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Frass

Frass is the excrement and associated debris, such as undigested food particles and exoskeletal fragments, produced primarily by insects and other arthropods, especially the larvae of wood-boring and leaf-eating species.^[1]^[2] The term derives from the German word Fraß, which refers to the act of devouring or the remnants of animal feeding, highlighting its origin in observations of insect damage and waste.^[3]^[4] In ecological contexts, frass plays a vital role in nutrient cycling, particularly in forest ecosystems where it facilitates the decomposition of organic matter and the redistribution of micronutrients like zinc, copper, and manganese from decaying wood back into the soil.^[5] Saproxylic insects, which feed on dead wood, produce frass that enhances soil fertility and supports microbial communities, contributing to broader biodiversity and carbon sequestration processes.^[5] Increasingly recognized in sustainable agriculture, frass from farmed insects—such as black soldier flies (Hermetia illucens) and mealworms (Tenebrio molitor)—serves as an organic fertilizer rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, promoting plant growth, improving soil structure, and stimulating beneficial microbial activity while reducing reliance on synthetic inputs.^[6]^[7]^[8] This application not only recycles waste from insect rearing but also mitigates environmental issues like nutrient runoff and fossil fuel dependency in conventional farming.^[9]

Definition and Etymology

Definition

Frass is the excrement or powdery refuse produced by insects, particularly arising from their feeding activities such as boring into wood or consuming leaves.^[10]^[11] This material serves as a key indicator of insect presence and damage in various contexts, including forestry and agriculture.^[12] Unlike the feces of larger animals, frass is characteristically fine, pellet-like, or dust-like in texture, resulting from the specialized digestive systems of insects that grind and process ingested material into smaller particles.^[1]^[12] For instance, wood-boring insect larvae produce frass that resembles sawdust, while leaf-eating caterpillars often expel it as small, dry pellets.^[11] The term frass entered scientific use in entomology during the mid-19th century, initially to describe the debris from insect feeding.^[1]^[13]

Etymology

The term "frass" derives from the German word Fraß, which signifies "devouring" or "insect damage," stemming from Middle High German vrâz and Old High German frāz, both linked to the verb frezzan meaning "to eat greedily."^[1]^[14] This etymological root reflects the destructive feeding behavior of insects, with Fraß originally denoting the remnants of such consumption in German agricultural and natural history contexts. The word entered English scientific vocabulary around 1854, introduced by British entomologist Henry Tibbats Stainton in his descriptions of insect activities, where it specifically denoted the refuse or excrement produced by boring insects.^[14]^[1] Prior to this adoption, English texts on entomology lacked a precise equivalent, often using descriptive phrases like "insect castings" or "sawdust-like debris," but Stainton's usage standardized "frass" within Anglo-European scientific literature.^[15] Over time, the term's application expanded beyond 19th-century entomological treatises—such as those documenting leaf-mining moths—to broader modern usages in agriculture and ecology, encompassing the excrement of various insects and its role as a natural byproduct. This evolution mirrors growing interest in insect-derived materials, with "frass" now commonly referenced in studies on sustainable farming practices since the late 20th century.^[16]

Characteristics and Composition

Physical Properties

Frass exhibits a wide range of physical forms depending on the producing insect species and environmental conditions. It commonly appears as fine powder, particularly from wood-boring beetles such as powderpost beetles (Lyctidae), where the frass consists of talcum powder-like particles resulting from the larvae's feeding on hardwood.^[17] In contrast, frass from caterpillars often takes the form of discrete pellets, which increase in size with the insect's molts and can resemble small, rounded droppings.^[18] Sawdust-like fragments are typical from carpenter ants or certain boring beetles, presenting as irregular, shredded wood particles mixed with exuvial material.^[19] The color of frass varies from brown to green, largely influenced by the insect's diet; for instance, leaf-feeding caterpillars produce green frass due to undigested chlorophyll, which may darken to brown or black upon drying.^[20] Wood-consuming insects like termites yield beige to dark brown pellets, reflecting the hue of the ingested material.^[21] Textures range from dry and crumbly in aged frass to moist clumps when freshly excreted, with the latter often softer and more cohesive before dehydration occurs.^[22] Particle sizes in frass span from microscopic dust grains, as seen in some beetle excretions, to visible pellets measuring up to several millimeters, such as the approximately 1 mm hexagonal pellets from drywood termites.^[23] These variations aid in identifying the source insect, as the uniformity and scale of frass particles correlate with larval feeding habits and body size.^[24]

