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BGM-71 TOW

The BGM-71 TOW (Tube-launched, Optically tracked, Wire-guided) is an American heavy anti-tank guided missile system designed to defeat armored vehicles through direct kinetic energy or shaped charge warheads.^[1] Developed by Hughes Aircraft Company starting in the early 1960s under the Heavy Antitank Weapon program, it entered U.S. service in 1970 as a replacement for earlier recoilless rifles and short-range missiles, offering improved range and accuracy via semi-automatic command line-of-sight guidance.^[2]^[3] The TOW missile is launched from a reusable tube and guided by an operator who tracks the target through optical sights, with commands transmitted via thin wires spooled out behind the missile to adjust its trajectory in real time.^[4] Variants such as the TOW-2 series incorporate tandem warheads to penetrate reactive armor and extended-range models achieving up to 4.5 kilometers, enabling deployment from ground tripods, vehicles like the Stryker or HMMWV, or helicopters.^[5] Its versatility has led to adoption by over 40 countries, with production continuing into 2025 under Raytheon for ongoing U.S. and allied needs.^[6] In combat, the TOW has demonstrated high effectiveness against main battle tanks, notably destroying numerous Iraqi armored vehicles during the 1991 Gulf War and Russian tanks in the Ukraine conflict, where its wire-guidance provides reliability in electronic warfare environments despite vulnerabilities to wire breakage or minimum arming distances.^[7]^[8] Over 700,000 launchers and millions of missiles produced underscore its defining role as a staple of modern anti-armor capabilities, though upgrades address evolving threats like active protection systems.^[9]

Development

Precursors and Conceptual Origins

In the 1950s and early 1960s, the US Army confronted escalating Cold War threats from Soviet main battle tanks, including the T-55 introduced in 1958 with enhanced armor and the T-62 fielded in 1961 featuring a 115mm smoothbore gun, necessitating a reliable medium-range anti-tank capability beyond the limitations of unguided recoilless rifles like the 106mm M40, which lacked precision at extended ranges.^[10]^[11] Evaluations of interim foreign systems, such as the French SS-10 (tested unsatisfactory in 1953 but limitedly adopted in 1959), SS-11 (procured in 1961 for ground and helicopter use), and ENTAC (adopted in 1964), revealed persistent shortfalls: maximum ranges of 3,000 meters for SS-11 and 1,100 meters for ENTAC, coupled with low first-round hit probabilities, excessive minimum engagement distances, manual command-to-line-of-sight guidance demanding high operator skill, and vulnerability to adverse weather.^[2]^[12] The BGM-71 TOW's conceptual origins emerged from the Heavy Anti-tank/Assault Weapon (HAW) program launched in July 1958 after terminating the domestic DART wire-guided effort due to performance issues. An ad hoc committee at the Ballistic Research Laboratories assessed HAW feasibility, recommending delayed advanced research, while a 1961 proposal outlined a tube-launched, optically tracked, wire-guided missile to enhance accuracy and reduce training burdens through simplified command guidance. This "new concept," building on 1959 infrared-linked optical tracking innovations demonstrated in December 1960, prioritized empirical validation over manual systems' operator dependency, with industry feasibility studies awarded to Hughes Aircraft and others in January 1962 confirming design viability via summer 1962 firings achieving 2,000-meter engagements in 9 seconds.^[2]^[12] From 1964 to 1966, trials emphasized wire-guided precision's advantages, establishing the TOW Project Office on October 1, 1964, and awarding Hughes the initial R&D contract in June 1966. Prototype phase testing (January 1965–June 1966) conducted 62 firings, attaining 66% reliability and hits to 3,000 meters, while engineering design evaluations (July–September 1966) fired 69 service test models at Redstone Arsenal to quantify hit probabilities against fixed and moving targets, targeting 90% at 1,500 meters and 75% at 2,000 meters per 1964–1965 qualitative requirements. These data-centric assessments highlighted superior first-principles guidance efficacy, directly addressing predecessors' accuracy deficits amid doctrinal imperatives for all-weather, medium-range armored countermeasures.^[12]^[2]

