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Cystogastrostomy

Cystogastrostomy is a medical procedure that establishes an internal drainage pathway by creating an anastomosis between a pancreatic pseudocyst and the posterior wall of the stomach, allowing accumulated fluid to empty into the gastrointestinal tract.^[1] This intervention is primarily indicated for symptomatic pancreatic pseudocysts, which are encapsulated collections of pancreatic fluid and debris that arise as complications of acute or chronic pancreatitis, trauma, or other pancreatic disorders.^[2] Pseudocysts larger than 6 cm in diameter, persisting beyond 6 weeks, or causing complications such as infection, hemorrhage, gastric outlet obstruction, or rupture typically warrant this treatment, as many smaller or asymptomatic ones resolve spontaneously.^[1] The procedure was first described in 1921 by Czech surgeon Rudolf Jedlicka, who resected portions of a pancreatic cyst and anastomosed the remnants to the gastric wall, marking a pivotal advancement in managing these collections beyond simple external drainage.^[3] In 1931, Polish surgeon Anton Jurasz refined the technique with the first transgastric cystogastrostomy, suturing the cyst wall directly to the stomach's posterior aspect, which became the standard for mature pseudocysts due to its low complication profile.^[3] Endoscopic approaches emerged in the late 20th century, with the first endoscopic cystogastrostomy reported in 1989 by Cremer et al..^[1] Modern cystogastrostomy can be performed endoscopically, laparoscopically, or via open surgery, with the endoscopic method—often guided by endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)—serving as the preferred first-line option for accessible pseudocysts adherent to the stomach.^[4] In endoscopic cystogastrostomy, a flexible endoscope is advanced through the mouth to the stomach, where a puncture is made into the pseudocyst under imaging guidance, followed by placement of a stent (such as a double-pigtail plastic stent or self-expanding metal stent) to maintain patency; the procedure typically lasts 1-2 hours under sedation and allows for outpatient recovery in uncomplicated cases.^[4] Surgical variants, including open or laparoscopic cystogastrostomy, involve direct visualization and anastomosis creation, reserved for cases where endoscopic access is infeasible, such as pseudocysts in the pancreatic tail or those with immature walls.^[1] Success rates for both approaches exceed 90%, with endoscopic methods offering shorter hospital stays (often 1-3 days) and lower costs compared to surgery, though recurrence occurs in 0-6% of cases.^[5] Potential complications include infection (4-6% for endoscopic), bleeding, stent migration, perforation, or fistula formation, with surgical techniques carrying higher overall morbidity (10-30%) and mortality (1-5%).^[1] Fluid from the pseudocyst is generally well-tolerated by the stomach's acidic environment, and post-procedure monitoring involves imaging to confirm resolution, with stent removal after 4-6 weeks if drainage persists.^[2] Compared to alternatives like percutaneous drainage or cystojejunostomy, cystogastrostomy provides superior long-term resolution with fewer reinterventions, particularly for pseudocysts in the pancreatic body or head.^[1] Ongoing advancements, such as lumen-apposing metal stents, continue to enhance safety and efficacy, reducing procedure times and complication risks.^[1]

Introduction and Background

Definition and Purpose

Cystogastrostomy is a procedure that involves the creation of an anastomosis between a pancreatic pseudocyst and the posterior wall of the stomach, facilitating the internal drainage of the pseudocyst's contents into the gastric lumen.^[6] The term is derived from the Greek roots "cysto-" referring to a cyst, "gastro-" denoting the stomach, and "-stomy" indicating the formation of an opening.^[7] This approach is particularly applicable when the pseudocyst, which arises as a fluid collection resulting from acute or chronic pancreatitis, is located in close proximity to the stomach.^[8] The primary purpose of cystogastrostomy is to alleviate symptoms associated with the pseudocyst, such as abdominal pain or gastric outlet obstruction, while preventing serious complications including rupture, hemorrhage, or infection.^[9] By enabling internal drainage, the procedure helps preserve pancreatic function and avoids the need for more invasive options like external drainage or pancreatic resection, which carry higher risks of morbidity.^[10] In contrast, asymptomatic pseudocysts are typically managed conservatively, as approximately one-third may resolve spontaneously without intervention.^[8] Within the treatment algorithm for pancreatic pseudocysts, cystogastrostomy is indicated for mature lesions that have developed a well-defined fibrous wall, generally after 4 to 6 weeks, and are adherent to the posterior gastric wall, ensuring safe and effective drainage.^[11] This timing allows for pseudocyst wall maturation, reducing the risk of leakage or recurrence, and positions the procedure as a definitive internal drainage method for symptomatic or complicated cases.^[12]

