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Definite description

A definite description is a denoting phrase in natural language, typically of the form "the X" where X is a common noun or noun phrase, used to refer to a unique individual or entity that satisfies the descriptive content.^[1] Introduced prominently in philosophy by Bertrand Russell in his 1905 paper "On Denoting," definite descriptions are analyzed not as proper names with independent reference but as incomplete symbols that contribute to the overall meaning of sentences through logical structure.^[1] Russell's theory posits that a sentence containing a definite description, such as "The F is G," is equivalent to the existential claim: "There exists exactly one entity that is F, and that entity is G."^[1] This analysis resolves philosophical puzzles, including negative existentials like "The present King of France does not exist," by treating such statements as true because no unique entity satisfies the description, rather than involving reference to a non-existent object.^[1] By eliminating the notion of denoting phrases as standalone referring terms, Russell's approach emphasizes scope and quantification, distinguishing primary (subject-position) and secondary (non-subject) occurrences of descriptions in propositions.^[1] The theory has profoundly influenced analytic philosophy and the philosophy of language, serving as a foundational tool for clarifying issues in logic, semantics, and metaphysics, and inspiring developments in formal semantics and theories of reference.^[2] It provided a paradigm for logical analysis that impacted thinkers like Ludwig Wittgenstein in his [Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus](/page/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophic us), where descriptions are similarly reduced to logical forms without inherent denoting power.^[2] Despite its influence, Russell's theory faced significant criticisms, notably from P.F. Strawson in his 1950 paper "On Referring," who argued that definite descriptions carry presuppositions of existence and uniqueness that, if unmet, result in truth-value gaps rather than false assertions.^[3] Strawson emphasized the distinction between sentences and their uses in communication, contending that Russell conflates assertion with presupposition, leading to an inadequate account of ordinary language reference.^[3] Further challenges came from Keith Donnellan in 1966, who distinguished between attributive uses (where the description defines the referent, aligning with Russell) and referential uses (where it serves to pick out a specific individual, even if the description misapplies), revealing limitations in Russell's uniform treatment of descriptions.^[4] These critiques spurred alternatives, including presuppositional theories and free logics that accommodate non-referring terms.^[2]

Overview

Linguistic Definition

In linguistics, definite descriptions are noun phrases that typically begin with the definite article "the" followed by a common noun or a restrictive relative clause, purporting to refer to a unique entity within a given context.^[5] These structures, such as "the king of France" or "the tallest mountain," function syntactically as determiners that specify a particular referent among potential alternatives, often embedding descriptive properties to identify the intended object.^[6] Unlike indefinite descriptions, which use articles like "a" or "an" to introduce non-specific or multiple possible referents (e.g., "a king of France"), definite descriptions presuppose the existence and uniqueness of the entity they denote, relying on shared contextual knowledge for successful reference.^[7] Semantically, definite descriptions serve to pick out a single individual that satisfies the descriptive content provided, distinguishing them from other referring expressions by their dependence on both lexical meaning and situational or discourse context.^[5] For instance, in the sentence "The current king of France is bald," the phrase "the current king of France" aims to denote precisely one person fitting the description at the time of utterance, though its felicity depends on whether such a unique referent exists in the relevant context.^[6] Similarly, "the tallest mountain" in a conversation about geography would refer to Mount Everest, assuming global uniqueness, but could shift to a local referent like a regional peak if the context narrows the domain. This semantic role emphasizes their function in managing reference by bridging description and identification.^[7] A key distinction lies in how definite descriptions differ from proper names, which conventionally refer to specific individuals without relying on descriptive predicates.^[5] Proper names like "France" or "Everest" carry no inherent descriptive content and refer rigidly across contexts, whereas definite descriptions, such as "the capital of France," encode properties (e.g., being the seat of government) that must hold true for the reference to succeed, making them more akin to complex predicates than direct labels.^[6] This descriptive nature allows definite descriptions to adapt to varying contexts, though it raises brief questions about the precise conditions for uniqueness that are explored further in philosophical analyses.^[7]

