerance ...
[21]
[PDF] Cutworm, Armyworm, and Looper Moths - CORE
Clay-backed Cutworm. Figure 26.--Clay-backed Cutworm, Agrotis gladiaria. 26B. Subterminal line consisting of only pale dots, not preceded by a row of black ...
[22]
Cutworms / Cole Crops / Agriculture: Pest Management ... - UC IPM
Cutworm larvae vary in color, but commonly. are dull gray to brown caterpillars with various markings,; blend in with the soil, and; appear smooth-skinned ...Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[23]
Black cutworm on corn - University of Minnesota Extension
The migration habits of the black cutworm have been documented on several continents. North American black cutworm moths use prevailing winds help them move ...Missing: term | Show results with:term
[24]
EENY559/IN997: Granulate Cutworm, Feltia subterranea (Fabricius ...
The granulate cutworm, Feltia subterranea (Fabricius) is the most commonly occurring cutworm in Florida, though it is rarely numerous enough to be a major pest.
[25]
Western Bean Cutworm Vegetable Fact Sheet - Cornell CALS
Native to North America, the western bean cutworm (WBC) originated in the western corn belt. However, in the early 2000s, this pest started moving eastward ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[26]
Black Cutworm Moth Numbers Low Except for SE Missouri
Apr 17, 2012 · Although very small larvae are often pale green in color, they quickly change to yellowish-brown or tan bodies with tan to brown heads mottled ...
[27]
[PDF] The Moths of North America - Yale University
Fibiger, and Ronkay (Noctuidae: subfamily Xyleninae: tribe Apamei- ni) of North America are revised. A total of 71 species is included. Two new genera are ...
[28]
“How Animals Communicate” | Open Indiana | Indiana University Press
The antennae are the primary olfactory organs. The frequent sexual dimorphism in these structures among moths (usually with greater surface area and receptor ...
[29]
Black Cutworm (Illinois Extension)
Description. Black cutworm larvae vary in color from light gray to black and are about 1 ½ inches long when fully grown. Numerous convex skin granules give ...
[30]
Black Cutworm | Integrated Crop Management - Iowa State University
May 1, 2022 · Larva: Black cutworm larvae are caterpillars with three pairs of legs near the head and four pairs of fleshy prolegs on the abdomen. Their skin ...
[31]
Cutworms - UC IPM
Mature larvae are 1.5 to 2.0 inch (3.8–5 cm) long with smooth skin. Body ... Cutworms feed on blossoms and leaves of many ornamental plants and attack most garden ...
[32]
Black Cutworm
### Summary of Black Cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon) Information
[33]
Cutworms / Corn / Agriculture: Pest Management ... - UC IPM
The larvae normally hide under debris on the soil surface during the day, but are active, voracious feeders at night. Some cutworms climb into the host plant ...
[34]
Cutworms / Lettuce / Agriculture: Pest Management ... - UC IPM
After hatching, young larvae may feed on leaf surfaces for a while, but older larvae drop to the ground, tunnel into the soil, and emerge at night to feed.
[35]
Agrotis ipsilon (black cutworm) | CABI Compendium
Oct 29, 2024 · The life history of the black cutworm, Agrotis ypsilon (Huf.) under controlled conditions.Canadian Entomology, 44:1183-1187. Google Scholar.
[36]
Black Cutworm | NC State Extension Publications
Sep 11, 2019 · Black cutworms, Agrotis ipsilon, tend to cut off seedlings and then consume them in burrows up to four inches deep. They hide during the day.Missing: depth daytime
[37]
[PDF] Cutworms | Extension Marinette County
The larvae can usually be found hiding in the soil in the daytime near a cut plant. The thick-bodied larvae are normally dark colored and curl-up when ...
[38]
Black Cutworms - MSU Extension
Jun 8, 2015 · Therefore, the clippings must be disposed of 100 yards or more from the green because cutworms may crawl long distances (up to 30 feet per night) ...Missing: travel | Show results with:travel
[39]
Black Cutworms Pose Threat to Corn - Bayer Crop Science
Sep 3, 2019 · When soil moisture is adequate, the larvae climb to just above the soil surface at night to feed and cut off the young plants at the base.
[40]
[PDF] Management of variegated cutworm in peppermint
monitoring black cutworm and variegated cutworm. J. Econ. Entomol. 74: 517 ... The degree of negative phototaxis of instars. 4 to 6 increased with light ...