Chemical Composition

Frass primarily consists of insect feces combined with undigested plant or organic substrate, fragments of exoskeletons containing chitin, and associated microbial biomass, forming a nutrient-rich organic material.^[25]^[26] This composition arises from the insect's digestive process, where gut microbiota partially break down ingested material, leaving behind a mix of partially digested fibers and exuvial remnants.^[7] The nutrient profile of frass is characterized by elevated levels of essential macronutrients, typically including nitrogen at 2-5%, phosphorus at 1-3%, and potassium at 0.5-2% on a dry weight basis, alongside organic matter content reaching up to 50-80%.^[25]^[7] Trace elements such as calcium (0.3-4.5%) and magnesium (0.1-1%) are also present, contributing to its mineral richness, though concentrations vary based on the insect's diet.^[26]^[27] For instance, frass from black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) fed vegetable waste can exhibit nitrogen up to 5.1% and phosphorus up to 5.2%, highlighting the influence of substrate on elemental makeup.^[7] Frass harbors a diverse microbial community, including beneficial bacteria such as Bacillus and Pseudomonas species, as well as fungi from phyla like Ascomycota, which support decomposition processes through enzymatic activity.^[25]^[26] These microbes, along with enzymes like phosphatases, facilitate nutrient mineralization.^[7] The pH of frass ranges from 4.5 to 9.5, varying from acidic to alkaline depending on the source material.^[27]^[7] Overall, the chemical composition of frass exhibits significant variability influenced by insect species, rearing substrate, and environmental factors, with nutrient and microbial profiles adapting to the ingested diet.^[25]^[26]

Production and Types

Biological Production

Frass is produced through the digestive processes of arthropods, primarily insects, where ingested food is processed along the alimentary canal to extract nutrients, leaving behind waste that is expelled as frass. The insect digestive system consists of three main regions: the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The foregut, lined with cuticle, functions in mechanical breakdown and storage; it includes the mouthparts for ingestion, pharynx and esophagus for transport, crop for temporary storage, and proventriculus for grinding solid food particles into smaller sizes suitable for further digestion.^[28] In the midgut, enzymatic digestion occurs through the secretion of proteases, amylases, and lipases from midgut cells, breaking down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats into absorbable forms, while nutrients are selectively absorbed across the permeable midgut lining. Undigested residues, along with water and ions, then pass to the hindgut, where the cuticle-lined structure facilitates reabsorption of water and salts to maintain osmotic balance, concentrating the waste into semi-solid frass before expulsion through the anus.^[29]^[30] The composition of frass directly reflects the insect's diet, as it primarily consists of indigestible components from the ingested material. In herbivorous insects, which form the majority of frass-producing species, frass is enriched with undigested lignins, cellulose fibers, and other plant structural elements that resist enzymatic breakdown in the midgut.^[31]^[32] Frass production rates vary significantly by insect life stage and environmental conditions, with larval stages generally producing greater volumes due to their higher feeding rates and rapid growth compared to adults, who often consume less or switch to liquid diets. Temperature influences these rates by modulating metabolic activity; optimal temperatures around 25–30°C accelerate digestion and excretion, increasing frass output, while suboptimal conditions reduce it.^[33]^[34]