Philosophical Significance

Definite descriptions have been pivotal in addressing philosophical puzzles concerning non-referring expressions, such as sentences involving empty descriptions like "the present king of France is bald," which raise questions about their truth values when no entity satisfies the description.^[8] These puzzles highlight tensions in how language denotes or fails to denote, prompting analyses that assign truth or falsity to such statements without positing non-existent referents, thereby avoiding logical paradoxes in inference and assertion.^[9] By resolving these issues, definite descriptions enable coherent treatment of sentences that appear to refer to nothing, ensuring that philosophical discourse accommodates apparent failures of reference without undermining the semantic structure of natural language.^[10] In theories of reference, definite descriptions serve as a conceptual bridge between Millian direct reference views, which emphasize rigid designation without descriptive content, and descriptivist theories that tie reference to associated properties or senses.^[11] Millians treat proper names as bare pointers to objects, while descriptivists analyze them via definite descriptions that capture speaker-associated criteria for identification, allowing definite descriptions to mediate debates on whether reference depends on informational content or causal links.^[12] This intermediary role underscores how definite descriptions facilitate hybrid approaches, where referential success hinges on both descriptive fit and contextual use, influencing ongoing discussions in semantics about the nature of singular terms.^[13] The analysis of definite descriptions has profoundly shaped analytic philosophy and semantics, establishing paradigms for dissecting meaning and logical form that extend to broader debates on the distinction between sense and reference.^[14] It catalyzed responses like Saul Kripke's causal theory of reference, which critiques descriptivist reliance on definite descriptions by arguing for rigid, non-descriptive designation through historical chains, thereby redirecting focus toward modal and metaphysical aspects of naming.^[15] These developments have permeated linguistic semantics, informing treatments of quantifiers and scope, and solidified definite descriptions as a cornerstone of twentieth-century philosophical methodology.^[16] Beyond these, definite descriptions connect to ontology by embedding existence and uniqueness claims within their semantics, implying that their successful use presupposes the reality of a unique satisfier and thus constraining ontological commitments in discourse.^[14] In epistemology, they raise issues about knowledge of reference, as speakers must grasp how descriptions pick out objects amid incomplete or ambiguous information, fueling inquiries into referential intentions and the justification of singular beliefs.^[11] This interplay highlights how linguistic forms like definite descriptions inform epistemological questions on how we acquire and warrant knowledge of the world's structure through language.^[17]

Historical Context

Origins in Frege and Peano

The concept of definite descriptions emerged in the late 19th century as part of the foundational efforts to formalize logic and mathematics, with key contributions from Gottlob Frege and Giuseppe Peano. Frege, in his 1892 essay "Über Sinn und Bedeutung" (On Sense and Reference), analyzed definite descriptions—such as "the capital of France"—as singular terms that express both a Sinn (sense) and a Bedeutung (reference). He argued that the sense of such a description is a mode of presentation that uniquely determines its reference, an individual object, thereby addressing the cognitive value of identity statements involving descriptions.^[18] This approach integrated descriptions into his broader semantic framework, treating them as proper names with objective, context-independent meanings essential for logical inference in mathematical proofs.^[18] Independently, Peano advanced the notation for definite descriptions in his logical writings, particularly in the 1895 edition of Formulario mathematico. He introduced the symbol ιx to stand for "the x such that," using it to denote the unique element satisfying a given condition, as in expressions for unit classes or unique members in arithmetic and set-theoretic contexts. For instance, Peano defined ιx φ(x) as the unique x for which the property φ holds, enabling concise symbolic representation of mathematical assertions like "the successor of 0." This notation facilitated the axiomatization of arithmetic and the development of a symbolic language for logic, emphasizing elimination rules to reduce descriptive terms to primitive predicates and quantifiers. Peano's ι notation was later adopted by Bertrand Russell in his analysis of definite descriptions.^[19] These innovations occurred amid the push to rigorize mathematical foundations, distancing analysis from natural language ambiguities and aligning it with deductive systems like Frege's Begriffsschrift (1879) and Peano's arithmetic axioms. However, their treatments assumed the existence and uniqueness of the referent without extensive semantic scrutiny, presupposing that failed descriptions (e.g., "the present king of France") would simply lack reference rather than generating paradoxes or presupposition failures.^[18]