Relevant Anatomy and Pathophysiology

Pancreatic pseudocysts arise from disruption of the main pancreatic duct or its branches, leading to extravasation of pancreatic juice into surrounding tissues and subsequent encapsulation by a fibrous wall devoid of epithelial lining.^[8] This disruption commonly occurs due to acute or chronic pancreatitis, trauma, or iatrogenic injury, with chronic pancreatitis accounting for the majority of cases through repeated inflammatory episodes that weaken ductal integrity.^[13] The resulting collection consists primarily of amylase-rich fluid, and over time, a mature pseudocyst develops through progressive fibrosis of the surrounding inflammatory tissue, typically requiring 4 to 6 weeks for wall maturation to support safe drainage.^[8] Anatomically, the pancreas lies retroperitoneally, with its head and neck positioned adjacent to the posterior wall of the stomach along the lesser curvature, facilitating direct apposition for drainage procedures like cystogastrostomy.^[11] The main pancreatic duct traverses the gland from the tail to the head, draining into the duodenum via the major and accessory papillae; duct disruption in the head or neck region often leads to pseudocysts forming in the lesser sac, posterior to the stomach.^[8] Key vascular structures along the superior border of the pancreas must be avoided during anastomosis to prevent hemorrhage.^[14] Untreated pseudocysts carry significant risks, including progressive expansion that can compress adjacent organs such as the duodenum or common bile duct, leading to gastric outlet obstruction or biliary stasis.^[15] Other complications encompass infection, rupture into the peritoneal cavity, and erosion into nearby vessels causing hemorrhage.^[8] For cystogastrostomy to be feasible, the pseudocyst must be mature and located within 1 cm of the gastric wall to ensure a secure, low-risk anastomosis.^[15]

Diagnosis and Indications

Diagnostic Evaluation

Diagnostic evaluation of pancreatic pseudocysts prior to considering cystogastrostomy involves a combination of imaging modalities and laboratory analyses to confirm the presence of a pseudocyst, assess its characteristics, and ensure suitability for drainage. This process aims to differentiate pseudocysts from other pancreatic fluid collections and rule out alternative pathologies, guiding the decision for intervention. Imaging is central, with computed tomography (CT) serving as the gold standard for initial diagnosis due to its high sensitivity of 90-100% in detecting pseudocysts, accurately delineating size, location, and wall thickness.^[16] Transabdominal ultrasound provides an accessible initial screening tool, offering sensitivity of 70-90%, though it is operator-dependent and less precise for deep structures.^[8] Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) plays a crucial role in detailed real-time assessment, particularly for evaluating cyst-stomach apposition and excluding vascular structures or invasion, which is essential for planning transmural drainage like cystogastrostomy.^[17] EUS demonstrates high sensitivity (93-100%) and specificity (92-98%) in distinguishing pseudocysts from other collections, allowing visualization of non-bulging cysts in up to 48% of cases.^[18] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) offer superior characterization of pancreatic duct anatomy and internal debris, with near 100% sensitivity for predicting drainage outcomes, though they are not routine unless CT is inconclusive.^[8] Laboratory evaluation includes cyst fluid analysis obtained via fine-needle aspiration during EUS, where amylase levels exceeding 250 U/L strongly indicate a pancreatic origin, with levels over 5,000 U/mL showing 94% sensitivity for pseudocysts.^[19] Lipase levels in cyst fluid similarly confirm enzymatic leakage from the pancreas. To exclude neoplastic cysts, carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) levels below 5 ng/mL and CA 19-9 below 37 U/mL are characteristic of pseudocysts, contrasting with elevated values in mucinous lesions.^[20] Systemic markers such as white blood cell count (WBC) and C-reactive protein (CRP) help identify infection, prompting urgent drainage if elevated.^[16] Differential diagnosis relies on integrating imaging and fluid analysis to distinguish pseudocysts from true cystic neoplasms (high CEA, low amylase), walled-off necrosis (solid debris on CT or MRI), or abscesses (purulent fluid, positive cultures).^[8] Pseudocysts typically appear as well-defined, fluid-filled collections without solid components on CT, whereas necrosis shows heterogeneous density.^[18] Maturity assessment is based on the development of a well-defined fibrous wall, typically after 4-6 weeks as visualized on CT or EUS, to balance safety against the risks of intervening on immature collections.^[8] Walls thicker than 1 cm may suggest complications like infection or neoplasm, warranting further evaluation.^[21] This evaluation ensures the pseudocyst wall can support secure drainage via cystogastrostomy.^[17]

Selection Criteria for Intervention

Cystogastrostomy is indicated for pancreatic pseudocysts that cause symptoms such as persistent abdominal pain, nausea, bloating, or early satiety, particularly when these persist despite conservative management.^[22] Additional indications include pseudocysts larger than 6 cm in diameter that have persisted for more than 6 weeks without resolution, as these are less likely to regress spontaneously and may lead to complications.^[23] Complications necessitating intervention encompass infection, hemorrhage, biliary obstruction, or gastric outlet obstruction, where drainage alleviates pressure on adjacent structures and prevents further deterioration.^[8] Diagnostic confirmation via computed tomography (CT) or endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) is essential to verify pseudocyst maturity and exclude other etiologies before proceeding.^[22] Contraindications to cystogastrostomy include immature pseudocysts less than 4 weeks old, as their thin walls increase the risk of leakage or incomplete drainage.^[22] Pseudocysts located more than 1 cm from the gastric wall are unsuitable due to technical challenges in achieving safe access.^[24] Other absolute contraindications involve suspected underlying malignancy, uncorrectable coagulopathy, portal hypertension with varices, or vascular involvement such as pseudoaneurysms, which heighten bleeding risks.^[24]^[25] Compared to alternatives, cystogastrostomy—particularly the endoscopic approach—is preferred for pseudocysts adjacent to the stomach over percutaneous drainage, which carries a higher risk of pancreaticocutaneous fistula and prolonged external catheter use.^[22] The American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE) 2024 guidelines recommend endoscopic cystogastrostomy over open surgery for symptomatic pseudocysts in suitable candidates, citing equivalent efficacy with shorter hospital stays (median 2 days versus 6 days) and lower costs.^[25]^[22] Patient selection emphasizes comorbidities and overall risk profile; for instance, obesity or severe cardiopulmonary disease favors minimally invasive endoscopic techniques to reduce perioperative morbidity.^[26] A multidisciplinary approach involving gastroenterologists and surgeons is advised to tailor intervention based on individual factors, ensuring optimal outcomes in high-risk patients.^[22]