Variations by Insect Species

Frass exhibits notable variations across different insect orders, primarily influenced by feeding habits, digestive physiology, and habitat. In Coleoptera, particularly wood-boring species like powderpost beetles, frass often appears as fine, powdery sawdust due to the larvae's chewing action on wood fibers, resulting in a texture resembling flour or cornmeal that sifts from exit holes.^[19]^[35] In contrast, Lepidoptera larvae, such as those of moths and butterflies, produce pelletized frass consisting of compact, fibrous shreds or granular wood pieces, often in the form of small excrement pellets that reflect their herbivorous diet on leaves or wood.^[36] For Isoptera, termites generate mud-like frass mixtures, especially subterranean species, where fecal pellets are combined with soil particles, saliva, and wood fragments to form damp, clumpy material resembling mud tubes or small soil aggregates.^[37] Specific species highlight further compositional diversity tied to diet. The frass of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens), which feed on organic waste, is enriched with diverse microbial communities, including bacteria that aid in waste decomposition and contribute to its potential as a bioactive residue.^[38]^[39] Silkworm (Bombyx mori) frass, derived from mulberry leaf consumption, contains elevated levels of organic matter, including amino acids and proteins from partially digested plant material, alongside carbohydrates and lipids.^[40]^[41] While frass is predominantly studied in insects, the term occasionally extends to other arthropods, though research remains limited. Excrement from spiders, sometimes loosely referred to as frass despite not being standard terminology, consists of small, discrete pellets measuring 0.3-0.4 mm in length, often darker and less voluminous due to their liquid diet of prey fluids.^[42] Myriapod frass, such as from millipedes and centipedes, appears as tiny, round pellets from their detritivorous or predatory habits, serving as minor contributors to soil organic matter but with sparse documentation on composition.^[43] As of 2025, research continues to explore optimizing frass production from farmed insects for enhanced nutrient profiles in agriculture.^[44]

Ecological Role

Nutrient Cycling and Soil Health

Frass plays a key role in accelerating the decomposition of organic matter in ecosystems by stimulating microbial activity. When deposited in soil, frass provides readily available nutrients and organic compounds that enhance microbial growth and enzyme activity, leading to faster breakdown of plant litter and other organic substrates. For instance, studies on insect frass from various species have shown that it boosts microbial respiration by up to 25-fold, promoting the release of carbon and nitrogen through enhanced decomposition processes.^[8] This microbial stimulation not only hastens nutrient mineralization but also contributes to the overall turnover of organic matter in forest and other natural soils.^[45] In terms of soil enhancement, frass incorporation increases soil organic carbon content, thereby improving long-term soil fertility. It also enhances water retention capacity, as evidenced by frass from various insects, which boosts soil water-holding ability. Additionally, frass promotes microbial diversity by introducing beneficial bacteria and fungi, resulting in greater soil enzymatic activity and overall biodiversity; research indicates shifts in microbial communities that support healthier soil ecosystems.^[46] In natural ecosystems, particularly forests, frass from saproxylic insects facilitates the redistribution of micronutrients like zinc, copper, and manganese from decaying wood back into the soil, enhancing fertility and supporting microbial communities. This process contributes to broader biodiversity and carbon sequestration. Regarding carbon and nitrogen cycling, frass facilitates the return of ingested nitrogen to the soil and aids carbon sequestration by adding stable organic matter that sustains soil microbial processes, thereby closing the loop in herbivore-mediated nutrient dynamics.^[5]^[47]^[46]^[48]

