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Lysozyme

Lysozyme is a small antimicrobial enzyme, classified as a glycoside hydrolase (EC 3.2.1.17), that catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-1,4-glycosidic linkages between N-acetylmuramic acid and N-acetylglucosamine residues in peptidoglycan, the primary structural component of bacterial cell walls, thereby lysing susceptible bacteria as part of the innate immune response.^[1] Discovered in 1922 by Alexander Fleming while studying nasal mucus, it was the first enzyme whose three-dimensional structure was elucidated by X-ray crystallography in the mid-1960s, revealing a compact globular protein with a deep active-site cleft containing key catalytic residues such as glutamic acid and aspartic acid.^[2]^[3] Native to many animal secretions and tissues, lysozyme is particularly abundant in hen egg whites (at concentrations of 2,500–3,500 µg/mL), human tears (3,000–5,000 µg/mL), saliva, milk, and nasal fluids, where it serves as a frontline defense against Gram-positive bacteria like Clostridium and Staphylococcus species, though its activity against Gram-negative bacteria is limited unless enhanced by modifications or synergists.^[4] Structurally, the enzyme consists of a single polypeptide chain of approximately 129 amino acids (molecular weight ~14.3 kDa in the hen egg white form), stabilized by four disulfide bonds, and features two distinct domains: an α-helix-rich lobe and a β-sheet-rich lobe that together form the substrate-binding groove.^[1] Beyond its bactericidal role via cell wall degradation, lysozyme exhibits non-enzymatic antimicrobial effects, such as direct membrane disruption, and shows weaker activity against some fungi and viruses.^[4] In practical applications, lysozyme is widely used as a natural preservative in the food industry—particularly in cheese production to inhibit late-blowing spoilage by Clostridium tyrobutyricum—and holds Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status from the U.S. FDA, with emerging roles in pharmaceuticals and antimicrobial packaging due to its low toxicity and biocompatibility.^[1]

Structure and Properties

Molecular Structure

Hen egg-white lysozyme (HEWL), the prototypical c-type lysozyme, comprises a single polypeptide chain of 129 amino acids with a molecular weight of approximately 14.3 kDa.^[5] This primary sequence, first determined in 1963, features a high content of basic residues contributing to its positive charge at physiological pH. Four intramolecular disulfide bridges—Cys6–Cys127, Cys30–Cys115, Cys64–Cys80, and Cys76–Cys94—stabilize the folded structure, linking distant parts of the chain to enhance thermal and chemical stability.^[6] The tertiary structure of HEWL adopts a compact, globular fold divided into two distinct lobes separated by a deep cleft that accommodates the substrate. The N-terminal lobe (residues 1–39 and 89–129) is predominantly α-helical, containing three major helices (A: 5–15, B: 25–36, C: 80–85), while the C-terminal lobe (residues 40–88) is rich in β-sheet, forming a triple-stranded antiparallel β-sheet (residues 41–54). The two lobes are joined by the intervening polypeptide chain in the β-rich region, creating the overall bilobal architecture essential for function. This arrangement positions hydrophobic residues in the core and polar side chains on the surface, with the disulfide bonds further rigidifying the scaffold.^[7] The active site resides within the substrate-binding cleft, featuring key residues Glu35 and Asp52 that facilitate catalysis through specific interactions. Glu35, located in a hydrophobic pocket, acts as the proton donor with its carboxylic acid group oriented toward the substrate, while Asp52, in a polar environment, serves as a nucleophile or electrostatic stabilizer via hydrogen bonding with the substrate's oxocarbenium ion intermediate. Surrounding residues, including Trp62, Trp63, and Asn46, contribute to substrate positioning through van der Waals contacts and hydrogen bonds, ensuring precise geometry for peptidoglycan hydrolysis.^[8]^[9] HEWL was the first enzyme whose three-dimensional structure was elucidated by X-ray crystallography, achieved at 2 Å resolution in 1965 using a three-dimensional Fourier synthesis.^[10] This landmark work revealed the atomic details of the fold and active site, with subsequent refinements, such as the 2.0 Å structure deposited as PDB ID 6LYZ in 1974, confirming the overall architecture.^[11] Lysozymes are classified into types based on sequence and structure, with c-type (conventional, found in vertebrates including mammals and birds like chickens) featuring 129 amino acids and four disulfide bonds, contrasting with g-type (goose-type, prevalent in birds such as geese) which has a longer chain of about 185 amino acids and only two disulfide bonds (Cys4–Cys60 and Cys18–Cys29). These differences result in distinct folds for g-type lysozymes, lacking the exact bilobal arrangement of c-type while maintaining a cleft for activity.^[12]^[5]

Physicochemical Properties

Hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL), the most studied isoform, has a molecular weight of approximately 14.3 kDa, corresponding to its single polypeptide chain of 129 amino acid residues.^[13] This compact size contributes to its ease of crystallization and structural analysis, while maintaining functional integrity. The isoelectric point (pI) of HEWL is around 11, rendering it a basic and cationic protein at physiological pH, which facilitates its interaction with negatively charged bacterial cell walls.^[14] HEWL exhibits optimal enzymatic activity at pH 5-5.5, though it remains active over a broader range (pH 6-9) depending on ionic strength.^[15] Thermal stability is notable, with a midpoint denaturation temperature (Tm) of approximately 75°C in aqueous solution, influenced by factors such as pH and solvent composition.^[16] Its resistance to proteolysis is enhanced by four intramolecular disulfide bridges, which maintain structural rigidity and limit unfolding, as referenced in molecular structure studies. HEWL demonstrates high solubility in water, exceeding 100 mg/mL under standard conditions, though it can reach up to 700 mg/mL in optimized buffers without precipitation.^[17] At elevated concentrations, however, it shows tendencies toward aggregation, particularly during refolding or under denaturing stress, which can impact practical applications.^[18] Spectroscopically, HEWL absorbs at 280 nm due to its six tryptophan residues, with a molar extinction coefficient of 37,970 M⁻¹ cm⁻¹, enabling straightforward quantification via UV absorbance.^[19] This property is routinely exploited for concentration determination in biochemical assays.