Russell's Contribution

In 1905, Bertrand Russell published "On Denoting" in the journal Mind, a paper that tackled fundamental puzzles in the analysis of denoting phrases, particularly those involving definite descriptions like "the present King of France." The work responded to challenges in earlier theories of meaning, aiming to resolve ambiguities in how language refers to objects and concepts.^[19] Russell's primary motivations stemmed from logical paradoxes exemplified by sentences such as "The present King of France is bald," which seem to assert something false or meaningless due to the nonexistence of the referent, and substitution failures in negative or intensional contexts, where replacing synonymous terms alters truth values unexpectedly.^[19] These issues highlighted flaws in treating definite descriptions as simple names, prompting Russell to seek a more precise logical framework for propositions.^[19] The key innovation of the paper lay in reconceptualizing definite descriptions not as denoting terms with independent reference, but as "incomplete symbols" that lack meaning in isolation and must be fully analyzed within the propositions they form, thereby eliminating the paradoxes through scope differentiation and existential quantification.^[19] This approach marked a departure from prior views, including those influenced by Frege's sense-reference distinction.^[19] "On Denoting" played a crucial role in Russell's philosophical evolution, facilitating the transition from British idealism to the analytic tradition by emphasizing logical analysis over metaphysical speculation. It also profoundly shaped his subsequent collaboration with Alfred North Whitehead on Principia Mathematica (1910–1913), where the theory of descriptions was integrated as a foundational tool for reducing mathematics to logic.

Philosophical Analyses

Russell's Theory

Bertrand Russell developed his theory of definite descriptions in his 1905 essay "On Denoting," where he proposed a logical analysis that treats definite descriptions not as singular terms referring to objects, but as quantificational phrases that can be eliminated through paraphrasing. According to Russell, a sentence of the form "The F is G," where "the F" is a definite description, asserts three distinct claims: that there exists at least one thing that is F, that there is at most one such thing (i.e., uniqueness), and that this unique thing is G.^[20] This analysis unpacks the sentence into a conjunction that can be fully expressed in first-order predicate logic without relying on the definite description as a denoting constituent. The logical paraphrase is given by the formula:

\exists x \left( Fx \land \forall y (Fy \to y = x) \land Gx \right)

Here, the existential quantifier ∃x asserts existence, the universal quantifier ∀y combined with the identity y = x ensures uniqueness, and Gx predicates the property G of the unique x that satisfies F.^[20] This eliminative approach allows the truth conditions of the original sentence to be determined solely by the truth of the expanded quantificational statement, avoiding any direct reference to a potentially non-referring description.^[20] A key aspect of Russell's theory is the distinction between primary and secondary occurrences of a definite description within a sentence. In primary occurrence, the description has wide scope, meaning the uniqueness and existence conditions are asserted as part of the main proposition, and the sentence is false if the description fails to denote a unique referent.^[20] In secondary occurrence, the description has narrow scope, typically within the scope of a negation or other operator, so its failure to denote does not render the entire sentence false but affects only the embedded proposition.^[20] For instance, the sentence "The King of France is not bald" is ambiguous: it can mean either "There exists a unique King of France, and he is not bald" (primary occurrence, false since there is no King of France in 1905) or "It is not the case that there exists a unique King of France who is bald" (secondary occurrence, true because no such bald king exists).^[20] Russell's theory specifies that sentences containing definite descriptions are false when the description fails to refer, either due to non-existence or lack of uniqueness. Consider the example "The King of France is wise": since there was no King of France in 1905, the existence condition fails, making the sentence false overall.^[20] Similarly, for "The King of France is bald," the sentence is false not because the (non-existent) king has hair, but because the presupposed unique referent does not exist.^[20] In negation cases, such as "The King of France is not wise," the secondary occurrence reading allows the sentence to be true if no unique king exists, as the negation scopes over the entire conjunctive assertion, denying the existence of a wise king without affirming a non-wise one.^[20] This scope sensitivity resolves apparent paradoxes in ordinary language by clarifying how operators like negation interact with the description's quantificational structure.^[20]