Indicator of Insect Activity

Frass serves as a key diagnostic tool for detecting arthropod infestations in natural and managed ecosystems, often appearing as piles, trails, or ejected particles that signal active insect boring or feeding. In forestry, accumulations of fine, sawdust-like frass at the base of trees indicate larval tunneling by bark beetles such as Ips species or Dendroctonus spp., where the frass is pushed out through exit holes during wood excavation. Similarly, in agricultural settings, frass trails from lepidopteran larvae, like those of the European spruce sawfly (Gilpinia hercyniae), form visible patterns on foliage or ground, alerting managers to potential crop damage before severe defoliation occurs.^[49]^[50] Monitoring frass volume provides a quantitative estimate of insect populations and activity levels, particularly useful in integrated pest management. In agriculture and forestry, frass drop collection—measuring the mass of falling frass over time—correlates with larval density and feeding rates; for instance, studies on spruce sawfly outbreaks used this method to index population sizes and predict defoliation impacts across seasonal phenology windows. In forensic entomology, frass from necrophagous insects like dermestid beetles (Dermestes spp.) on human or animal remains helps determine the time of insect colonization, as its accumulation and characteristics (e.g., twisted, white pellets) indicate the duration of larval presence post-mortem. Chemical analysis of frass, such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for hydrocarbons, further identifies specific species like the invasive red-necked longhorn beetle (Aromia bungii), enabling precise infestation diagnosis without destructive sampling.^[51]^[49]^[52]^[50]^[53] Distinguishing fresh from old frass relies on environmental degradation factors, aiding in assessing current versus historical activity. Fresh frass typically retains high moisture content, appearing light-colored, powdery, and loosely dispersed, as seen in active powderpost beetle (Lyctus spp.) infestations where undisturbed piles signal ongoing emergence. Over time, exposure to air and weathering causes drying, compaction, and darkening—old frass becomes brownish, clumped, or integrated into dust, indicating past rather than active infestations in structures or trees. These physical changes, including moisture loss and color shifts, allow field inspectors to prioritize interventions based on infestation recency.^[54]^[55]^[56]

Human Applications

As Fertilizer and Soil Amendment

Frass from farmed insects, such as the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) and yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), serves as a valuable byproduct in agriculture, approved for use as an organic fertilizer in the European Union under Commission Regulation (EU) 2021/1925, which establishes standards for production, safety, and market placement to ensure compliance with microbiological and quality criteria.^[57] This approval facilitates the integration of insect farming residues into sustainable farming practices, leveraging frass's nutrient-rich profile to support crop production without relying on synthetic inputs. In practical applications, frass is typically incorporated into soil at rates of 2.5 to 7.5 tons per hectare, depending on crop type and soil conditions, to optimize nutrient delivery and minimize potential phytotoxicity at higher doses. For instance, black soldier fly frass applied at 2.5 tons per hectare has improved maize yields by 15-25% compared to conventional NPK fertilizers, enhancing grain production and overall plant biomass. To mitigate risks from pathogens and stabilize organic matter, frass is often subjected to heat treatment, such as pasteurization at 70°C for at least 1 hour, which reduces microbial loads to levels meeting EU safety thresholds while preserving nutrient availability.^[58]^[59]^[60] Compared to traditional organic fertilizers like poultry litter, insect frass exhibits lower concentrations of heavy metals, such as cadmium and lead, rendering it a safer amendment for long-term soil health and reducing accumulation risks in food chains. Furthermore, frass promotes root development through bioactive compounds, including plant hormones like auxins and cytokinins, which stimulate lateral root formation and enhance nutrient uptake efficiency.^[61]^[62] Its high content of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium further enables effective fertilization, as outlined in the chemical composition section.