Selection Process and Initial Production

In response to the need for an advanced anti-tank guided missile to replace earlier systems like the SS.10 and SS.11, the U.S. Army initiated studies in 1961, leading to the TOW (Tube-launched, Optically-tracked, Wire-guided) concept developed by David Hardison.^[2] In January 1962, the Ballistic Research Laboratories selected three contractors—Hughes Aircraft Company, Martin Marietta, and McDonnell Douglas—for six-month feasibility studies to evaluate hardware and conceptual designs.^[2] Hughes was chosen as the prime developer due to its overall superior approach, despite subsystem shortcomings in competitors, following evaluations that demonstrated feasible semi-automatic command to line-of-sight guidance with a projected range of 3,000 meters.^[3]^[2] Development proceeded from 1963 to 1968, incorporating prototypes such as the XMGM-71A tactical round, with field tests at sites like White Sands Missile Range validating guidance reliability against moving targets.^[3] The first full-scale production contract was awarded to Hughes in June 1968, initiating manufacturing at its facilities.^[3] Initial production milestones included delivery of the first missiles in August 1969, followed by operational fielding to U.S. Army ground units in September 1970, equipping three training battalions and replacing systems like the MGM-32 Entac and M40 recoilless rifle.^[2] Early integration occurred on jeep-mounted launchers for mobile anti-tank roles.^[2] Production faced challenges, notably persistent wire command link breakage during development and early runs, alongside infrared lamp and launch motor issues, which were addressed through iterative redesigns based on empirical test data to enhance reliability.^[2] These resolutions laid the groundwork for scalable manufacturing, enabling eventual production exceeding 700,000 units across variants.^[3]

Key Upgrades and Production Milestones

The TOW system underwent significant adaptations in the 1970s for integration with helicopter platforms, including the AH-1 Cobra, which enabled standoff aerial launches and expanded its tactical flexibility beyond ground-based operations.^[2] In 1981, the Improved TOW (BGM-71C) introduced an extended probe for increased standoff distance and armor penetration, addressing limitations observed in early field use.^[2] The TOW-2 (BGM-71D) followed in 1983, featuring a heavier 152 mm warhead for enhanced lethality against evolving armored threats.^[13] The 1980s and 1990s saw further refinements driven by armor advancements, with the TOW-2A (BGM-71E) entering production in 1987 equipped with tandem warheads specifically to defeat explosive reactive armor.^[4] Complementing this, the TOW-2B (BGM-71F) achieved initial production in 1991, incorporating a fly-over shoot-down top-attack profile using dual explosively formed penetrators to target thinner upper armor surfaces.^[4] These upgrades reflected iterative improvements based on testing and operational data, prioritizing penetration reliability over radical redesigns. Recent developments emphasize wireless guidance and sensor enhancements for reduced vulnerability to wire entanglement and improved detection in cluttered environments. In October 2023, the US approved a potential $70 million foreign military sale to Oman for 301 TOW-2B radio-frequency (RF) missiles, including support equipment, marking adoption of the RF variant by allied forces.^[14] In September 2025, Raytheon received a $271.4 million US Army contract modification for full-rate production of approximately 2,000 TOW missiles, funding expansions in guidance fuses and target acquisition capabilities to sustain performance against modern threats.^[15] Production has proceeded in phases since full-scale contracts began in 1968, with over 700,000 missiles and weapon systems delivered globally to date, underscoring sustained demand and manufacturing scalability.^[5] Cumulative upgrades, including digital processors and RF links, have extended the system's projected service life beyond 2050, countering earlier projections for obsolescence around 2030 despite ongoing debates over next-generation replacements.^[5]^[16]

Technical Design

Guidance Mechanism and Flight Characteristics

The BGM-71 TOW utilizes a semi-automatic command to line-of-sight (SACLOS) guidance system, in which the operator aligns and maintains the optical sight on the target throughout the missile's flight, while the launcher's infrared tracker automatically detects the missile's rear-mounted beacon and computes deviation errors to relay corrective steering commands via thin, spooled copper wires.^[17] This wire-based command link, unspooling at rates synchronized with missile velocity, transmits proportional adjustments to the missile's control surfaces, ensuring the projectile remains on the line-of-sight path without requiring active operator input for midcourse corrections.^[18] The physical conduction of signals renders the system inherently resistant to radio-frequency jamming, as no electromagnetic emissions are involved in guidance transmission.^[19] Initial variants employ a xenon or infrared beacon for optical tracking, achieving hit probabilities exceeding 90% against stationary targets in clear visibility conditions, as documented in U.S. Army operational evaluations.^[20] Subsequent models, such as the TOW-2 (BGM-71C and later), incorporate enhanced guidance electronics and thermal imaging sights to mitigate performance degradation in environments with dust, smoke, or other obscurants, maintaining trackability through improved signal processing and beacon modulation.^[4] Flight is propelled by a two-stage solid-fuel rocket system: a brief initial booster ejects the missile from the launch tube with minimal backblast signature, followed by ignition of the sustainer motor approximately 7 meters downrange after wing deployment for aerodynamic stability.^[3]^[4] The sustainer features dual nozzles angled at 30 degrees relative to the missile body, delivering thrust for controlled acceleration to terminal velocities around 180-200 m/s, with total flight durations scaling to 15-20 seconds at maximum effective ranges of 3,000-4,000 meters depending on variant.^[21] Later upgrades include electronic countermeasures provisions in the guidance wire protocol to counter attempts at wire disruption or false beacon simulation, though the system's line-of-sight requirement limits utility against highly mobile or obscured targets.^[4]