[41]
[PDF] Cutworm Pests of Crops on the Canadian Prairies
Beirne (1971) describes the history of outbreaks of different cutworm pests in Canada. The extent of crop loss during a cutworm outbreak is highly variable.
[42]
Winter cutworm: A new pest threat in Oregon - OSU Extension Service
The first report of winter cutworm activity in the U.S. was made in 2007 ... For convenience, we have distilled information about commonly used products for ...
[43]
Vegetable crop pests-Cutworm
Black cutworm is considered to be the most damaging cutworm species to vegetable crops. The last instar does by far the most feeding, though middle instars can ...
[44]
Management and Identification of Common Cutworms in Corn
Jun 12, 2024 · Cutworms are typically an early season corn pest. Identifying cutworms is important, as many species can cause economic damage.
[45]
Cutworms | USU
Variegated Cutworm (Peridroma saucia); Western Bean Cutworm (Loxagrotis albicosta). DESCRIPTION. Larvae are dull gray to brown (depending on the species).
[46]
Cutworms / Potato / Agriculture: Pest Management ... - UC IPM
The most common species encountered are the black cutworm and the variegated cutworm. The adults are dull-colored brown to grayish moths.
[47]
Cutworm: How to control this pest | Canola Encyclopedia
Most cutworm species feed at night and hide during the day, making detection difficult. However, the key to control is early detection, so inspect seedlings ...Missing: daytime | Show results with:daytime
[48]
Cutworms | Oklahoma State University
The granulate cutworm (Agrotis subterranea), army cutworm (Euxoa auxiliaris), dusky cutworm (Agrotis venerabilis), and claybacked cutworm (Agrotis gladiaria) ...
[49]
[PDF] Identification of Common Cutworm Species | Corn States
Army cutworm. The larvae are grayish-black with different patterns of gray and brown stripes running down the length of the abdomen Figure 1.1 This.
[50]
Identification of the Most Common Cutworms - Bayer Crop Science
Mar 16, 2023 · For black cutworm, the tubercle closest to the head on each body segment is approximately 1/3 the size of the tubercle closest to the rear.
[51]
Corn Cutworms - Nebraska Extension Publications
Several types of caterpillars feed on seedling corn and may cut the stem. They are commonly referred to as cutworms and may reduce plant stand and yield if ...
[52]
Some Cutworms Out And About, Still Too Early For Black Cutworm
Apr 26, 2024 · Cutworms are larvae of noctuid moths, a huge family with over 11,000 ... The dingy, variegated, and claybacked cutworm species all overwinter in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[53]
Factsheet - Agrotis species - Cutworms - Lucid key
These species include the black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon), the brown cutworm (Agrotis longidentifera), the common cutworm (Agrotis segetum) and the grey ...
[54]
Agrotis Ipsilon - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Detailed life history and habits of the more common cutworms in North America, including the black cutworm, has been published (Crumb, 1929; Walkden, 1950).<|control11|><|separator|>
[55]
(PDF) Turnip moth, Agrotis segetum Denis & Schiffermüller 1775 ...
Sep 19, 2016 · Given that the closely related, introduced species, A. ipsilon (Hufnagel), is distributed throughout much of Australia ...
[56]
What is an army cutworm moth & why do grizzlies eat them?
Feb 12, 2021 · The moths are migratory, splitting their annual lifecycle between low elevation plains/basin habitats and high elevation mountain talus slopes.
[57]
Simulation and Visualization of Potential Population Growth in India ...
With a changing climate, there is the potential for this insect to become an increasingly severe pest in certain regions due to increased habitat suitability.
[58]
Effect of climate change on the potential distribution of the common ...
As a result, we prepared maps indicating areas with suitable climate for S. litura and showed that these areas gradually increased as a result of climate change ...
[59]
Black Cutworm & Variegated Cutworm - OSU Horticulture Department
Seedling plants such as corn, and beans are cut off at the soil surface. Damage to older plants causes wilting. Variegated cutworm larvae feed on foliage of ...Missing: symptoms yield
[60]
Black Cutworm in Soybean | NC State Extension Publications
Mar 17, 2020 · Black cutworms are among the most destructive of all cutworms. The larvae sever plants from roots near the soil line; usually no other feeding ...