Function and Mechanism

Catalytic Mechanism

Lysozyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-1,4 glycosidic bonds linking N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) and N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) residues in the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.^[20] This enzymatic cleavage disrupts the structural integrity of the cell wall, contributing to its bactericidal activity. The active site accommodates up to six sugar units, with subsites A through F, where the bond between subsites D (NAM) and E (NAG) is typically hydrolyzed. The classical Phillips mechanism, proposed based on the three-dimensional structure of hen egg-white lysozyme (HEWL), describes an SN1-like dissociative process. In this model, the protonated form of Glu35 acts as a general acid to donate a proton to the glycosidic oxygen, promoting cleavage of the C-O bond and generating an oxocarbenium ion-like transition state at the C1 position of the NAM residue in subsite D. The negatively charged Asp52 stabilizes this positively charged intermediate through electrostatic interactions, potentially forming a transient oxazolinium ion. Water then attacks the C1 carbon, with the now deprotonated Glu35 acting as a general base to facilitate nucleophilic addition, yielding products with retention of configuration at C1.^[21] An alternative covalent mechanism, supported by structural and biochemical evidence including isotope labeling, mutagenesis, and X-ray crystallography with fluorinated analogs capturing a glycosyl-Asp52 intermediate, posits a double-displacement pathway characteristic of retaining glycoside hydrolases in family GH22. Here, the deprotonated Asp52 functions as a nucleophile, attacking the C1 carbon of the NAM residue to form a covalent glycosyl-enzyme intermediate after protonation of the leaving group by Glu35. This intermediate is then hydrolyzed by water activated by Glu35, resulting in retention of the β-anomeric configuration at C1. However, the mechanism remains debated; a 2025 atomic-resolution neutron crystallography study (0.91 Å) of HEWL at pH 4.5 confirmed Glu35 protonated and Asp52 deprotonated, aligning with the Phillips model of electrostatic stabilization rather than covalent catalysis, and highlighting the role of residues like Asn44, Asn46, and Asn59 in the active site hydrogen-bond network.^[22]^[21] Kinetic studies of HEWL with chitotriose ((GlcNAc)₃) as a substrate yield approximate Michaelis constant (K_m) values of ~1 mM and turnover numbers (k_cat) of ~0.1 s^-1, reflecting relatively low catalytic efficiency compared to optimal peptidoglycan substrates. The pH-rate profile shows a bell-shaped dependence with an optimum around pH 5, governed by the pK_a values of the catalytic residues: Glu35 (~6, requiring protonation for acid catalysis) and Asp52 (~4, requiring deprotonation for nucleophilic or stabilizing role). These pK_a shifts from typical carboxylic acid values arise from the hydrophobic environment of Glu35 and polar surroundings of Asp52.^[23]

Inhibition and Regulation

Lysozyme activity is modulated by various competitive inhibitors that bind to the enzyme's active site cleft, particularly the subsites A, B, and C involved in substrate recognition. Oligomers of N-acetylglucosamine (NAG), such as the trimer (NAG)₃, act as competitive inhibitors by occupying these subsites and preventing peptidoglycan binding. The dissociation constant (Kᵢ) for (NAG)₃ is approximately 40 μM, indicating moderate affinity that effectively competes with natural substrates at physiological concentrations.^[24] Longer NAG oligomers, like (NAG)₄ or (NAG)₅, exhibit even stronger inhibition due to extended interactions across additional subsites, though their binding still primarily relies on the A-C region for initial anchoring.^[25] Non-competitive inhibition of lysozyme occurs through environmental factors that disrupt enzyme-substrate interactions without directly occupying the active site. High salt concentrations, such as greater than 0.2 M NaCl, reduce activity by screening electrostatic interactions between the positively charged lysozyme and the negatively charged peptidoglycan substrate, leading to weakened binding and hydrolysis efficiency.^[1] This effect is particularly pronounced at concentrations exceeding 1 M, where ionic shielding dominates and can decrease enzymatic rates by over 50% compared to low-salt conditions.^[26] Irreversible inhibition targets key catalytic residues through covalent modification. Iodoacetate, a classic alkylating agent, reacts with the carboxylate group of Asp52, which is essential for stabilizing the oxocarbenium ion-like transition state during glycosidic bond cleavage, thereby permanently abolishing activity.^[27] This modification highlights the vulnerability of Asp52 to nucleophilic attack by electrophilic inhibitors, providing a model for understanding covalent inactivation mechanisms in glycoside hydrolases. Natural regulation of lysozyme occurs via physiological conditions that fine-tune its activity to prevent excessive host tissue damage. In environments like human tears, with a pH of approximately 7.4 and ionic strength around 0.15 M, lysozyme exhibits reduced catalytic efficiency compared to its optimal acidic pH (5-6) and low-salt milieu, as the neutral pH protonates key residues like Glu35 and the moderate salinity partially shields substrate interactions.^[28] Additionally, zymogen forms of lysozyme precursors exist in certain species, such as specific invertebrate or bacterial muramidases, requiring proteolytic activation to generate the mature enzyme and thus providing spatial-temporal control over activity onset.^[4] Allosteric effects in lysozyme arise from substrate-induced conformational shifts that can influence inhibitor binding. Binding of NAG oligosaccharides triggers a hinge-bending motion, closing the active site cleft and altering the flexibility of distant loops, which may enhance affinity for certain inhibitors or modulate access to subsites D-F.^[29] These induced-fit changes, involving rotations up to 10° in the β-sheet domains, demonstrate how partial substrate occupancy can allosterically propagate structural perturbations, affecting overall inhibition profiles without direct competition at the catalytic center.^[30]