Warhead Technology and Lethality

The original BGM-71A TOW missile featured a single-stage high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) shaped-charge warhead weighing approximately 3.9 kg, capable of penetrating 430–600 mm of rolled homogeneous armor (RHA) equivalent under optimal conditions.^[17]^[22] This design relied on the Munroe effect to form a hypervelocity metal jet from a copper liner, defeating conventional armor through kinetic and thermal disruption rather than kinetic impact alone. Subsequent variants like the BGM-71C improved TOW (ITOW) increased warhead diameter to 140 mm and penetration to around 700–800 mm RHA, addressing evolving threats from denser composite armors observed in Soviet T-62 and early T-72 tanks during Cold War assessments.^[22] The BGM-71E TOW-2A introduced a tandem-warhead configuration in 1983, with a smaller precursor charge detonating first to trigger explosive reactive armor (ERA), followed by the main 5–6 kg charge achieving 800–900 mm RHA penetration against post-ERA targets; this was validated through U.S. Army live-fire tests in the 1980s using T-72 simulants, confirming consistent defeat of Kontakt-1 ERA tiles without jet fragmentation compromise.^[4]^[2] The BGM-71F TOW-2B shifted to a fly-over top-attack mode employing two explosively formed penetrators (EFPs) from tantalum slugs, each generating velocities exceeding 2 km/s to penetrate over 900 mm of roof armor—typically the thinnest aspect on main battle tanks like the T-72 or T-80, where slat or cage defenses prove empirically ineffective against dispersed EFP impacts due to standoff geometry.^[23]^[21] This configuration exploits causal vulnerabilities in turret-top and engine deck plating, prioritizing lethality against sloped or reactive upper surfaces over direct frontal engagements. Modernization efforts, including 2024 demonstrations of enhanced fuzing in the TOW-2B, focus on insensitive munitions compliance and improved detonation reliability against advanced reactive defenses like Kontakt-5, without fundamentally altering the underlying shaped-charge or EFP physics; these upgrades extend service life past 2050 by mitigating premature fuze failures in cluttered environments.^[24]^[25]

Launcher Systems and Platform Integration

The BGM-71 TOW missile system utilizes a modular launcher design, enabling deployment from ground-based tripods, vehicular mounts, and helicopter platforms without requiring extensive platform-specific modifications.^[5] The primary ground launcher, such as the M220 series, supports dismounted infantry operations via a tripod configuration, while vehicle integrations include the High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) and Bradley Fighting Vehicle (BFV).^[26] This adaptability has allowed integration on over 15,000 ground, vehicle, and helicopter platforms across more than 40 international forces.^[5] The TOW's tube-launched, optically tracked, wire-guided architecture features missiles encased in disposable fiberglass launch tubes, which seal the round for protection and enable rapid reloading by a crew of two to three personnel.^[4] Each missile, including its canister, weighs approximately 25 kg, facilitating manual handling and stowage in standard carriers like the HMMWV, which can accommodate multiple rounds.^[4] Launcher systems, such as those on the BFV, incorporate stabilized mounts for firing from stationary positions, emphasizing the system's emphasis on precision over on-the-move capability.^[2] Aerial integrations, historically mounted on helicopters like the AH-1 Cobra, leverage the same modular sighting and control units, with the TOW's wire guidance compatible with rotorcraft fire control systems.^[2] Logistical simplicity is evident in training protocols, where U.S. Army and Marine Corps programs highlight the system's low crew requirements and quick setup times, typically under 5 minutes for tripod emplacement, supporting rapid deployment in diverse operational environments. Recent U.S. military aid packages, including adaptations for HMMWV mounts, underscore ongoing enhancements to vehicular integration for allied forces.^[4]