Other Uses

In forensic entomology, frass produced by necrophagous insects such as beetles serves as a valuable indicator for estimating the postmortem interval (PMI) in crime scene investigations. The accumulation and characteristics of frass, often appearing as whitish ribbons from species like Dermestes maculatus, can provide clues about the duration and intensity of insect activity on remains, complementing analyses of insect life stages.^[63] For instance, in cases involving mummified corpses, the presence and distribution of frass from hide beetles have been documented to help reconstruct timelines of decomposition, aiding in determining the time since death when direct evidence is limited.^[64] Additionally, frass from these insects has been analyzed for traces of drugs or toxins, enhancing toxicological assessments in forensic pathology.^[65] Frass contributes to bioremediation efforts by introducing beneficial microbial communities that facilitate the degradation of pollutants in contaminated soils. Studies on black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) frass have shown it acts as a bioinoculum, enriching soil with bacteria and fungi capable of breaking down hydrocarbons and other organic contaminants through enhanced enzymatic activity.^[66] For example, when applied to heavy metal or petroleum-polluted sites, frass-derived amendments promote phytostabilization by stabilizing toxic elements and supporting plant growth, reducing bioavailability of hazards like potentially toxic metals.^[67] Pyrolysis of frass into biochar further amplifies this potential, enabling adsorption and removal of pollutants such as dyes and heavy metals from soil and water.^[68] In industrial applications, frass is explored as a sustainable supplement in animal feed, leveraging its nutrient profile to replace conventional protein sources. Research on black soldier fly frass demonstrates its efficacy in aquaculture diets, where inclusion levels up to 20% support growth performance, improve intestinal health, and enhance immune responses in species like channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) without adverse effects.^[69] Similarly, in rabbit feeding trials, mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) frass at 10-15% of the diet maintained body weight gain and improved blood profiles, indicating its viability as a cost-effective, eco-friendly additive.^[70] Frass also holds promise in cosmetics due to its chitin content, which can be extracted for use in formulations with moisturizing and protective properties. Chitin and chitosan derived from insect frass, particularly from black soldier fly, exhibit biocompatibility and film-forming abilities suitable for skin care products, helping to retain moisture and promote wound healing.^[71] Ongoing research highlights the antimicrobial attributes of these compounds, with frass extracts showing inhibitory effects against bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus and fungi such as Candida albicans, potentially reducing the need for synthetic preservatives in cosmeceuticals.^[72] For instance, black soldier fly frass has demonstrated antagonistic activity against plant pathogens, suggesting broader applications in antimicrobial agents for personal care items.^[73]

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(PDF) Plastic waste upcycled into hormone-rich worm frass fertilizer ...
Sep 26, 2025 · Insect larvae can ; Phytohormones hormones in frass from mealworms and superworms reared ; versus plastic diets ; growth-promoting auxins and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[65]
Forensic entomology - Pathology Outlines
Feb 2, 2021 · Beetle frass (waste) appears as whitish ribbons (Int J Legal Med ... American Board of Forensic Entomology and the Entomology Society ...
[66]
A mummified human corpse and associated insects of forensic ...
Jul 14, 2020 · ... frass. On 21 December 2018, a detailed forensic-entomological ... forensic entomology. Obviously, in order to confirm this, further ...
[67]
Morphine extraction in necrophagous insects remains for ...
Drugs have previously been detected in Diptera puparial cases [9], [10], [11] and frass of necrophagous insects [12]. To study the potential use of insects ...<|separator|>
[68]
Can Soil Improvers (Biochar, Compost, Insect Frass, Lime, and ...
Can Soil Improvers (Biochar, Compost, Insect Frass, Lime, and Zeolite) Achieve Phytostabilization of Potentially Toxic Elements in Heavily Contaminated Soil ...
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Insect farming: A bioeconomy-based opportunity to revalorize plastic ...
Dec 24, 2024 · Insect farming also benefits agriculture by producing frass, a manure-like residue composed of a mixture of larval feces, undigested food, ...
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Nutritional value of frass from black soldier fly larvae, Hermetia ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Insect frass has demonstrated dietary value in aquaculture, showing its potential as a sustainable feed ingredient or supplement. Studies have ...
[71]
Dietary utilization of mealworm frass in rabbit feeding regimes and ...
Feb 6, 2023 · This study aimed to shed light on the use of mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) frass (TMF) in rabbit diets and its effects on growth performance, blood profiles, ...<|separator|>
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Cosmetics and Cosmeceutical Applications of Chitin, Chitosan ... - NIH
Chitin, chitosan and its derivatives exhibit many different relevant properties as active ingredient in dental, skin, hair and nails care.
[73]
Insect Chitin-Based Nanomaterials for Innovative Cosmetics ... - MDPI
Chitin and its derivatives are attracting great interest in cosmetic and cosmeceutical fields, thanks to their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, ...
[74]
https://brill.com/view/journals/jiff/10/10/article-p1731_8.xml?language=en