Non-enzymatic Activities

Lysozyme exhibits cationic properties due to its abundance of positively charged residues, such as lysine and arginine, which enable electrostatic interactions with the anionic surfaces of bacterial membranes, thereby increasing membrane permeability independent of its enzymatic function.^[31] This binding disrupts the lipid bilayer integrity, particularly in Gram-positive bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus, where lysozyme forms pores or aggregates that lead to cytoplasmic leakage and cell death.^[32] Studies using synthetic peptides derived from lysozyme's amphipathic helical regions, such as those in the C-terminal domain, confirm this membrane permeabilization mechanism, as these peptides mimic the non-enzymatic bactericidal effects without hydrolytic activity.^[32] Evidence for these non-enzymatic activities is further supported by experiments with heat-denatured lysozyme, which loses its catalytic ability but retains antimicrobial potency against Gram-positive bacteria through enhanced cationic and hydrophobic interactions that promote membrane disruption.^[31] For instance, dry-heated hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) at concentrations around 0.25 g/L demonstrates increased bactericidal effects on Escherichia coli by permeabilizing the outer membrane, forming structures like amyloid fibrils that amplify this disruption.^[31] Against Gram-negative bacteria, which possess an outer membrane barrier, lysozyme's non-enzymatic efficacy is augmented when combined with chelators like EDTA, which destabilize the lipopolysaccharide layer and allow cationic binding to access the inner membrane, leading to leakage without peptidoglycan hydrolysis.^[31] Beyond antibacterial roles, lysozyme displays antiviral effects by binding to viral envelopes through its cationic domains, inhibiting fusion and entry into host cells, a process independent of enzymatic activity.^[33] This has been observed against enveloped viruses such as HIV-1, where lysozyme-derived peptides like HL9 disrupt the viral life cycle, and influenza, where it reduces viral proliferation in clinical settings.^[33] Additionally, lysozyme exerts anti-inflammatory effects by modulating cytokine release in host cells; for example, it suppresses lipopolysaccharide-induced production of TNF-α and IL-6 in macrophages by inhibiting JNK phosphorylation, thereby reducing inflammatory signaling.^[34] In endothelial cells, lysozyme also blocks HMGB1-mediated activation of NF-κB and cytokine expression (e.g., IL-1β, IL-6), mitigating hyperpermeability and leukocyte migration in models of sepsis.^[35]

Biological Roles

Occurrence and Innate Immunity

Lysozyme is widely distributed in nature, serving as a key component of innate immune defenses across various organisms. It is prominently secreted in bodily fluids such as tears, saliva, mucus, milk, and is also present in leukocytes, where it contributes to antimicrobial protection at mucosal surfaces. The highest concentrations are found in hen egg white, where lysozyme constitutes approximately 3.5% of the total protein content, making it a major source for isolation and study.^[36]^[4]^[36] Lysozymes are classified into distinct types based on structural and functional characteristics, reflecting evolutionary adaptations. The c-type (chicken or conventional type) is prevalent in mammals and birds, while the g-type (goose-type) is found in birds and some mammals, and the i-type (invertebrate-type) dominates in insects and other invertebrates. These types arose through gene duplication events, with multiple lysozyme genes identified in mammalian genomes, ranging from 5 in opossums to 18 in cows, underscoring their diversification for specialized roles. This evolutionary conservation highlights lysozyme's ubiquity as a first-line defense mechanism in animals, from insects to humans.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[38] In innate immunity, lysozyme functions primarily by hydrolyzing the β-1,4-glycosidic bonds in peptidoglycan, the cell wall component of Gram-positive bacteria, leading to bacterial lysis and enhanced susceptibility to osmotic stress. It synergizes with other antimicrobial agents, such as lactoferrin, to broaden its spectrum against Gram-negative bacteria by disrupting outer membranes. Concentration levels vary by site, with 1–3 mg/mL in tears providing robust ocular defense, and much lower levels around 7–13 μg/mL in plasma supporting systemic responses.^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]

Involvement in Disease

Lysozyme plays a dual role in disease pathology, where genetic alterations or dysregulation can lead to impaired antimicrobial defense or pathological accumulation. Rare mutations in the LYZ gene, which encodes human lysozyme, are primarily associated with hereditary systemic amyloidosis rather than straightforward deficiency states; however, animal models demonstrate that lysozyme deficiency impairs innate immunity and increases susceptibility to bacterial infections, such as middle ear infections caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae in lysozyme M-deficient mice.^[43]^[44] In humans, while no direct LYZ loss-of-function mutations causing recurrent infections have been widely reported, reduced salivary lysozyme levels observed in patients with primary immunodeficiencies suggest a contributory role in mucosal protection against Gram-positive bacteria, potentially exacerbating infection risk in immunocompromised individuals.^[45] Overexpression of lysozyme is linked to various inflammatory conditions, serving as a biomarker for disease activity. In Crohn's disease, serum lysozyme levels are significantly elevated compared to healthy controls and patients with ulcerative colitis, correlating with disease severity and extent of intestinal lesions; for instance, levels in Crohn's patients often exceed those in normals, reflecting macrophage activation and inflammation.^[46]^[47] This elevation, typically observed in active inflammatory bowel disease, positions lysozyme as an indicator of ongoing tissue damage, though its diagnostic specificity remains limited due to overlap with other conditions.^[48] A prominent pathological role of lysozyme involves its misfolding in amyloidosis. Hereditary systemic amyloidosis type 5 (AMYL5) arises from dominant mutations in the LYZ gene, such as the Ile56Thr variant, leading to the formation of amyloid fibrils that deposit in organs like the kidneys, liver, and gastrointestinal tract, causing progressive organ dysfunction.^[43]^[49] These variants destabilize the protein structure, promoting aggregation into insoluble fibrils that trigger inflammatory responses and tissue damage, as seen in affected families with renal failure and gastrointestinal involvement.^[50] The Ile56Thr mutation, first identified in an English kindred, exemplifies this, with clinical features including dermal petechiae and systemic deposition distinct from other amyloidogenic proteins.^[51] In cancer, lysozyme expression serves as a prognostic marker in certain malignancies. High lysozyme levels in colorectal cancer tissues and serum correlate with advanced disease and poor patient outcomes, potentially reflecting tumor-associated inflammation or altered antimicrobial activity in the tumor microenvironment.^[52]^[53] For example, elevated expression in gastric and colorectal cancers has been associated with reduced survival rates, suggesting its utility in risk stratification, though fecal lysozyme shows limited reliability for early detection.^[54] Emerging evidence as of 2025 also links lysozyme to age-related vascular diseases through gut microbiota modulation, serving as a novel biomarker.^[55]