Techniques

Open Surgical Cystogastrostomy

Open surgical cystogastrostomy represents the conventional approach to internal drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts adherent to the posterior gastric wall, involving direct surgical creation of an anastomosis between the pseudocyst and the stomach to facilitate fluid drainage into the gastrointestinal tract. This method ensures comprehensive access and manipulation, making it suitable for anatomically challenging scenarios where minimally invasive options may be inadequate. Performed under general anesthesia, the procedure typically requires 2 to 4 hours of operative time, depending on pseudocyst complexity and patient factors.^[27] Specific indications for open surgical cystogastrostomy include large pseudocysts exceeding 6 cm in diameter that persist beyond 6 weeks, particularly those causing symptoms such as abdominal pain, gastric outlet obstruction, or complications like infection and acute hemorrhage. It is also preferred in cases of failed prior endoscopic drainage or when the pseudocyst anatomy is complex, such as extensive collections or significant wall friability, where direct visualization is essential for safe intervention. Preoperative imaging, such as computed tomography, aids in planning the approach by confirming pseudocyst location and maturity.^[28]^[5]^[29] The procedure begins with a midline laparotomy incision to enter the peritoneal cavity and expose the lesser sac, achieved by incising the gastrocolic ligament to mobilize the stomach. An anterior gastrotomy is then performed on the greater curvature of the stomach, anterior to the pseudocyst bulge, allowing finger or instrument exploration to confirm communication with the pseudocyst cavity via needle aspiration of fluid. The posterior gastric wall overlying the pseudocyst is opened, and the cystostomy is enlarged to a 3- to 5-cm diameter using electrocautery or scissors, with debridement of nonviable edges to promote healing. The anastomosis is created by approximating the pseudocyst wall to the gastric mucosa, either hand-sewn with interrupted absorbable sutures (e.g., 2-0 polyglactin) in a single or double layer or using a linear cutting stapler for efficiency. A drainage tube, such as a Jackson-Pratt or Penrose, is placed in the lesser sac to manage potential postoperative collections, and the anterior gastrotomy is closed in layers. The abdominal wall is closed routinely, often with omental reinforcement over the anastomosis if necrosis is present. Instrumentation includes standard laparotomy tools, retractors for exposure, electrocautery for hemostasis, surgical staplers for optional automated anastomosis, and absorbable sutures for secure closure.^[28]^[29]^[5] This technique offers the advantage of direct visualization and tactile feedback, enabling thorough debridement and addressing concomitant issues like hemorrhage, with reported success rates of 90% to 95% in achieving pseudocyst resolution. However, it is associated with higher morbidity rates of 10% to 30%, including risks of infection, pancreatic fistula, and bleeding, compared to less invasive methods. Postoperative hospital stays typically range from 7 to 10 days, reflecting the greater tissue trauma from the open incision. Due to advances in endoscopic and laparoscopic alternatives, open surgical cystogastrostomy has seen declining utilization since 2020, now primarily reserved for complex or emergent cases where minimally invasive access is infeasible.^[27]^[28]00844-5/fulltext)