Operational History

Early Combat Deployments in Vietnam

![TOW missile fired from a Jeep-mounted launcher during the Vietnam War][float-right] The BGM-71 TOW missile system achieved its first combat employment during the North Vietnamese Easter Offensive in 1972, marking the inaugural use of a U.S.-designed guided anti-tank missile by American forces. On 2 May 1972, UH-1B helicopters equipped with the XM26 airborne TOW subsystem destroyed North Vietnamese tanks near An Lộc, demonstrating the system's precision in engaging armored targets.^[27]^[16] This aerial deployment validated the wire-guided technology against T-54 and PT-76 tanks, with engagements occurring at ranges of 2,000 to 3,000 meters on 9 May 1972, resulting in first-round hits and secondary explosions.^[2] Subsequent ground-based uses by U.S. and Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) forces further confirmed the TOW's battlefield utility. Limited ground TOW systems, often mounted on jeeps, fired 23 missiles, destroying 11 tanks and 6 bunkers, including a notable engagement where 9 tanks were eliminated in a single action.^[2] By late May 1972, TOW missiles had amassed 24 confirmed kills against PT-76 light tanks and T-54 main battle tanks, surpassing the effectiveness of unguided recoilless rifles through superior guidance accuracy.^[28] Overall, airborne TOW operations from April 1972 to January 1973 achieved an 82% hit rate across 162 combat firings, accounting for 27 tanks among other targets, which underscored the missile's reliability in countering armored advances.^[2]^[27] Operational experience highlighted the importance of operator proficiency and environmental adaptations in dense jungle terrain. Training programs for ARVN Marine Corps personnel, commencing 10 May 1972 and involving 163 missile firings through July, emphasized wire-guidance handling amid foliage, though challenges like limited night operations due to absent vision aids were noted.^[2] These deployments established the TOW's doctrinal edge over legacy systems, influencing rapid integration tactics despite logistical constraints, such as equipment losses at bases like Phu Bai.^[2] The empirical data from Vietnam—dozens of verified tank destructions—provided critical validation for the system's proliferation in subsequent U.S. Army anti-armor strategies.^[2]^[28]

Middle Eastern Conflicts

The United States expedited an emergency airlift of 81 BGM-71 TOW launchers and 2,010 missiles to Israel in October 1973 under Project 9DD, enabling their deployment during the final phases of the Yom Kippur War against Egyptian and Syrian armored advances in the Sinai and Golan Heights.^[2] Israeli forces integrated the wire-guided system into infantry and vehicular platforms, leveraging its semi-automatic command guidance for precise engagements in massed tank battles where Arab armies fielded thousands of Soviet-supplied T-55s and T-62s. This marked one of the earliest combat validations of the TOW's top-attack capability and wire-guided stability, contributing to Israeli counteroffensives that halted penetrations despite initial Arab numerical superiority in armor.^[13] In the 1982 Lebanon War, the Israel Defense Forces employed TOW missiles extensively against Syrian mechanized forces, including advanced T-72 main battle tanks deployed to counter the Israeli invasion.^[29] Operating from elevated positions in Lebanon's Bekaa Valley and coastal plains, IDF units achieved multiple penetrations of T-72 reactive armor and glacis plates, with reports indicating dozens of Syrian tanks disabled in engagements that tested the TOW's effectiveness against contemporary Soviet designs previously considered resilient by NATO analysts.^[30] These actions underscored the missile's role in asymmetric anti-armor tactics, allowing Israeli infantry to neutralize threats at ranges beyond the reach of Syrian tank guns and ATGMs in fluid, terrain-constrained fighting. During the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), TOW missiles proliferated to both combatants through captures, exports, and reverse-engineering, featuring prominently in desert armored clashes where Iraqi forces imported systems via regional allies amid U.S. support against Iranian human-wave assaults. Iran developed the Toophan variant by copying captured U.S.-origin TOWs, deploying it against Iraqi T-72 exports and BMPs, while Iraq integrated TOWs into motorized infantry units for defensive stands in open terrain.^[31] The system's maximum range of 3,750 meters conferred a critical standoff advantage over RPG-7 launchers limited to 500 meters effective against moving targets, enabling preemptive fires in vast desert expanses that favored guided precision over unguided volume in halting mechanized breakthroughs.^[26] This dynamic shifted tactical causality, as longer engagement envelopes reduced exposure to close-quarters counterfire, though logistical wire vulnerabilities occasionally hampered sustained operations in prolonged attritional warfare.^[13]

Gulf Wars and 1990s Interventions

During Operation Desert Storm in the 1991 Gulf War, the BGM-71 TOW missile was extensively employed by U.S. and coalition forces to counter Iraq's large armored formations, launching from ground vehicles and helicopters in combined arms maneuvers. Systems integrated on M2 Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicles, M3 Bradley Cavalry Fighting Vehicles, HMMWVs, and AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters enabled precise engagements at ranges up to 3,750 meters, exploiting the missile's wire-guidance for reliable hits amid potential electronic jamming threats.^[7] The TOW's deployment with early-arriving units underscored its priority against the Iraqi Republican Guard's T-72 tanks and BMP infantry fighting vehicles, contributing to the destruction of hundreds of enemy armored assets across the theater.^[32] In key battles such as 73 Easting on February 26, 1991, Bradley-mounted TOW launchers from the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment neutralized multiple T-72s and other vehicles, supporting tank advances by preempting Iraqi counterattacks and demonstrating the system's role in maintaining offensive momentum. U.S. Marine Corps aviators, firing TOWs from AH-1W SuperCobras, reportedly destroyed 150 Iraqi armored vehicles within 72 hours during intense ground support missions, highlighting the missile's lethality against static and maneuvering targets.^[33]^[18] This wire-guided resilience proved advantageous in GPS-denied or contested environments, where optical tracking via the launcher's sight unit allowed operators to correct trajectories in real-time without reliance on satellite signals or radio commands vulnerable to interference.^[34] The TOW's versatility extended to 1990s interventions, notably in Somalia during Operation Restore Hope and subsequent UNOSOM II efforts. In urban operations around Mogadishu, such as responses to militia attacks following the June 5, 1993, ambush on Pakistani peacekeepers, TOW-equipped HMMWVs provided mobile anti-vehicle firepower for U.S. quick reaction forces, engaging technicals and light armored threats in close terrain where helicopter support was limited.^[35] The man-portable tripod launchers further validated the system's infantry adaptability, enabling dismounted teams to neutralize armed vehicles from concealed positions amid civilian presence and restricted maneuver space.^[13]