Applications and Synthesis

Therapeutic and Medical Uses

Lysozyme has been employed in antibacterial therapy primarily due to its ability to hydrolyze bacterial cell walls, particularly in Gram-positive bacteria, making it a valuable adjunct or alternative to traditional antibiotics. In human medicine, recombinant human lysozyme (rhLys) is incorporated into ophthalmic solutions and eye drops to treat conjunctivitis and prevent ocular infections, offering protection against pathogens like staphylococci while avoiding allergic reactions associated with egg-derived lysozyme.^[36] In veterinary applications, lysozyme dimers administered orally or intramammarily achieve up to 58.3% efficacy in treating bovine mastitis when combined with antibiotics, reducing bacterial loads such as Clostridium spp. and E. coli in dairy cows and improving milk quality.^[36]^[56] For wound healing, lysozyme promotes tissue repair by decreasing bacterial contamination and modulating inflammation, often integrated into advanced dressings. Immobilized lysozyme on polyurethane foam or silk textiles maintains wound moisture, inhibits infection in murine models, and accelerates healing in chronic wounds through sustained antimicrobial release.^[36] Similarly, lysozyme-embedded xanthan hydrogels and cellulosic dressings reduce inflammatory responses and bacterial adhesion, enhancing epithelial regeneration in clinical settings.^[36] Lysozyme's anti-biofilm properties stem from its disruption of extracellular matrices and peptidoglycan layers, proving effective against persistent infections. In dental applications, lysozyme coatings on titanium implants prevent Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation for up to 14 days, reducing the risk of peri-implantitis and caries progression.^[36] For catheter-related infections, combining lysozyme with cefepime eradicates Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms by 49.3%, while silica nanoparticle coatings minimize device-associated hospital infections.^[36] Emerging antiviral applications leverage lysozyme's immunomodulatory effects and membrane-disrupting capabilities against enveloped viruses. Investigational nasal sprays and aerosolized formulations, such as 1% rhLys solutions, show promise in treating respiratory infections like pneumonia in animal models by reducing viral loads and bacterial superinfections.^[36] Human lysozyme combined with niclosamide in inhalable composites targets SARS-CoV-2, demonstrating in vitro efficacy for upper respiratory tract delivery.^[57] Recent studies as of 2024 have explored lysozyme in mesoporous silica nanoparticles co-loaded with vancomycin for improved antibiotic delivery against bacterial infections, and in sprays for treating radiotherapy-induced oral mucositis.^[58]^[59] Delivery challenges, including lysozyme's short half-life and rapid clearance, limit systemic efficacy but are mitigated through nanotechnology. Encapsulation in chitosan or selenium nanoparticles enhances stability, prolongs release, and boosts antibacterial activity against biofilms, with entrapment efficiencies up to 88% in sustained-delivery systems.^[36] Charge modifications and PEGylation further address sequestration in inflamed tissues, such as cystic fibrosis airways, enabling targeted therapeutic concentrations.^[36]

Industrial and Food Applications

Lysozyme serves as a natural antimicrobial agent in the food industry, particularly as a preservative to inhibit bacterial growth and extend shelf life. In cheese production, it effectively controls spoilage organisms such as Clostridium tyrobutyricum and Listeria monocytogenes by hydrolyzing peptidoglycan in their cell walls, preventing defects like late blowing and ensuring product safety.^[4] The European Union approves lysozyme (E1105) for use in ripened cheeses at levels up to 400 mg/kg, where it selectively targets vegetative forms of contaminating bacteria without affecting desirable starter cultures.^[60] Similarly, in winemaking, lysozyme is added to suppress malolactic fermentation by inhibiting lactic acid bacteria like Oenococcus oeni and Listeria species, maintaining wine stability and quality; EU regulations permit up to 500 mg/L in wine.^[61] These applications leverage lysozyme's non-enzymatic antimicrobial properties, such as membrane disruption, to provide a clean-label alternative to chemical preservatives.^[1] In brewing, lysozyme enhances beer stability by controlling gram-positive bacterial contamination during fermentation and maturation, reducing risks of off-flavors and spoilage.^[62] Additions of 100–200 ppm to yeast slurries or wort inhibit pathogens without harming brewer's yeast, contributing to improved clarity by preventing bacterial-induced haze formation through cell wall degradation.^[63] This use is approved by the European Food Safety Authority for brewing processes, with no safety concerns at intended levels beyond known allergenicity.^[60] Beyond food processing, lysozyme functions as an excipient in pharmaceutical formulations to enhance stability of sensitive compounds, such as in nanoparticle and liposome systems where it prevents aggregation and maintains dispersion.^[64] Its mild enzymatic action aids in preserving the integrity of biologics during storage and delivery without introducing toxicity.^[65] In cosmetics, lysozyme provides antimicrobial protection in products like eye creams and oral care formulations, where it combats bacterial proliferation on skin and mucosal surfaces.^[36] For instance, incorporation into toothpaste and mouthwashes inhibits oral pathogens such as Streptococcus mutans, promoting hygiene while being gentle on tissues due to its natural occurrence in saliva.^[66] In eye care items, it helps prevent contamination and supports preservative-free claims.^[67] Lysozyme also finds application in environmental remediation, particularly wastewater treatment, where it facilitates bacterial control and sludge hydrolysis. By lysing gram-positive bacteria in activated sludge, it enhances solubilization of organic matter, improving biodegradation efficiency and reducing treatment volumes.^[68] Combined with processes like hydrothermal pretreatment, lysozyme increases chemical oxygen demand release by up to 48.5%, aiding in pathogen reduction and effluent quality.^[69] As of 2025, lysozyme is increasingly incorporated into biopolymer films for active food packaging, enhancing antimicrobial activity and shelf life extension through controlled release.^[70]