[61]
Cutworms / Strawberry / Agriculture: Pest Management ... - UC IPM
Damage. Early season damage by newly hatched cutworms generally appears as small, webless perforations in the newly expanding crown leaves. As larvae grow, they ...
[62]
Western bean cutworm season beginning in Indiana
Jul 6, 2009 · But in areas that have been dealing with the pest for decades, Obermeyer said, yield losses could be as high as 20 percent, although that is ...
[63]
[PDF] Western Bean Cutworm: Characteristics and Management in Corn ...
Infestations averaging several larvae per ear can result in the reduction of grain yield by as much as 30 to 40 percent.
[64]
Armyworms and Cutworms / Floriculture and Ornamental Nurseries ...
The underside and hind wings are pale and the wingspread is 1 to 2 inches. Young larvae are mostly greenish. Older larvae have more coloration and markings ...Missing: size | Show results with:size<|control11|><|separator|>
[65]
Armyworms and Cutworms in Turfgrass | USU
Cutworms prefer golf course turfgrass and cause small pockets of damage that look like ball marks. Infested turfgrass will eventually look uneven and rough.
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[PDF] The Transition to Manufactured Insecticides, 1860-1900
American farmers experienced an unprecedented explosion of insect attacks on their crops throughout the second half of the nineteenth century. In the midst of ...
[67]
About Cutworms - PotatoPro
Potato cutworms have been recognized as agricultural pests since ancient times. Roman agricultural texts by Columella describe soil-dwelling larvae that severed ...
[68]
20 Jan 1945 - Cutworm Plague in Victoria - Trove
MELBOURNE, Wednesday.—A severe outbreak of cutworm plague at Yarram, Victoria, has decreased milk supplies to two condenseries by more than 5000 ...
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[PDF] Agrotis infusa (Bogong moth) - DCCEEW
Nov 9, 2023 · Reports of major cutworm outbreaks and widespread crop damage in the early 20th Century (Scott, 1873;. Froggott 1900, 1902, 1907, 1910, 1911 ...
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Cutworm management in canola
Cutworms surface at night to do their above ground feeding. For most insecticides registered for cutworms, spraying as close to nightfall as possible will ...
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Brief History of Integrated Pest Management
The History of Integrated Pest Management ; 1880, First commercial pesticide spraying machine ; Age of diverse discoveries ; 1888, First major biological ...
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Cutworm “outbreaks” lasting longer - Top Crop Manager
Dec 3, 2014 · Seven species have caused the majority of cutworm damage in recent years – redbacked cutworm, darksided cutworm, army cutworm, dingy cutworm, ...Missing: 19th century 1874 Midwest
[73]
IPM- Crop Rotations - U.OSU - The Ohio State University
May 8, 2017 · A crop rotation will prevent certain cutworms and corn borers from being problematic in a specific area. A good follow-up crop in that area ...
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https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/post/moth-trapping-network-2025-final-update
[75]
Cutworms - Missouri Botanical Garden
2 to 3 weeks later, give the garden shallow cultivation to about 2 inches, thus exposing cutworm larvae to hungry birds. In the spring, give the garden ...
[76]
Cutworms | USU
Damage. Cutworms feed on a wide range of crops. Some plant hosts include: potato, winter wheat, corn, tobacco, asparagus, bean, ...
[77]
Cutworms in the Home Garden | VCE Publications | Virginia Tech
Mar 16, 2023 · The name “cutworm” refers to their habit of severing plant stems as they feed. This damage is most commonly seen in the spring on young plants ...Missing: 18th | Show results with:18th
[78]
Cutworm | NC State Extension - TurfFiles
Cultural Control Kentucky bluegrass is a non-preferred host, for black cutworm, compared to creeping bentgrass and perennial rye and may reduce infestation. ...Missing: measures | Show results with:measures
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Managing Black Cutworms In Turfgrass - Extension Entomology
Black cutworm larvae are green-gray to almost black, with a lighter gray underside and a broad stripe of lighter gray or brown down the middle of the back.Missing: dimorphism | Show results with:dimorphism
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Frequently Asked Questions about the Current Status of Chlorpyrifos ...
Sep 8, 2025 · As of July 1, 2025, no one in the U.S. is allowed to legally use chlorpyrifos on any crops other than the 11. For the most recent labels please ...