Post-2001 Asymmetric Warfare

In the 2003 invasion of Iraq, U.S. Marine Corps units employed the BGM-71 TOW-2B missile for the first time in combat during urban operations around Baghdad, targeting Iraqi T-72 tanks that retained some conventional armored capabilities despite prior degradation. The TOW-2B's fly-over, fire-from-under design enabled top-attack trajectories that exploited the thinner roof armor of these vehicles, bypassing frontal protections including any ad-hoc up-armoring applied by Iraqi forces. This adaptation proved effective in close-quarters tank hunting amid insurgent-held urban areas, where direct assaults risked higher casualties.^[4]^[26] Further illustrating its role in post-invasion counter-insurgency, Humvee-mounted TOW-2B missiles were fired on July 22, 2003, during the assault on a safehouse in Mosul that resulted in the deaths of Saddam Hussein's sons, Uday and Qusay, demonstrating the system's utility against fortified positions in asymmetric urban engagements. By 2005, U.S. Army records indicated over 3,200 TOW-2B launches in Iraq, reflecting heavy reliance on the variant for suppressing residual armored threats amid shifting to irregular warfare.^[26]^[36] In Afghanistan from 2001 to 2021, TOW deployments were more restrained due to the Taliban's limited use of armored vehicles, primarily targeting improvised "technicals" like modified pickup trucks mounting heavy weapons, where the missile's precision guidance provided decisive overmatch from standoff ranges exceeding 3 kilometers. Combat feedback from these IED-prevalent environments, where close-road exposure heightened vulnerability, drove enhancements like the 2009 introduction of the TOW Bunker Buster (BB) variant with a blast-fragmentation warhead optimized for lighter, non-tank targets such as personnel or unarmored assets behind cover. This upgrade, featuring improved tracking algorithms and an elevation brake for rugged terrain, better aligned the system with counter-insurgency needs over pure anti-tank roles.^[37]^[26]

Contemporary Uses in Syria and Ukraine

In the Syrian Civil War, beginning in 2014, the United States supplied BGM-71 TOW missiles to vetted moderate rebel groups through covert channels, enabling effective engagements against Syrian government forces' armored vehicles, including T-72 tanks.^[38] These weapons proved decisive in asymmetric warfare, with rebels documenting multiple successful strikes on regime T-72 remnants during offensives in northern Syria, countering superior firepower through precision guidance and top-attack capability.^[39] However, proliferation risks materialized as some TOW systems were captured by ISIS fighters, who repurposed them against both regime and US-backed elements, highlighting challenges in supply chain control amid fluid frontlines.^[40] Since Russia's full-scale invasion in February 2022, Ukrainian forces have employed US-supplied TOW missiles to neutralize advanced Russian main battle tanks, including T-80 and T-90 variants equipped with explosive reactive armor (ERA). In August 2022, the US transferred 1,500 TOW systems as part of a $775 million aid package, with over 7,000 missiles delivered by 2023 to bolster anti-armor defenses.^[41] ^[42] Drone footage from engagements near Avdiivka in May 2024 captures M2 Bradley vehicles firing TOW-2B variants to destroy T-80 tanks at ranges exceeding 3 kilometers, demonstrating penetration of Kontakt-5 ERA via tandem warheads and vertical attack profiles.^[43] Similar verified strikes on T-90s underscore the system's empirical lethality against ERA-protected targets, with video compilations evidencing high hit probabilities in contested environments despite Russian countermeasures like active protection systems.^[44] Ongoing US aid through 2025 reaffirms the TOW's battlefield relevance, as December 2024 packages incorporated additional missiles amid sustained production contracts for TOW-2B variants to replenish stocks and address attrition.^[45] Ukrainian operators report reliable performance in wire-guided operations, contrasting with indigenous systems like the Stugna-P in range and platform integration, though both contribute to tank attrition rates exceeding expectations against modernized Russian armor.^[8] These deployments validate the TOW's adaptability in proxy conflicts, where verified kills—bolstered by open-source intelligence—dispel narratives of technological obsolescence against evolving threats.^[46]