Chemical Synthesis and Production

Lysozyme is predominantly produced through natural extraction from hen egg white, where it comprises approximately 3.5% of the total protein content. The process typically begins with acid precipitation or salting out using sodium chloride, followed by ion-exchange chromatography or affinity methods to isolate the enzyme, achieving purities exceeding 95% and recovery yields around 90-94%. These techniques exploit lysozyme's basic isoelectric point (pI ≈ 11) for selective adsorption on cation exchangers, enabling efficient large-scale production while maintaining enzymatic activity.^[71]^[72]^[73] Recombinant production offers an alternative to natural extraction, particularly for variants or allergen-free sources, using microbial hosts such as Escherichia coli or yeast like Pichia pastoris. In E. coli, lysozyme is expressed as inclusion bodies or soluble forms via periplasmic secretion, yielding up to several grams per liter without unwanted glycosylation, as the native hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) lacks N-linked glycans. Eukaryotic systems like yeast enable higher expression levels (up to 1-2 g/L) but introduce glycosylation challenges, often resulting in hyperglycosylated forms with polymannose chains that alter activity and pharmacokinetics, necessitating deglycosylation steps or engineered strains for native-like production. As of 2025, recombinant methods are gaining traction due to rising demand for allergen-free lysozyme, with market projections indicating significant growth through 2034.^[74]^[75]^[76] Chemical synthesis of lysozyme has focused on fragments, analogs, and related proteins due to its structural complexity, including 129 amino acids and eight cysteine residues forming four disulfide bonds. Early solid-phase peptide synthesis efforts in the 1970s produced a 49-residue polypeptide mimicking the HEWL active site cleft, exhibiting partial lysozyme activity against bacterial cell walls. Modern strategies employ convergent solid-phase methods combined with native chemical ligation for synthesizing full-length analogs, such as human lysozyme (130 residues), enabling the creation of modified variants with enhanced properties.^[77] Natural extraction from egg white remains cost-effective for bulk production, dominating low-cost applications at scales where recombinant methods are not yet competitive, though the latter promise lower costs at industrial volumes through optimized fermentation. Post-production modifications, such as PEGylation, conjugate polyethylene glycol chains to lysozyme's surface lysines, improving thermal and proteolytic stability while reducing immunogenicity without significantly impairing activity.^[78]^[79]^[80]

History and Evolution

Discovery and Early Research

The antibacterial properties of hen egg white were first observed in 1909 by Russian microbiologist P. Laschtschenko, who noted its ability to inhibit bacterial growth and development, attributing it to a thermolabile factor likely an enzyme.^[81] In 1922, Alexander Fleming independently identified a similar bacteriolytic substance while investigating nasal secretions from a patient with acute coryza (common cold). He observed that drops of the secretion rapidly cleared turbid suspensions of certain bacteria, particularly Micrococcus lysodeikticus (now classified as Micrococcus luteus), demonstrating potent lytic activity against Gram-positive cocci but limited effects on Gram-negative rods or other pathogens.^[82] Fleming named the enzyme "lysozyme" due to its ability to lyse bacterial cells and further characterized its presence in various tissues and secretions, including tears, saliva, and egg white, highlighting its role as a natural antimicrobial agent.^[82] Early efforts to purify lysozyme focused on egg white as a rich source, leading to its initial crystallization in 1937 by E. P. Abraham and R. Robinson, who obtained pure crystals using sodium chloride precipitation at alkaline pH, confirming its proteinaceous nature and homogeneity.^[83] In the 1930s and 1940s, biochemical assays by Karl Meyer and colleagues advanced its characterization, establishing lysozyme as a glycoside hydrolase (specifically a muramidase) that cleaves β-1,4-glycosidic bonds between N-acetylmuramic acid and N-acetylglucosamine in bacterial peptidoglycan, explaining its lytic mechanism through viscosimetric and reducing sugar release measurements on cell wall substrates.^[84] These pre-structural studies laid the groundwork for understanding lysozyme's enzymatic specificity and substrate preferences.^[85]