Endoscopic Cystogastrostomy

Endoscopic cystogastrostomy is a minimally invasive procedure performed under endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) guidance to drain pancreatic fluid collections, such as pseudocysts or walled-off necrosis (WON), by creating a transmural connection between the cyst and the gastric lumen.^[30] This approach is indicated for symptomatic cysts greater than 5 cm in size that persist beyond 6 weeks and are located within 1 cm of the gastric wall, allowing for safe access without significant risk of intervening structures.^[31] It is particularly suitable for cysts causing pain, infection, or gastric outlet obstruction, and the procedure can often be conducted on an outpatient basis due to its low complication profile.^[31] The procedure begins with EUS-guided puncture of the cyst using a 19-gauge needle, confirmed by color Doppler to avoid vessels, followed by aspiration of fluid for analysis.^[30] A 0.035-inch guidewire is then advanced through the needle and coiled into the cyst under fluoroscopic guidance.^[30] The tract is dilated sequentially with a 6 Fr dilator or cystotome and a balloon to 8-10 mm, after which a stent is deployed to maintain patency.^[30] Stents include double-pigtail plastic stents (7-10 Fr) or fully covered self-expanding metal stents (FCSEMS); lumen-apposing metal stents (LAMS), introduced in the mid-2010s, facilitate single-step deployment with an electrocautery tip, bypassing dilation and enabling larger-caliber drainage (10-16 mm).^[30]^[32] For WON, direct endoscopic necrosectomy follows stent placement, involving irrigation, suction, and debridement with baskets or nets to remove necrotic debris, often in multiple sessions via the LAMS tract dilated to 15 mm.^[30]^[33] Advancements from 2020 to 2025 have emphasized LAMS for their ease of deployment, reduced migration risk, and compatibility with hybrid techniques, such as hydrogen peroxide lavage during necrosectomy to enhance debris clearance.^[32]^[34] These stents allow quicker procedures, typically lasting 30-60 minutes, compared to traditional methods.^[34] A 2025 meta-analysis reported technical success rates exceeding 98% for both LAMS and double-pigtail plastic stents (DPPS), with clinical success higher for LAMS (risk ratio 1.05) and procedure times shortened by approximately 16 minutes.^[35] Overall success rates range from 80-91%, with LAMS demonstrating lower recurrence in intention-to-treat analyses (risk ratio 0.44 versus DPPS).^[35]^[34] Post-procedure management involves monitoring stent patency through clinical follow-up and imaging, such as CT at 3-4 weeks, to confirm resolution before elective LAMS removal and prevent complications like buried stent syndrome.^[32]^[34] This approach aligns with patient selection criteria emphasizing adjacency to the stomach for optimal outcomes.^[31]

Laparoscopic Cystogastrostomy

Laparoscopic cystogastrostomy is a minimally invasive surgical technique used to drain pancreatic pseudocysts by creating an anastomosis between the cyst and the stomach, offering a balance between the precision of open surgery and the reduced morbidity of endoscopic approaches.^[36] This method is particularly suited for symptomatic pseudocysts measuring 6-15 cm that have persisted beyond 6 weeks despite conservative management or after failure of percutaneous or endoscopic drainage.^[36] Specific indications include cases with signs of infection, compression of adjacent structures, or extensive collections where endoscopic access is limited, as it allows for thorough debridement and lavage under direct visualization.^[37] The prerequisite is an anatomically favorable position, with the pseudocyst adherent to the posterior gastric wall, as detailed in relevant pathophysiology. The procedure typically begins with the establishment of pneumoperitoneum using a Veress needle or open technique, followed by placement of 3-5 trocars: a 10-12 mm optical port at the supraumbilical site, a 12 mm working port in the epigastric region, and 5 mm ports in the left hypochondrium, right semilunar line, and upper midline for triangulation.^[36] An anterior gastrotomy is created using a harmonic scalpel or bipolar vessel sealer, approximately 2-3 cm in size, to access the intragastric space. The posterior gastric wall is then incised under guidance from preoperative imaging or needle aspiration to confirm cyst location, allowing entry into the pseudocyst for evacuation of contents, irrigation, and debridement of debris.^[38] Anastomosis is performed using a 60 mm articulating linear stapler (e.g., Endo GIA) to create a wide, secure connection between the cyst and gastric walls, with hemostasis ensured and an omental patch applied if needed to reinforce the site.^[36] The anterior gastrotomy is closed in one or two layers with absorbable sutures (e.g., 2-0 PDS or Vicryl) or a linear cutter, and a drain is placed to monitor for leaks. Operative duration averages 80-135 minutes, utilizing standard laparoscopic instrumentation including a 30-degree laparoscope, graspers, and suction-irrigation devices.^[36] Approaches may be anterior transgastric or incorporate specialized ports like step-dilatation systems for enhanced access in solid-predominant collections.^[38] This technique provides advantages such as shorter hospital stays (3-5 days) and faster recovery (return to activity in 4 weeks) compared to open surgery, along with superior visualization for managing infected or necrotic cysts.^[36] It addresses limitations of purely endoscopic methods by enabling complete necrosectomy in a single session, particularly for larger or complex pseudocysts.^[37] Recent studies indicate success rates of 84-100% resolution within 1-2 months, with recurrence rates of 0-5%—notably lower than the 18-21% seen in endoscopic drainage for select cases.^[36] 00844-5/fulltext) Disadvantages include the need for general anesthesia and specialized laparoscopic expertise, though conversion rates decrease with experience (0% in experienced series).^[38] Emerging robotic-assisted variants, reported in cases from 2023 onward, enhance precision with endowrist instruments and 3D visualization, potentially reducing operative times in challenging anatomies.^[39]