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Stem- and Leaf- Feeding Insects - AgriLife Extension Entomology
Cutworms are the larval stages of moths that are active at night. Several species of cutworms (Agrotis and Euxoa spp.) can damage sorghum.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition<|control11|><|separator|>
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Control of Insect Pests In and Around the Home Lawn
Apply baits when the ground is dry and when ground temperatures are between 70°F and 90°F with no forecast of rain. The insecticides used in granular baits are ...
[83]
[PDF] Perspectives on Insecticide Resistance Management: Past, Present ...
As these chemicals have imposed selection pressure on insects, the insects have adapted to this pressure, leading to the development of insecticide resistance.
[84]
Black Cutworm in Turfgrass - Ohioline - The Ohio State University
Sep 8, 2025 · BCW caterpillars are thick-bodied, non-hairy, and typically dark gray to black. They have three true leg pairs attached to their thorax in ...
[85]
Steinernema carpocapsae, Beneficial nematode (Sc) - Cornell CALS
S. carpocapsae is particularly effective against caterpillars, including various webworms, cutworms, armyworms, girdlers, some weevils, and wood-borers.
[86]
Insect-Parasitic Nematodes for the Management of Soil-Dwelling ...
Steinernema carpocapsae is classified as an ambusher and is most suitable for mobile pests, for example armyworms and cutworms. Steinernema riobrave moves well ...
[87]
Cutworms : Turf : Center for Agriculture, Food, and the Environment ...
The front wings have distinct scale patterns (faint lines, circles, and kidney-shaped spots) which can be used to identify species. The black cutworm, which ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[88]
Armyworm | UMN Extension
In small grains, the treatment threshold is 4-5 larvae per square foot. Check under debris and soil clods. Do this in at least five locations within the field.
[89]
Army cutworm - Agricultural Biology - CSU College of Ag Sciences
Army cutworms have a wide host range and feed on most crops grown in Colorado, most notably wheat, alfalfa, and canola. Army cutworm adults are commonly known ...Missing: earliest mention American
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<i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> (<i>Bt</i>) Fact Sheet
Bt has been registered for use in pesticides by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) since 1961. The U.S. EPA requires routine testing to ensure ...Missing: cutworm certification
[91]
https://extension.umn.edu/corn-pest-management/armyworm
[92]
[PDF] EC69-1580 Revised Pale Western Cutworm Control
Birds, toads, ground beetles, and other insects feed on the cutworm larvae. Also, several kinds of flies and wasps parasitize the larvae. However, these.
[93]
[PDF] BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF THE BLACK CUTWORM ... - UKnowledge
May 19, 2011 · 1.6 cm three times per week, irrigated as necessary to prevent drought stress, and fertilized in September, October, and November at 0.48 kg ...
[94]
Biological Control Strategies in Integrated Pest Management (IPM ...
May 16, 2021 · Parasitoids do the same as parasites but eventually kill the host. Parasitoids are typically parasitic insects such as tachinid flies or ...
[95]
Insect Parasitic Nematodes - CSU Extension
May 1, 1994 · Insect parasitic nematodes - small round worms that kill insects but are harmless to other organisms - may be used to control pests.
[96]
Effect of tillage system on epigeal and foliar insect predation in ... - NIH
Jul 31, 2025 · The epigeal predation rate on sentinel waxworms in the system managed predominantly with reduced tillage (64 ± 6.4%) was significantly greater ...Western Bean Cutworm Egg... · Tillage Effects On Epigeal... · Foliar Predation Rates
[97]
Management of Insect Pests - SARE
Natural enemies in annual cropping systems tend to be generalists that can switch among several prey or host species. Conservation tillage systems can favor ...
[98]
[PDF] Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Control ~ PDF
“Farmscaping” is a whole-farm, ecological approach to pest management. It can be defined as the use of hedgerows, insectary plants, cover crops, and water ...
[99]
Controlling cutworms the natural way - Top Crop Manager
Apr 25, 2022 · Costamagna says the team found that the nectar of some plants can increase the longevity of the parasitoids. “If we provide this nectar in the ...<|separator|>
[100]
Conservation biological control using selective insecticides
By definition toxic to insects, insecticides may cause direct mortality of natural enemies, reduce food resources (prey/host), or disrupt behavioral and ...