Structural Elucidation and Key Advances

The three-dimensional structure of hen egg-white lysozyme (HEWL), the first enzyme to be elucidated by X-ray crystallography, was determined in 1965 by David Phillips and his team at 2 Å resolution (Blake et al.), building on 6 Å analysis of crystalline complexes with inhibitors such as tri-N-acetylglucosamine (Johnson and Phillips).^[86]^[87] This breakthrough revealed the enzyme's compact fold, consisting of two domains with a deep cleft for substrate binding, marking a pivotal advance in structural enzymology. A detailed review in 1967 by Phillips provided further atomic insights, including the active site residues Glu35 and Asp52, enabling the first structure-function correlations for an enzyme. Building on this structural foundation, Phillips proposed a catalytic mechanism in the mid-1960s involving acid-base catalysis, where Glu35 protonates the glycosidic oxygen to facilitate departure of the leaving group, generating a carbocation intermediate stabilized by Asp52, followed by nucleophilic attack by water. This "Phillips mechanism" emphasized substrate distortion in the active site and became a paradigm for retaining glycoside hydrolases, influencing decades of research on enzyme catalysis.^[88] However, debates persisted regarding the nature of the intermediate, leading to a landmark study in 2001 by Vocadlo et al., who used crystallography with a fluorinated substrate analog to trap and visualize a covalent glycosyl-enzyme intermediate at Asp52, revising the mechanism to include covalent catalysis while retaining elements of the original proposal.^[89] Insights into the lysozyme superfamily emerged from comparative structural analyses, classifying animal c-type lysozymes (like HEWL) into glycoside hydrolase family 22 (GH22), characterized by a βα barrel fold and conserved catalytic residues, while phage lysozymes such as T4 endolysin belong to GH24, sharing functional similarities but differing in domain architecture.^[90] Plant lysozymes, often akin to basic chitinases, align more closely with GH19, highlighting divergent evolutionary paths within the superfamily for peptidoglycan or chitin hydrolysis.^[90] More recent analyses (as of 2024) highlight horizontal gene transfer of g-type lysozymes in certain metazoan lineages, underscoring diverse evolutionary paths for antibacterial defense.^[91] Gene duplications in the lysozyme family, particularly g-type, have occurred through lineage-specific events in vertebrates, leading to paralogs with tissue-specific expression in areas like the gut and airways. Recent advances in the 2020s have leveraged nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to probe lysozyme dynamics, revealing "breathing motions"—collective fluctuations in the protein backbone and side chains—that facilitate substrate access to the active site and correlate with aromatic ring flipping in buried residues. These studies demonstrate how millisecond-scale conformational changes underpin catalytic efficiency, complementing static crystal structures. Concurrently, directed evolution techniques have engineered variants with enhanced activity; for instance, phage T4 lysozyme mutants selected via biosensor-based screening in 2020 exhibited up to 10-fold increased hydrolytic rates against bacterial cell walls, informing protein engineering for biotechnological applications.^[92]