Perioperative Care

Preoperative Preparation

Preoperative preparation for cystogastrostomy involves comprehensive patient optimization to minimize perioperative risks, particularly in patients with underlying pancreatitis who may have comorbidities such as malnutrition or infection. Risk stratification begins with assessment using the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical status classification, which categorizes patients based on systemic disease severity to guide anesthetic planning; for instance, many patients undergoing laparoscopic cystogastrostomy have ASA grades of 3 or higher due to chronic illness. Nutritional status is evaluated, as malnutrition is common in pancreatic disease, and enteral feeding is initiated if patients are malnourished to improve outcomes, aligning with guidelines recommending early enteral nutrition in acute pancreatitis to support recovery before intervention. For suspected infected pseudocysts, broad-spectrum antibiotic prophylaxis is administered preoperatively to reduce infection-related complications.^[40]^[26]^[41]^[15] Laboratory evaluations include a complete coagulation profile to identify bleeding risks, especially in patients with potential hepatic involvement from pancreatitis, and blood typing and cross-matching in anticipation of possible transfusion during surgery. Final imaging with computed tomography (CT) or endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) confirms cyst maturity, typically delaying intervention until at least 4 weeks after onset to ensure a well-defined wall (thickness >3 mm), as per recent consensus guidelines, while also assessing for vascular involvement. These diagnostics build on initial evaluations to verify suitability for drainage.^[16]^[42] Patient counseling is essential, involving informed consent that details the chosen technique (endoscopic, laparoscopic, or open), associated risks such as bleeding or infection, and alternatives like conservative management for smaller cysts. For endoscopic approaches, patients undergo fasting (typically 8-12 hours) without routine bowel preparation, unlike lower gastrointestinal procedures. Multidisciplinary planning coordinates care among gastroenterologists, surgeons, anesthesiologists, and radiologists, particularly for high-risk patients with pancreatitis comorbidities, to optimize timing and approach per 2024 guidelines.^[42]^[4]^[42]

Postoperative Management

Following cystogastrostomy, patients who are hemodynamically unstable are typically admitted to the intensive care unit for close monitoring of vital signs and organ function. Pain management involves multimodal analgesia, starting with opioids and transitioning to non-opioids as tolerated to minimize respiratory depression. A nasogastric tube is commonly placed for gastric decompression to reduce the risk of anastomotic strain, with removal planned for the second to fourth postoperative day once bowel function returns. Serial serum amylase and lipase levels are monitored daily in the early postoperative period to detect potential pancreatic fistulas or persistent inflammation.^[27]^[43] Routine postoperative monitoring includes daily clinical assessments for signs of infection or bleeding, alongside imaging such as ultrasound or computed tomography (CT) to evaluate pseudocyst resolution and stent patency. Diet advancement begins with clear liquids once nausea resolves, progressing to a low-fat solid diet as tolerated, with enteral nutrition via nasojejunal tube if oral intake exacerbates pain; parenteral nutrition is reserved for cases of prolonged ileus. Prophylactic antibiotics, such as cephalosporins or carbapenems, are administered for 3-5 days to prevent infection, with extended duration for confirmed infected pseudocysts. Early mobilization is encouraged within 24-48 hours to reduce thromboembolic risks and complications, supported by recent data showing hospital stays averaging 5 days and return to baseline activities in 4 weeks for laparoscopic approaches.^[9]^[44] For endoscopic cystogastrostomy using lumen-apposing metal stents (LAMS), stents are removed endoscopically 4-6 weeks post-procedure after CT confirmation of pseudocyst resolution. Follow-up clinic visits occur at 1-3 months, incorporating repeat imaging to assess for recurrence and stent-related issues, with telephone consultations at 6 months for ongoing surveillance. Endoscopic techniques generally allow shorter recovery times compared to open surgery, with most patients achieving complete resolution by 1-2 months.^[45]

Complications and Outcomes

Potential Complications

Cystogastrostomy, whether performed endoscopically, laparoscopically, or via open surgery, carries risks of early complications occurring within the first few weeks post-procedure. Bleeding is reported in 1-5% of cases overall, often arising from puncture-site hemorrhage or vessel injury during access to the pseudocyst; management typically involves endoscopic hemostasis or angiographic embolization for severe instances. Infection or abscess formation affects 5-10% of patients, particularly if the collection was infected pre-procedure, and is addressed with broad-spectrum antibiotics and percutaneous or endoscopic drainage to prevent sepsis. Perforation or anastomotic leak occurs in 2-4% of procedures, potentially leading to peritonitis, and requires prompt imaging-guided intervention or surgical repair.^[12] Late complications, emerging beyond the initial postoperative period, are more prevalent in endoscopic approaches due to indwelling stents. Stent migration or occlusion is specific to endoscopic cystogastrostomy and occurs in 1-15% of cases, necessitating repeat endoscopy for repositioning or replacement to maintain drainage patency. Recurrence of the pseudocyst is noted in approximately 9% of endoscopic cases, often linked to ongoing pancreatic duct disruption.^[12] Additionally, gastric varices may develop as a consequence of portal hypertension, particularly sinistral hypertension from splenic vein thrombosis associated with the underlying pseudocyst pathology. Technique-specific risks include a higher incidence of bleeding in open surgical cystogastrostomy due to potential vascular injury during dissection, while post-endoscopic procedures can provoke a flare of acute pancreatitis in susceptible patients through inflammatory stimulation.^[46] Prevention strategies include prophylactic administration of octreotide to reduce pancreatic secretions and mitigate fistula or leak risks, alongside vigilant clinical monitoring for early detection of adverse events. Recent data from 2020-2025 indicate overall procedure-related morbidity of 10-20% across techniques, with mortality remaining low at less than 1%. Postoperative monitoring, as outlined in standard care protocols, facilitates timely intervention for these complications.^[12]^[46]^[36]^[47]^[48]