Variants and Modernizations

Original and Improved TOW Models

The BGM-71A, designated as the Basic TOW, represented the initial production variant of the Tube-launched, Optically tracked, Wire-guided anti-tank missile system, entering service in 1970 with a maximum range of 3,000 meters.^[2] It featured a single-stage high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warhead capable of penetrating approximately 430 mm of rolled homogeneous armor (RHA), housed in a missile body 152 mm in diameter except for the 127 mm warhead section.^[17] Guidance relied on semi-automatic command to line-of-sight (SACLOS) via optical tracking and wire commands, requiring the operator to maintain sight alignment on the target throughout flight.^[3] The BGM-71B variant, introduced in 1976, extended the effective range to 3,750 meters through a longer guidance wire while retaining the core design and HEAT warhead of the BGM-71A.^[13] This upgrade addressed limitations in engaging distant targets observed in early deployments, such as the first combat use by U.S. forces on May 2, 1972, during the Vietnam War.^[2] Production transitioned from the BGM-71A to the BGM-71B that year, reflecting incremental enhancements based on operational feedback without altering the warhead or propulsion fundamentally.^[13] The BGM-71C, known as Improved TOW (ITOW), entered production in 1981 with refinements including an extended standoff probe on the shaped-charge warhead for enhanced armor penetration against emerging threats like reactive armor precursors, alongside an improved rocket motor supporting the 3,750-meter range. It integrated compatibility with the AN/TAS-4 thermal imaging night sight, developed starting in 1973 to enable operations in low-visibility conditions, addressing daylight dependency highlighted in prior field experiences.^[2] U.S. forces procured approximately 190,000 missiles across the BGM-71A, B, and C variants before shifting to subsequent series.^[3] These early models were phased out of primary U.S. production by the mid-1980s as advanced variants superseded them, though stockpiles persisted for training and exports.^[47]

TOW-2 Series Enhancements

The TOW-2 series, commencing with the BGM-71D model, introduced incremental improvements to the original TOW design, focusing on enhanced propulsion, guidance, and warhead lethality to address limitations against modern main battle tanks equipped with composite armor and explosive reactive armor (ERA). The BGM-71D TOW-2 featured a reloaded flight motor for extended range up to 3,750 meters, a new guidance link for improved wire transmission reliability, and a larger full-caliber shaped charge warhead, with initial deliveries to U.S. Army and Marine Corps units occurring in 1983.^[3] These modifications stemmed from empirical testing revealing the need for greater standoff distance and penetration against sloped frontal armor, leveraging shaped charge physics where a copper liner collapses into a high-velocity jet to defeat up to 600 mm of rolled homogeneous armor equivalent.^[2] The BGM-71E TOW-2A variant, fielded starting in 1988, incorporated a tandem warhead configuration specifically engineered to counter ERA by employing a precursor charge on an extended probe to detonate the reactive tiles, allowing the main follow-through charge to penetrate the underlying base armor unimpeded. This design exploited the causal sequence of ERA detonation—disrupting the explosive sandwich before the primary jet formation—demonstrated in laboratory trials to restore lethality against ERA-protected T-72 variants, achieving penetration depths exceeding 900 mm RHAe in direct-attack profiles.^[2] Guidance enhancements in the series included refined infrared beacon tracking to mitigate signal interference from environmental factors, maintaining semi-automatic command to line-of-sight (SACLOS) operation. Subsequent evolutions like the BGM-71F TOW-2B shifted to a top-attack trajectory, utilizing a fly-over/fly-down mode with dual explosively formed penetrators (EFPs) that deploy from magnetic or proximity fuzing to strike thinner upper hull roof armor, typically 50-100 mm thick versus 500+ mm on glacis plates.^[4] This approach capitalized on armor layout asymmetries, where EFPs generate hypervelocity tantalum fragments optimized for spaced defeat rather than monolithic jets, effective against reactive and non-reactive add-ons. Recent modernizations, including 2024 upgrades under U.S. Army contracts, have integrated improved fusing systems and target detection electronics in the TOW-2B lineage to enhance reliability against active protection systems and low-signature targets, alongside radio-frequency (RF) guidance options in the TOW-2B RF for reduced wire vulnerability and extended range to 4,500 meters.^[25]^[48] Later TOW-2 models have benefited from digital upgrades to the missile's onboard electronics, including enhanced signal processing for tracker stability, which incrementally extends operational lifespan through obsolescence mitigation without full redesign, as evidenced by ongoing Raytheon production sustainment efforts.^[5] These enhancements preserve the system's core wire-guided architecture while adapting to electronic countermeasures via firmware updates to the proportional navigation algorithms.^[49]