Fregean and Strawsonian Views

Gottlob Frege, in his seminal 1892 essay "Über Sinn und Bedeutung" (On Sense and Reference), treated definite descriptions as a type of proper name that expresses both a sense (Sinn) and a reference (Bedeutung). According to Frege, the definite article "the" in phrases like "the King of France" contributes to the sense by implying uniqueness and existence as integral parts of the expression's meaning, rather than as separate assertoric content. This view posits that definite descriptions do not admit of a full paraphrase into quantified assertions, as their referential role is direct and tied to the cognitive value conveyed by their sense; failure to refer (e.g., due to non-existence) results in the expression lacking a reference altogether, rendering sentences containing it without a truth value. Peter Strawson, building on Frege's framework but emphasizing ordinary language use, critiqued Bertrand Russell's analysis in his 1950 paper "On Referring." Strawson argued that definite descriptions primarily function to refer, carrying a presupposition of existence and uniqueness that must hold for the sentence to be meaningful or true; if the presupposition fails—as in "The King of France is bald" in 1950—the statement is neither true nor false but simply fails to refer, lacking a truth value. This presuppositional approach contrasts sharply with Russell's commitment to bivalence, where every sentence has a truth value regardless of referential success; Strawson, influenced by ordinary language philosophy, contended that Russell's scope-based quantification distorts natural linguistic practices by treating presuppositions as assertible content. The Fregean and Strawsonian perspectives highlight a core debate in the philosophy of language: whether definite descriptions are fundamentally referential expressions whose success depends on extra-logical presuppositions, or whether they can be fully analyzed within a truth-functional logic. Frege's emphasis on sense and reference underscores the incomplete nature of any reductive paraphrase, while Strawson's innovation lies in applying presupposition theory to defend the intuitive semantics of everyday discourse against formalist reductions. Subsequent developments, notably Keith Donnellan's 1966 distinction in "Reference and Definite Descriptions," refined these views by differentiating between referential uses—where the description picks out an intended object regardless of strict satisfaction of its descriptive content—and attributive uses, where the description's full sense must apply for reference to succeed. Donnellan, aligning more with Strawson's presuppositional insights, argued that referential uses predominate in natural language and challenge both Frege's rigid sense-reference pairing and Russell's eliminative analysis, as speakers often succeed in reference even when the description is inaccurate (e.g., pointing to a bald man and saying "His Majesty is looking unwell"). This distinction influenced later discussions by illustrating how context and speaker intention mediate the referential role of definite descriptions beyond purely semantic rules.

Formal Treatments

In Predicate Logic

In first-order predicate logic, definite descriptions are formalized through Bertrand Russell's theory, which eliminates them as referential terms by paraphrasing sentences into purely quantificational structures. The sentence "The Φ is Ψ" is analyzed as asserting that there exists exactly one entity satisfying Φ and that this entity satisfies Ψ, yielding the formula

\exists x \, (\Phi(x) \land \forall y \, (\Phi(y) \to y = x) \land \Psi(x)).

This paraphrase decomposes the description into an existence claim (∃x Φ(x)), a uniqueness claim (∀y (Φ(y) → y = x)), and the predication Ψ(x). Russell's approach handles scope ambiguities inherent in sentences containing definite descriptions embedded under operators such as negation, conjunction, or modals. A description has primary occurrence when it takes wide scope, as in the standard paraphrase where the existential quantifier binds outermost, emphasizing the assertion about a unique satisfier of Φ. In contrast, secondary occurrence assigns narrow scope to the description, placing it within the scope of the operator; for instance, "The king of France is not bald" with secondary scope denies that the unique king is bald (assuming existence and uniqueness), while primary scope denies the existence or uniqueness of such a king. This distinction resolves formal ambiguities by allowing multiple logical forms for the same natural language sentence, depending on interpretive context. An alternative formalization within extensions of first-order logic employs David Hilbert's ε-operator, introduced in the early 1920s to support finitary proofs in mathematics by providing explicit choice terms. The operator forms terms εx Φ(x), which denotes some x such that Φ(x) if such an x exists, governed by axioms including Φ(y) → Φ(εx Φ(x)) (with y arbitrary) and extensionality (∀x (Φ(x) ↔ Ψ(x)) → εx Φ(x) = εx Ψ(x)). For definite descriptions requiring uniqueness, additional axioms enforce that if exactly one x satisfies Φ(x), then εx Φ(x) rigidly picks that unique satisfier, serving as a counterpart to Russell's iota operator while avoiding quantifier elimination. A key limitation of Russell's first-order paraphrase arises in modal contexts, where it fails to capture rigid reference: definite descriptions denote non-rigidly, potentially shifting referents across possible worlds, whereas intuitive uses (e.g., "The successor of 2 might have been even") suggest rigidity akin to proper names. Saul Kripke critiqued this in his analysis of naming, arguing that the quantificational treatment cannot accommodate necessary identities or counterfactuals without ad hoc scope adjustments.^[21]