Success Rates and Long-term Prognosis

Cystogastrostomy demonstrates high overall success rates, with resolution of pancreatic pseudocysts achieved in 90-95% of cases across various techniques.^[49] Endoscopic approaches report early clinical success rates of 78-87%, while laparoscopic methods achieve 90-100%, and open surgical techniques yield 90-95%.^[36] A 2013 randomized controlled trial, supported by later reviews up to 2024, showed equivalence between endoscopic and surgical cystogastrostomy, with success rates of 95% for endoscopic drainage using lumen-apposing metal stents (LAMS) compared to 100% for surgical approaches. A 2025 retrospective study of laparoscopic cystogastrostomy reported 100% resolution in 25 cases with 0% recurrence over 9 months follow-up.^[49]^[50]^[36] Recurrence rates following cystogastrostomy range from 10-20% overall, influenced by factors such as ongoing pancreatitis or disconnected pancreatic duct syndrome.^[51] Use of LAMS in endoscopic procedures has been associated with lower recurrence, reported at 5-10% in studies up to 2025, compared to 10-15% with traditional plastic stents.^[52]^[53] Long-term outcomes are favorable, with symptom relief sustained in 85-90% of patients and reduced hospitalization rates post-procedure.^[49] Quality-of-life improvements, as measured by SF-36 scores, show significant gains in physical and mental components following endoscopic cystogastrostomy, outperforming surgical methods in short-term recovery.^[49] These benefits persist over 12-24 months, with minimal late complications in laparoscopic series.^[36] Key prognostic factors include alcohol cessation, which improves clinical success and reduces hospital admissions compared to continued consumption.^[54] Early intervention before 6 weeks may worsen outcomes due to immature cyst walls, while addressing underlying pancreatitis enhances long-term prognosis.^[50]

Historical Development

Early Procedures

The origins of cystogastrostomy trace back to early attempts at managing pancreatic pseudocysts, which arise as encapsulated collections of pancreatic fluid due to leakage from disrupted pancreatic ducts, often secondary to acute or chronic pancreatitis. In 1882, Carl Gussenbauer performed the first documented preoperative diagnosis and successful treatment of a pancreatic pseudocyst using marsupialization, an external drainage technique that sutured the cyst wall to the abdominal wall to promote drainage into a wound cavity.^[55] This approach, while pioneering, was limited by risks of persistent external fistulas and skin complications. A related precursor emerged in 1911 when Louis Ombrédanne conducted the first internal drainage procedure via cystoduodenostomy, anastomosing the pseudocyst to the duodenum; however, the patient succumbed to postoperative complications eleven days later.^[55]^[3] The first true cystogastrostomy was described in 1921 by Czech surgeon Rudolf Jedlicka, who treated a patient with a pancreatic pseudocyst by partially resecting the cyst and creating an anastomosis to the posterior gastric wall, allowing internal drainage into the stomach.^[3] Jedlicka detailed this procedure in a 1923 case report, marking it as a significant advancement in internal drainage for pseudocysts adjacent to the stomach.^[3] Early procedures were exclusively open surgical approaches, constrained by the era's limited diagnostic imaging and surgical precision. These initial efforts faced substantial challenges, including high mortality rates primarily driven by postoperative infections in the absence of antibiotics and inadequate sterile techniques.^[3] External methods like marsupialization carried lower immediate mortality (around 4-6%) but suffered from high recurrence and prolonged healing issues.^[55] Refinements in the 1930s came from Antoni Jurasz, who in 1931 advocated a transgastric access to the posterior gastric wall for cystogastrostomy, enhancing visualization and reducing operative trauma for mature pseudocysts in gastric contact; this "Jurasz procedure" became a foundational technique for subsequent decades.^[3]

Evolution of Techniques

The adoption of open cystogastrostomy gained widespread acceptance in the mid-20th century following advancements in anesthesia and surgical techniques after the 1950s, enabling safer internal drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts. By the 1960s, standardized internal drainage procedures were introduced, with studies like that of R.F. Murphy and colleagues demonstrating efficacy in 35 patients through cystogastrostomy, reducing recurrence rates compared to external drainage methods.^[48] In the late 20th century, minimally invasive approaches emerged, marking a shift from open surgery. The first successful endoscopic cystogastrostomy was reported in 1983 by Khawaja and Goldman, allowing transgastric drainage without laparotomy in high-risk patients. Laparoscopic cystogastrostomy was pioneered in 1994 by J. Petelin, utilizing intraluminal stapling for precise cyst-to-stomach anastomosis with reduced recovery time. Refinements in endoscopic techniques continued into the 1990s, including percutaneous cystogastrostomy variants that improved long-term patency in select cases.^[48]^[56]^[57] The 21st century ushered in the endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided era during the 2000s, enhancing accuracy for transmural drainage and minimizing complications through real-time imaging. A pivotal advancement was the invention of lumen-apposing metal stents (LAMS) around 2010 by Kenneth F. Binmoeller, which facilitated secure, large-bore fistulas for cystogastrostomy with high technical success rates exceeding 90% in early trials. From 2020 to 2025, robotic-assisted and hybrid laparoscopic-endoscopic techniques gained traction for complex cases, such as those involving walled-off necrosis, with reports like that of Bartos et al. in 2020 demonstrating improved visualization and outcomes in hybrid approaches; percutaneous variants also evolved for adjunctive use. Endoscopic methods, particularly EUS-guided cystogastrostomy, have become increasingly dominant, comprising a growing proportion of drainage procedures due to lower morbidity.^[48]^[58] Key studies underscored these shifts, including a 2013 randomized controlled trial by Park et al. that established endoscopic cystogastrostomy's equivalence to surgical methods in clinical success (both ~90%) while reducing hospital stays. Recent 2025 meta-analyses further affirmed LAMS superiority for EUS-guided drainage, reporting 95% resolution rates for pseudocysts compared to traditional stents, with fewer adverse events.^[59]