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Solubilization is slow and complete at room tem- perature up to 100 mg/ml. ... Swan, I.: The Inhibition of Hen Egg-White Lysozyme by Imidazole and In- dole ...
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Refolding of denatured and denatured/reduced lysozyme at high ...
Jul 19, 1996 · Refolding of proteins at high concentrations often results in aggregation. To gain insight into the molecular aspects of refolding and to ...
[19]
Synergistic effect of hen egg white lysozyme and lysosomotropic ...
Jan 1, 2020 · The concentration of lysozyme was calculated by dividing the absorbance at 280 nm by the molar extinction coefficient (ε280 = 37 970 M−1 cm−1).
[20]
M-CSA Mechanism and Catalytic Site Atlas - EMBL-EBI
Lysozymes have primarily a bacteriolytic function, it hydrolyses specific bonds between NAG and NAM in peptidoglycan, which forms the bacterial cell wall.
[21]
Participation of the catalytic carboxyls, Asp 52 and Glu 35 ... - PubMed
The ionization constants of the catalytic carboxyls, Glu 35 and Asp 52, in the turkey lysozyme-(GlcNAc)3 complex were determined by measuring the pH dependence ...Missing: pKa source<|control11|><|separator|>
[22]
Protein-Ligand Interaction Detection: Novel TIMES Method
Oct 24, 2016 · ... NAG (NAG3), as shown in Figure 1d–f. The histogram shows that the value of the dissociation constant between lysozyme and NAG3 is 39.81 μM ...Introduction · Results and Discussion · Conclusion · Experimental Section
[23]
B2. Lysozyme - Chemistry LibreTexts
May 8, 2019 · Catalysis by the enzyme involves Glu 35 and Asp 52 which are in the active site. Asp 52 is surrounded by polar groups but Glu 35 is in a ...
[24]
Interactive inhibition of meat spoilage and pathogenic bacteria by ...
Additionally, it has been reported that high ionic concentrations have a negative effect on the activity of lysozyme (Davies et al., 1969) and the presence of ...<|separator|>
[25]
The Identification of Aspartic Acid Residue 52 as Being Critical to ...
The Identification of Aspartic Acid Residue 52 as Being Critical to Lysozyme Activity.
[26]
Fluorescence-Polarization-Based Assaying of Lysozyme with ... - NIH
Jan 31, 2024 · The catalytic activity of lysozyme depends on the pH, ionic strength ... At pH 6.9 and 7.4, the activity of lysozyme was almost the same.
[27]
Conformation of T4 Lysozyme in Solution. Hinge-Bending Motion ...
If the conformers are well separated in energy, transitions between them can be induced by an interaction with the surroundings, such as substrate binding, ...Abstract · Discussion · Author Information
[28]
Origins of the conformational change induced in hen lysozyme by N ...
This suggests that hen lysozyme employs an induced fit type mechanism to discriminate for N-acetylated saccharides as substrates. Previous article ...
[29]
Lysozyme and Its Application as Antibacterial Agent in Food Industry
The orthodox mechanism for bacterial killing by lysozyme occurs through the hydrolysis of cell wall PG. There are several PG-related mechanisms suggested for ...Missing: competitive | Show results with:competitive
[30]
The non-enzymatic microbicidal activity of lysozymes - PubMed
Apr 23, 1999 · T4 lysozyme was thought to destroy bacteria by its muramidase activity. However, we demonstrate here that amphipathic helix stretches in the ...
[31]
The potential of lactoferrin, ovotransferrin and lysozyme as antiviral ...
Oct 8, 2020 · Lysozyme exhibits antiviral activity via its cationic peptides and has immunomodulatory, antioxidant and angiotensin-converting enzyme- ...
[32]
Anti-inflammatory effect of lysozyme from hen egg white on mouse ...
Overall results suggest that lysozyme is taken up intracellularly and suppresses LPS-induced inflammatory responses by inhibiting JNK phosphorylation. Keywords ...Missing: properties | Show results with:properties
[33]
Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Lysozyme Against HMGB1 in ... - PubMed
Lysozyme protects us from the ever-present danger of bacterial infection and binds to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with a high affinity.Missing: properties | Show results with:properties
[34]
Applications of Lysozyme, an Innate Immune Defense Factor, as an ...
The seed oil from Carthamus tinctorius safflower [69] and the milky juice of papaya fruits [70] are rich sources of proteolytic enzymes, including lysozyme. ...
[35]
Lysozymes in the animal kingdom - PubMed
In the animal kingdom, three major distinct lysozyme types have been identified--the c-type (chicken or conventional type), the g-type (goose-type) and the i- ...
[36]
Evolution of the mammalian lysozyme gene family - PubMed Central
Multiple lysozyme-like genes were identified in all of the mammalian species ranging from 5 in opossum to 18 in cow. The fewest number of genes were found in ...Missing: zymogen | Show results with:zymogen
[37]
Recent insights into the functions of lysozyme - PubMed - NIH
Sep 21, 2017 · Lysozyme is a cornerstone of innate immunity. The canonical mechanism for bacterial killing by lysozyme occurs through the hydrolysis of cell wall ...
[38]
Innate Immunity in the Human Female Reproductive Tract
Many antimicrobials present in mucosal fluids can act in synergy. Lactoferrin and lysozyme have been shown to be synergistic against Gram-negative bacteria.
[39]
Tear Lactoferrin and Lysozyme as Clinically Relevant Biomarkers of ...
May 31, 2019 · Lactoferrin (Lf) and lysozyme (Lys) are abundant in the tear fluid and have antimicrobial properties. Since the eye is a portal for infection ...
[40]
Regulation of Lysozyme Activity by Human Hormones - PMC - NIH
The concentration of lysozyme in human blood plasma ranges from 7 to 13 mg/L. There is scant information on the presence, characteristics, and regulation ...
[41]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6558391/
[42]
Lysozyme M deficiency leads to an increased susceptibility to ...
Oct 8, 2008 · Deficiency in lysozyme M led to an increased susceptibility to middle ear infection with S. pneumoniae 6B and resulted in severe middle ear inflammation.
[43]
Salivary lysozyme levels in patients with primary immunodeficiencies
Lysozyme could represent a contributory factor to mucosal immunity and to protection against Gram-positive bacterium in patients with severely impaired immune ...Missing: recurrent | Show results with:recurrent
[44]
Serum lysozyme levels in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis - PMC
Serum lysozyme levels were determined in healthy volunteers, patients with Crohn's disease, and patients with ulcerative colitis.Missing: overexpression biomarker
[45]
Serum Lysozyme in Crohn's Disease. A Useful Index of ... - PubMed
These findings suggest that the serum lysozyme concentrations may serve as a useful index of the activity of Crohn's disease and aid in monitoring the clinical ...
[46]
Serum lysozyme and inflammatory bowel disease1 - MDEdge
May 1, 1987 · Thirty-five patients with Crohn's disease and six patients with ulcerative colitis had elevated serum lysozyme levels compared with 47 ...<|separator|>
[47]
Formation of amyloid aggregates from human lysozyme ... - PubMed
Formation of amyloid deposits from the Ile56Thr or Asp67His variants of human lysozyme is a hallmark of autosomal hereditary systemic amyloidosis.
[48]
Human lysozyme gene mutations cause hereditary systemic ...
Apr 8, 1993 · This is the first report of naturally occurring variants of human lysozyme and of lysozyme-associated disease.Missing: Ile56Thr | Show results with:Ile56Thr
[49]
Hereditary renal amyloidosis associated with variant lysozyme in a ...
The only other known lysozyme variant, Ile56Thr, also caused systemic amyloidosis but presented differently [11], with dermal petechiae in all affected subjects ...
[50]
Recent Insights Into the Prognostic and Therapeutic Applications of ...
Lysozymes are naturally occurring enzymes present in a variety of biological organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and animal bodily secretions and tissues.
[51]
[PDF] Effect of lysozyme on invasion and migration of human lung ...
Some studies also revealed that the express- ion level of lysozyme increased dramatically in gastric cancer, colorectal cancer and other ma- lignancies, which ...
[52]
Fecal lysozyme: an unreliable marker for colorectal cancer - PubMed