In Generalized Quantifier Theory

In the framework of generalized quantifier theory (GQT), which extends Richard Montague's formal semantics from the 1970s, definite descriptions are treated as denoting partial functions from properties to unique individuals via the iota operator. The determiner "the" combines with a common noun N to form a definite noun phrase whose denotation is the iota term ιx . N(x), where ιx . φ(x) picks out the unique entity satisfying φ(x), provided exactly one such entity exists in the model; otherwise, the description fails to refer.^[22]^[23] This treatment incorporates a uniqueness condition: the denotation of the restricting noun N must intersect the domain in a singleton set, ensuring that the iota operator applies successfully to yield an individual of type e. In GQT terms, the full denotation of a definite description "the N" is then lifted to a generalized quantifier of type ⟨⟨e,t⟩, t⟩, given by λQ . Q(ιx . N(x)), meaning it holds of a property Q just in case the unique satisfier of N satisfies Q. This formulation aligns definite descriptions with other noun phrases like indefinites ("a N" as λQ . ∃x [N(x) ∧ Q(x)]), treating all as operators on properties for uniform semantic composition.^[24]^[23] A key advantage of this approach is its integration with lambda calculus, enabling compositional derivation of meanings for complex noun phrases in natural language sentences. For instance, the denotation of "the cat" is ιx . cat(x), and the sentence "the cat sleeps" translates to sleeps(ιx . cat(x)), which is true if there is exactly one cat and it sleeps; in full GQ form, it evaluates whether the property of sleeping holds of that unique cat. This method avoids ad hoc rules for definites, handling scope and embedding uniformly with quantificational NPs while presupposing uniqueness rather than asserting it as in stricter logical reductions.^[23]^[24]

[[ \text{the cat} ]] = \iota x . \cat(x)

Contemporary Issues

Presupposition and Failure of Reference

In the theory of presupposition projection, definite descriptions exhibit distinct behavior when embedded in complex constructions such as negations, questions, and conditionals. According to Karttunen's framework, presuppositions triggered by definite descriptions—namely, the existence and uniqueness of the referent—project through "holes" like negation and questions, meaning the entire sentence inherits the presupposition. For instance, "The king of France is not bald" presupposes that there is a unique king of France, just as the affirmative does.^[25] Similarly, questions such as "Did the king of France visit?" presuppose the existence of the king, filtering the presupposition to the global context.^[25] Karttunen further identifies "filters" like conjunctions and conditionals, where projection is conditionalized: in "If France has a king, the king of France is bald," the presupposition of the consequent is filtered by the antecedent, projecting only the antecedent's presuppositions globally.^[25] Heim's satisfaction theory extends this by formalizing projection through context change potentials, where a sentence is admissible in a context only if that context entails its presuppositions.^[26] For definite descriptions, this ensures that embeddings like negations project the existence presupposition unless locally accommodated, as in "It is not the case that the king of France is bald," which remains undefined without a unique king in the context.^[26] In questions and conditionals, Heim's compositional rules predict filtered projection, aligning with Karttunen but deriving it from satisfaction conditions on updated contexts.^[26] This approach from the 1970s and 1980s provides a predictive mechanism for how definite descriptions' presuppositions survive or transform in embedded positions. Presupposition accommodation, introduced by Lewis, addresses cases where a definite description's presupposition fails in the current context; the speaker or hearer adjusts the context by adding the presupposed content, assuming it unless challenged.^[27] For example, uttering "The king of France is wise" in a context without a presupposed king accommodates the existence and uniqueness of the king to make the assertion felicitous, effectively updating the conversational "score."^[27] This process is rule-governed and occurs "straightway" with the utterance, prioritizing acceptability over strict prior entailment.^[27] Empirical tests for these mechanisms often involve anaphora and discourse roles, where definite descriptions' presuppositions must resolve to prior discourse referents for coherence. In discourse sequences, a description like "the man" anaphorically presupposes a unique salient man from preceding context; failure to resolve leads to infelicity, as shown in binding tests where mismatched antecedents block accommodation.^[28] Failures also arise in fictional or hypothetical contexts, such as "In the story, the unicorn appeared," where the presupposition is accommodated locally within the hypothetical domain but does not project globally, distinguishing it from real-world assertions.^[29] Contemporary critiques revisit the Russell-Strawson debate within dynamic semantics, particularly discourse representation theory (DRT), which treats definite descriptions as updates to a discourse file rather than quantifiers.^[30] In DRT, presupposition failure renders the discourse representation undefined, aligning with Strawson's view of reference failure as neither true nor false, while avoiding Russell's truth-valuelessness by conditioning uniqueness on context-dependent accessibility.^[30] This framework critiques Russell's static analysis by incorporating projection and accommodation dynamically, where definites introduce referents only if presuppositions are satisfied or accommodated in the discourse structure.^[30]