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Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) facilitates the transmural drainage of PPCs and may increase the success rate and safety of PPC drainage. In addition, EUS ...Abstract · INTRODUCTION · ENDOSCOPIC DRAINAGE OF... · CONVENTIONAL...
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Review of management options for pancreatic pseudocysts
Mar 5, 2018 · The aim of this review is to summarize the main diagnostic and therapeutic tools in the management of pseudocysts and to present the main studies.Introduction · Diagnosis and prognosis · Interventional techniques · TSM drainage
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Preoperative Cyst Fluid Analysis Is Useful for the ... - PubMed
Amylase levels of > 5000 U/mL had a 94% sensitivity and a 74% specificity for distinguishing pseudocysts from other cystic lesions. Conclusions: High ...
[21]
Cyst fluid analysis in the differential diagnosis of pancreatic cystic ...
CEA < 5 ng/mL or CA 19-9 < 37 U/mL strongly suggests a serous cystadenoma or a pseudocyst. •. Amylase < 250 U/L virtually excludes the presence of a pseudocyst.
[22]
REVIEW ARTICLE Pancreatic pseudocysts – when and how to treat?
Pseudocysts should have a mature capsule (wall thickness >3 mm and <1 cm), impress the stomach wall and have a minimum size of 5–6 cm to become eligible for ...
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Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Endoscopic Management ... - NIH
This guideline discusses endoscopic management of PFCs and makes recommendations on Indications for the procedure, pre-procedural preparations, optimal ...
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Increasing trend of endoscopic drainage utilization for the ...
Aug 4, 2023 · PP drainage is indicated for symptomatic patients, cysts >6 cm in size, rapid growth, or associated complications, such as infection and ...
[25]
Advances in the endoscopic management of pancreatic collections
Endoscopic drainage is contraindicated in unencapsulated collections, those away from gastroduodenal tract (> 1 cm) and collections with vascular pseudoaneurysm ...
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https://www.cureus.com/articles/294569-the-surgical-management-of-pancreatic-pseudocysts-a-narrative-review
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The Surgical Management of Pancreatic Pseudocysts: A Narrative ...
Sep 10, 2024 · Cystogastrostomy: Cystogastrostomy means forming a passage from the pseudocyst to the stomach. Consequently, it enables the emptying of ...
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The Surgical Management of Pancreatic Pseudocysts: A Narrative ...
Sep 10, 2024 · Cystogastrostomy: Cystogastrostomy means forming a passage from the pseudocyst to the stomach. Consequently, it enables the emptying of ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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A giant pancreatic pseudocyst treated by cystogastrostomy - NIH
Mar 24, 2015 · This case demonstrates the successful use of a cystogastrostomy to surgically drain a giant pancreatic pseudocyst.
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Endoscopic ultrasonography‐guided drainage of pancreatic fluid ...
Dec 29, 2016 · Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided drainage is now firmly established as the best option for drainage of walled-off pancreatic fluid collections (PFC).Role of EUS-Guided Drainage · Technique of EUS-Guided... · Technique of Direct...
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Pancreatic Pseudocysts: Observation, Endoscopic Drainage ... - NIH
Ideally, the cyst should be more than 5 cm in size and should cause impression of the gastric or duodenal wall; single cysts, mature cysts, and cysts without ...Indications For Treatment · Which Procedure, When? · Figure 2
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Lumen-apposing metal stents (LAMS) for pancreatic fluid ... - Gut
Lumen-apposing metal stents (LAMS) have been recently developed to improve treatment outcomes in the endoscopic management of pancreatic fluid collections (PFC) ...
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Endoscopic management of pancreatic walled-off necrosis - PMC
Pancreatic walled-off necrosis (WON) is a complication of severe pancreatitis. Endoscopic transmural drainage has been recognized as the first-line treatment.
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Endoscopic ultrasound-guided drainage for local complications ...
Jan 31, 2023 · In this article, we present recent advances in EUS-guided drainage and necrosectomy for PFCs in acute pancreatitis, along with a literature review.Fistula Tract Dilatation · Plastic Stent · Direct Endoscopic...<|separator|>
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Endoscopic Ultrasound‐guided Drainage With Lumen‐apposing ...
Jun 22, 2025 · This meta‐analysis compares DPPS and LAMS in EUS‐D for PP, focusing on technical success, clinical success, adverse events (AEs), recurrence, and procedure ...
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Surgical Outcomes of Laparoscopic Cystogastrostomy For ... - NIH
Jun 21, 2025 · Minimally invasive methods, including endoscopic drainage and percutaneous drainage, have proven effective in carefully selected patients.
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Surgical cystogastrostomy: Is it still worthwhile?