Specialized and Export Variants

The TOW 2B Aero variant incorporates aerodynamic control surfaces and a modified flight profile to extend effective range to 4,500 meters, enabling top-attack trajectories that exploit vulnerabilities in vehicle roofs while preserving the optically tracked, wire-guided system. This specialization supports precision strikes against fortified or amphibious targets from ground platforms, with deployment achieved in seconds via existing launchers.^[4]^[50] Export configurations feature targeted innovations like the TOW 2B RF, which substitutes traditional wire guidance with a radio-frequency command link for reduced entanglement risks and enhanced mobility. In a deal approved by the U.S. State Department on October 4, 2023, Oman acquired 301 such missiles valued at $70 million, equipping the Royal Army with wireless capabilities suited to regional operational demands without core design alterations.^[14]^[51] The BGM-71G, proposed as a derivative of the BGM-71F with an alternative armor-piercing warhead, received designation but advanced no further to production, reflecting evaluations that favored existing configurations.^[3]

Operators and Proliferation

United States and Primary Allies

The BGM-71 TOW functions as the principal heavy anti-tank guided missile in U.S. Army and Marine Corps doctrine, emphasizing wire-guided precision engagement of armored vehicles at ranges up to 3,750 meters. Integrated on key platforms including the M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicle, M1134 Stryker Anti-Tank Guided Missile variant, and M1151 HMMWV, it provides direct-fire capability against tanks and fortifications, with TOW-2B variants featuring top-attack warheads for enhanced lethality against reactive armor.^[5]^[4]^[26] This integration reflects a reliance on semi-automatic command guidance for reliability in line-of-sight scenarios, supported by thermal sights for day-night operations. U.S. forces maintain extensive inventories, with over 700,000 TOW systems produced historically for domestic and allied use, enabling sustained operational readiness. Production continues apace, as evidenced by a $271.4 million contract awarded to Raytheon in September 2025 for TOW-2B missiles, ensuring replenishment amid high consumption rates in allied transfers and exercises.^[4]^[52] Raytheon reports capacity for up to 10,000 missiles annually, underscoring logistical sustainment for U.S. armored brigades.^[53] Among primary allies, NATO members such as Canada and Denmark employ TOW systems on wheeled and tracked vehicles, aligning with collective defense postures against armored threats. The U.S. has transferred over 10,000 TOW missiles to Ukraine since 2022, demonstrating the system's proven effectiveness in peer-like engagements and reinforcing interoperability with allies through shared training protocols. German forces historically integrated TOW on platforms like the Marder IFV, though current emphasis has shifted toward newer systems; nevertheless, U.S. production supports allied sustainment via foreign military sales.^[54]^[5]

Global Export Operators

The BGM-71 TOW missile system has proliferated to more than 40 nations via licensed foreign military sales since the 1970s, reflecting its appeal as a cost-effective solution for anti-armor capabilities where indigenous development or pricier alternatives prove less viable. Countries prioritize TOW for its wire-guided reliability and integration with existing platforms, avoiding the high research and production costs of bespoke systems, particularly in regions facing immediate tank threats without mature defense industries. Raytheon has manufactured over 600,000 TOW missiles for these international customers, underscoring the scale of licensed transfers. In the Middle East, adopters like Saudi Arabia and Bahrain acquire TOW to bolster defenses against armored incursions, favoring its proven penetration over untested local options amid budget constraints and rapid deployment needs.^[4] Similarly, in Asia, Taiwan and South Korea integrate TOW variants to counter massed armored formations from potential adversaries, selecting it for affordability relative to advanced fire-and-forget systems while leveraging U.S. supply chains for sustainment.^[55] These choices stem from empirical assessments of TOW's range exceeding 3 kilometers and tandem warhead effectiveness against modern reactive armor, at unit costs far below emerging competitors.^[4] Recent deals sustain this export momentum amid escalating global tensions. In October 2024, the U.S. approved a $440 million sale of over 1,000 TOW 2A and 2B missiles, along with support equipment, to Saudi Arabia, enhancing its inventory for ongoing regional security challenges.^[56] Such transactions, processed through the Foreign Military Sales program, prioritize licensed channels despite occasional unauthorized proliferation via captures, as seen in the Iran-Iraq War where seized TOWs informed Iran's Toophan reverse-engineering efforts.^[57] This focus on official exports ensures technology control and interoperability with allied forces.