Applications in Linguistics and Cognitive Science

In linguistics, the DP hypothesis, proposed by Abney (1987), treats determiners such as "the" as the syntactic heads of determiner phrases (DPs), with the noun phrase functioning as their complement. This framework explains the inability of multiple determiners to co-occur within a single nominal expression, as they would compete for the same head position, and it establishes structural parallels between nominal and clausal projections, facilitating unified analyses across phrase types.^[31] The hypothesis has been widely adopted in generative syntax, influencing accounts of agreement, movement, and nominal internal structure in various languages.^[32] In language acquisition, children demonstrate early sensitivity to the uniqueness presupposition associated with definite descriptions. Experimental evidence indicates that by age three, English-speaking children understand that singular definite descriptions like "the dog" presuppose a unique referent in context, distinguishing them from indefinites in truth-conditional tasks involving gradable adjectives.^[33] Further studies using inference tasks show that four- and five-year-olds project presuppositions from definite descriptions embedded in conditionals, treating uniqueness as a backgrounded assumption rather than asserted content, akin to adult behavior.^[34] This awareness emerges alongside the productive use of definite articles around age two to three, suggesting that presuppositional semantics develops in tandem with syntactic mastery.^[35] Cognitive models of reference resolution in psycholinguistics often employ the visual world paradigm to examine how definite descriptions guide incremental interpretation. Eye-tracking studies reveal that listeners rapidly fixate on potential unique referents matching a definite NP, such as "the circle," even before the full description unfolds, reflecting predictive processing driven by uniqueness expectations.^[36] In discourse contexts, this paradigm demonstrates that definite descriptions facilitate anaphoric resolution by prioritizing antecedents that satisfy contextual uniqueness, with gaze patterns shifting to compatible referents faster than for indefinites.^[37] These findings underscore the role of definite descriptions in building mental models during real-time comprehension, integrating semantic presuppositions with visual and discourse cues.^[38] Cross-linguistically, definite reference varies significantly, as seen in languages like Russian that lack overt articles. In Russian, bare nominals can convey definiteness through contextual cues such as word order, aspect, or prior discourse, without relying on a dedicated determiner; for instance, a post-verbal bare noun often implies a unique, familiar referent dependent on the situational context.^[39] This context-dependency allows Russian speakers to interpret nominals as definite even in the absence of uniqueness at the semantic level, treating it as a pragmatic inference rather than a presupposition, contrasting with article languages where "the" enforces stricter uniqueness.^[40] Such variations highlight how definite descriptions adapt to typological differences, with empirical studies showing comparable reference resolution efficiency across languages via shared cognitive mechanisms.^[41]

References

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[PDF] How Uniqueness Guides Definite Description Processing ...
We explore the effect of determiner choice on listeners' expectations about possible referents using eye-tracking in the visual world paradigm. The ...
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Predicting Definite and Indefinite Referents During Discourse ...
Feb 5, 2022 · Demonstrating prediction, participants in visual world eye ... How uniqueness guides definite description processing. University of ...
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Context-driven expectations about focus alternatives - ScienceDirect
In typical visual world studies, the target sentence contains a definite description of the target referent (e.g. the green triangle) and the display of ...
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[PDF] Definiteness in the absence of uniqueness: The case of Russian
Russian lacks articles, but perceived definiteness is a pragmatic effect, not a linguistic one, and not due to a covert type-shift.
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Definiteness in a language without articles : a case-study of Russian
Mar 31, 2020 · PDF | On Jan 1, 2002, Katia Paykin and others published Definiteness in a language without articles : a case-study of Russian | Find, ...
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[PDF] Interpreting definiteness in a second language without articles
In this article, we look at two (out of the many possible) ways of signaling definite- ness in Russian, a language without articles. We compare the L2 ...