May 7, 2024 · Surgical cystogastrostomy is a definitive treatment with a reduced need for reintervention, especially for cases with extensive collections and significant ...Missing: comorbidities | Show results with:comorbidities<|control11|><|separator|>
[38]
'Step‐port' laparoscopic cystgastrostomy for the management of ...
All patients who underwent a surgical cystgastrostomy (SCG) were identified. Patient demographics, outcome and complications were collected and analysed.
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Robotic-assisted sleeve gastrectomy with simultaneous Roux-en-Y ...
We report a case of a severely obese patient with pancreatic pseudocyst who underwent robotic-assisted sleeve gastrectomy, while the pseudocyst was incised and ...
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Surgical Outcomes of Laparoscopic Cystogastrostomy For ... - PubMed
Jun 21, 2025 · Radiological and endoscopic methods may result in partial resolution or relapse and are chosen based on pseudocyst size, location, and anatomy.
[41]
[PDF] ESPEN Guidelines on Enteral Nutrition: Pancreas
What influence does acute pancreatitis exert on nutritional status and on energy and substrate metabolism? Mild pancreatitis has little impact on nutritional.
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Consensus guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic ...
Aug 21, 2024 · The 1992 Atlanta Pancreatitis Treatment Guidelines recommend drainage of PPCs ≥6 cm and/or that are symptomatic and with a duration of ≥6 weeks.Missing: preserve | Show results with:preserve
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Laparoscopic anterior transgastric cystogastrostomy for the ...
Cystogastrostomy, cystoduodenostomy and cystojejunostomy can be done by open or laparoscopic way in the surgical management of PPs. Laparoscopic internal ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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https://www.cureus.com/articles/354395-surgical-outcomes-of-laparoscopic-cystogastrostomy-for-pancreatic-pseudocysts-a-retrospective-study
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Endoscopic Ultrasound-Guided Management of Pancreatic Fluid ...
Mar 30, 2017 · The risk of stent migration ranges between 1%–15% [6,25]. External stent migration can usually be easily managed by endoscopic removal of the ...
[46]
Surgical management of complicated pancreatic pseudocysts after ...
However, complications such as infection and the development of gastric varices from splenic vein thrombosis may represent relative contraindications to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
Pancreatic Pseudocysts: Evolution of Treatment Approaches - MDPI
In 2020, Dana and Adrian Bartos presented a hybrid surgical technique which ... cystogastrostomy for pancreatic pseudocyst—A video vignette. J. Hepato ...
[48]
Equal Efficacy of Endoscopic and Surgical Cystogastrostomy for ...
A pseudocyst was defined as a fluid collection in the pancreatic or peripancreatic area that had a well-defined wall and contained no solid debris or ...
[49]
Evolving Endoscopic Approaches to Pancreatic Pseudocysts and ...
Dec 11, 2024 · Common indications for endoscopic intervention include increasing size of the lesion (>6 cm), persistence of the lesion for more than 6 ...
[50]
Consensus guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic ...
Aug 21, 2024 · ... cystogastrostomy and endoscopic cystoduodenostomy. Double-pigtail plastic stents were placed between the PPC and stomach or duodenum to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[51]
Evaluation of Advanced Endoscopic Stents for Pancreatic ... - NIH
The recurrence rate was 6.67% (3/45), and sustained PFC resolution was ... Furthermore, the cost of LAMS stents is significantly higher than that of ...
[52]
What We Know So Far About ECG for Pancreatic Pseudocysts - MDPI
Nov 4, 2024 · The cyst recurrence is reported less frequently in patients with LAMSs and the therapeutic success is non-significantly higher in the LAMS group ...
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Prognostic factors of response to endoscopic treatment in painful ...
We found that patients without any alcohol consumption or smoking had better prognosis than patients who had one or both addictions, regarding clinical success ...
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Pancreatic Pseudocysts: Evolution of Treatment Approaches - PMC
The first documented preoperative diagnosis of a PPC, leading to planned pancreatic surgery, was made by Carl Gussenbauer in 1882, who treated it with ...
[55]
[PDF] Laparoscopic Drainage Procedures for Pancreatic Pseudocyst
5. Laparoscopic internal drainage:In 1994, J Petelin, Kensas;. USA performed first laparoscopic cystogastrostomy.2,10. Laparoscopic intraluminal ...
[56]
Percutaneous Cystogastrostomy in Patients With Pancreatic ...
Percutaneous cystogastrostomy is a safe, minimally invasive procedure that gives good results at long-term follow-up as well as in the short-term.
[57]
A novel lumen-apposing stent for transluminal drainage of ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The advent of LAMS significantly changed the landscape of therapeutic endoscopy. LAMS, first described by Binmoeller and Shah in 2011 [4] ...
[58]
Endoscopic Ultrasound‐guided Drainage With Lumen‐apposing ...
Jun 22, 2025 · This meta-analysis compares DPPS and LAMS in EUS-D for PP, focusing on technical success, clinical success, adverse events (AEs), recurrence, and procedure ...Missing: advancements | Show results with:advancements