It has been suggested that fecal lysozyme could prove useful in the early detection of colorectal cancer, but that further work is needed.
[53]
https://e-century.us/files/ijcep/9/8/ijcep0031640.pdf
[54]
Intramammary expression and therapeutic effect of a human ...
To develop a gene therapy strategy for treating bovine mastitis, a new mammary-specific vector containing human lysozyme (hLYZ) cDNA and kanamycin ...
[55]
Development and evaluation of inhalable composite niclosamide ...
Feb 11, 2021 · Niclosamide (NIC) has demonstrated promising in vitro antiviral efficacy against SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic.Missing: viruses | Show results with:viruses<|separator|>
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Safety evaluation of the food enzyme lysozyme from hens' eggs | EFSA
Apr 3, 2023 · It is intended to be used in brewing processes, milk processing for cheese production as well as wine production. The dietary exposure to the ...
[57]
Lysozyme in wine - EFSA - European Union
Oct 6, 2011 · In winemaking, lysozyme is used for the control of lactic acid bacteria, and it is considered essential to obtain consistent and high quality.
[58]
MBAA TQ - Application of the Enzyme Lysozyme in Brewing
The addition of lysozyme (100 or 200 ppm) to harvested yeast destined for ... Chill haze was evident in beers containing 300 ppm or greater of lysozyme.Missing: lysis | Show results with:lysis
[59]
The chemical and sensorial effects of lysozyme addition to red and ...
In beer, the addition of lysozyme was found to influence chill haze formation (Daeschel et al. 1999), which results from the aggregation of barley proteins when ...
[60]
Lysozyme And Its Uses In The Pharmaceutical Industry
Apr 18, 2024 · Lysozyme is a helpful protector in tiny drug carriers like liposomes and nanoparticles. It keeps them from sticking together, making sure the ...
[61]
Developing Biologics Tablets: The Effects of Compression on the ...
Jan 30, 2019 · BSA and lysozyme exhibited high plasticity and excellent tabletability and remained amorphous at high pressure and humidity. As for protein ...
[62]
Antimicrobial Activity of Lysozyme Against Oral Pathogens
Aug 10, 2025 · Given its antimicrobial role, the adsorption of lysozyme onto a mouthguard could potentially have a positive effect in maintaining oral health.Missing: cosmetics creams
[63]
Lysozyme – An Underexploited Molecule with High Therapeutic ...
Lysozyme incorporated in cold plasma-activated biodegradable polylactic acid packages of fruit juices can inhibit the growth of Listeria monocytogenes, with ...
[64]
Changes in microbial community during hydrolyzed sludge reduction
Aug 31, 2023 · The lysozyme that achieves the optimal sludge hydrolysis effect of 48.5% has the greatest impact on the chemical oxygen demand (COD), total ...
[65]
Effect of lysozyme combined with hydrothermal pretreatment on ...
Lysozyme combined with hydrothermal pretreatment significantly increased SCOD, soluble proteins, and polysaccharide release from sludge, reducing SCOD release ...
[66]
Purification of lysozyme from chicken egg white by high-density ...
May 1, 2021 · For SP-XL adsorbent, the recovery yield and purification factor of lysozyme were 93.78% and ~40 folds, respectively. For SP adsorbent, lysozyme ...
[67]
Full article: Batch purification of high-purity lysozyme from egg white ...
In conclusion, a rapid and simple method for the batch purification of lysozyme from hen egg white was devised, allowing selective extraction of LZ with a yield ...
[68]
Extraction and Characterization of Lysozyme from Salted Duck Egg ...
Nov 9, 2022 · The results showed that 64% of lysozyme was removed from the egg white. This process is characterized by its low cost and high absorption rates, ...
[69]
Engineering Escherichia coli for Soluble Expression and Single ...
Dec 7, 2012 · Here, we describe a novel and efficient expression system capable of producing folded, soluble and functional human lysozyme in E. coli cells.
[70]
Full article: Recombinant expression of hen egg white lysozyme with ...
Jun 21, 2022 · We acquired bioactive HEWL for large-scale recombinant production in Pichia pastoris using a novel fusion protein expression strategy.
[71]
Convergent chemical synthesis and high-resolution x-ray structure ...
In this article, we report the total chemical synthesis of human lysozyme. Lysozyme serves as a widespread model system in various fields of biochemical ...
[72]
Process evaluations and economic analyses of recombinant human ...
Currently, hen egg-white lysozyme dominates low cost applications but the recent high-level expression of human lysozyme in rice could provide an economical ...
[73]
PEGylation to Improve Protein Stability During Melt Processing - NIH
Jun 12, 2015 · This study explored the effect of PEGylation on protein stability during melt processing using lysozyme and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA).
[74]
Effect of PEG molecular weight and PEGylation degree on the ...
Mar 15, 2017 · In this work, the influence of PEG molecular weight and PEGylation degree on the physical stability of PEGylated lysozyme is investigated.
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The Growth of Gram‐Negative Bacteria in the Hen's Egg - 1964
Laschtschenko, P. (1909). Über die keimtötende und entwicklungshemmende Wirkung Hünereiweiss. Z. Hyg. Infektionskrankh. 64, 419. 10.1007/BF02216170. Google ...Missing: Infektionskr | Show results with:Infektionskr
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On a remarkable bacteriolytic element found in tissues and secretions
The lysozyme was first noticed during some investigations made on a patient suffering from acute coryza. The nasal secretion of this patient was cultivated ...
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Crystallization of Lysozyme - Nature
About this article. Cite this article. ABRAHAM, E., ROBINSON, R. Crystallization of Lysozyme. Nature 140, 24 (1937). https://doi.org/10.1038/140024a0. Download ...Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
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article on the mechanism of lysozyme action - ScienceDirect.com
Journal of Biological Chemistry · Volume 113, Issue 2, March 1936, Pages 479 ... Meyer , John W. Palmer , Richard Thompson , Devorah Khorazo. Show more.
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article the purification and properties of lysozyme - ScienceDirect.com
Journal of Biological Chemistry, Volume 113, Issue 1, 1 February 1936, Pages 303-309, ARTICLE THE PURIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF LYSOZYME.
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Structure of Some Crystalline Lysozyme-Inhibitor Complexes ...
Structure of some crystalline lysozyme-inhibitor complexes determined by X-ray analysis at 6 Å resolution. Nature volume 206, pages 761–763 (1965)
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David Phillips (1924—99) | Nature
May 6, 1999 · Lysozyme has antibacterial activity, which was then known to be due to its ability to hydrolyse the polysaccharide component of the bacterial ...
[82]
Catalysis by hen egg-white lysozyme proceeds via a covalent ...
Aug 23, 2001 · Vocadlo, D., Davies, G., Laine, R. et al. Catalysis by hen egg-white lysozyme proceeds via a covalent intermediate. Nature 412, 835–838 (2001).
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Structural Relationships in the Lysozyme Superfamily
Nov 9, 2010 · Since its discovery by Fleming in 1922, lysozyme has been extensively studied. It was one of the first proteins to be completely sequenced [36] ...
[84]
Co-option of bacteriophage lysozyme genes by bivalve genomes
Jan 1, 2017 · In this study, we have not only provided evidence that the bivalve genomes acquired phage-type lysozyme genes via HGT, but also explored the ...Missing: vertebrates | Show results with:vertebrates
[85]
The gain and loss of genes during 600 million years of vertebrate ...
May 24, 2006 · Here, we have studied gene gain and loss in seven different vertebrate genomes, spanning an evolutionary period of about 600 million years.Missing: lysozyme phage
[86]
Genetically Encoded Biosensor-Based Screening for Directed ...
In this study, we produced soluble and functional lysozyme from bacteriophage T4 (T4L) in E. coli and improved T4L activity via directed evolution using a GESS.