Production and Supply Chain Dynamics

The BGM-71 TOW missile entered full-scale production in 1968 under Hughes Aircraft Company, following the award of the initial contract in June of that year, with the first 25 production units delivered by August 1969.^[3] Hughes maintained primary manufacturing responsibility through the system's early decades, achieving a reliability rate of 90.6% in initial testing of 33 missiles in December 1969.^[58] Production transitioned seamlessly to Raytheon following its 1997 acquisition of Hughes' defense operations, enabling sustained output without major disruptions; by 2024, over 700,000 TOW missiles had been manufactured across variants, demonstrating the durability of private-sector-led assembly lines in contrast to more rigid state-controlled alternatives.^[59] This longevity stems from modular design principles that facilitate incremental upgrades while preserving core production tooling, allowing rapid scaling in response to demand surges.^[4] Recent U.S. Army contracts underscore Raytheon's capacity for accelerated production, including a $676 million award in October 2024 for ongoing TOW weapon system manufacturing and a $271 million modification in September 2025 to produce 2,000 additional missiles using fiscal years 2023–2025 funds.^[60] ^[15] A further $322.5 million contract in February 2025 supports continued delivery, reflecting built-in surge capabilities that have replenished U.S. stockpiles amid global conflicts without reliance on foreign suppliers.^[61] These agreements highlight supply chain resilience, as Raytheon's integrated facilities in Arizona handle end-to-end processes from guidance electronics to wire spools, minimizing vulnerabilities exposed in peer systems dependent on fragmented international sourcing.^[5] Global co-production arrangements further mitigate dependencies, with licensed assembly in allied nations enhancing logistical redundancy; for instance, elements of TOW integration have been localized through partnerships that distribute manufacturing risks across NATO-compatible lines. Unit costs remain competitively low at approximately $55,000 for bunker-buster variants and $94,000 for aerodynamic models as of fiscal year 2021, enabling mass deployment—over 40,000 TOW-2B units alone—far exceeding the fielding scale of higher-cost rivals like the FGM-148 Javelin, which exceeds $200,000 per missile.^[62] This economic efficiency, driven by high-volume private production rather than subsidized monopolies, has sustained TOW's availability in protracted engagements, with U.S. stockpiles demonstrating replenishment rates that outpace consumption in asymmetric warfare scenarios.^[4]

Performance Analysis

Empirical Effectiveness in Engagements

The BGM-71 TOW missile system has exhibited high empirical effectiveness in combat engagements, with U.S. military evaluations reporting hit probabilities of approximately 90% at maximum ranges up to 3,700 meters against armored targets.^[20] This reliability stems from its wire-guided optical tracking, enabling precise targeting even in cluttered environments, as validated in operational testing and field reports prioritizing direct hits on peer-level armor.^[7] In its first combat deployment during the Vietnam War in May 1972, TOW missiles from U.S. Army UH-1B helicopters achieved confirmed destructions of North Vietnamese PT-76 light tanks and T-54/55 main battle tanks, totaling 24 verified kills by the end of the month.^[58] These early successes demonstrated the system's ability to neutralize Soviet-designed armor at standoff distances, with operator accounts noting immediate destructive effects upon impact.^[7] During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Israel urgently received 81 TOW launchers and over 2,000 missiles, deploying them to counter massed Egyptian and Syrian tank assaults; the systems contributed to halting armored advances by providing infantry units with reliable anti-tank firepower against T-55 and T-62 formations.^[2] U.S.-supplied reports highlighted the TOW's role in achieving favorable engagement ratios in defensive positions, where its accuracy disrupted Soviet-style massed tactics. In the 1991 Gulf War, TOW variants served as a primary killer of Iraqi T-55, T-62, and T-72 tanks, as well as armored personnel carriers, with coalition after-action reviews crediting the missile for numerous vehicle destructions during ground operations against Republican Guard units.^[7] Ground-launched and helicopter-fired TOWs enabled U.S. and allied forces to engage at beyond direct-fire ranges, yielding high single-shot lethality against era-appropriate armor. Since Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Ukrainian operators using TOW missiles—often from supplied M2 Bradley vehicles—have documented dozens of visually confirmed kills against Russian T-72 and T-80 main battle tanks through open-source videos, including night engagements where the system's infrared tracking proved decisive.^[63]^[64] These instances, aggregated from frontline reports and geolocated footage up to 2025, affirm the TOW's sustained high probability of kill against modernized Soviet-era peer armor, frequently halting advances by exploiting vulnerabilities in reactive armor configurations.^[65]

Limitations and Countermeasures

The wire-guided nature of the BGM-71 TOW renders it susceptible to guidance link disruptions, including wire breakage from snagging on terrain obstacles or environmental factors, a issue noted during development and early production phases.^[2] If the thin copper wire spool depletes or severs—typically at or beyond the missile's maximum range of 3,000 to 3,750 meters—the projectile defaults to ballistic flight along its final commanded trajectory, potentially missing the target.^[66] This vulnerability is exacerbated in cluttered or urban environments, where physical entanglement risks increase, though later variants incorporate radio-frequency (RF) guidance options to partially mitigate jamming or breakage without altering core wire dependency.^[26] Semi-automatic command to line-of-sight (SACLOS) tracking requires the operator to maintain continuous visual acquisition via optical or infrared sights until impact, exposing launch positions to enemy counterfire, particularly in direct-fire scenarios.^[67] This operator vulnerability persists despite the system's standoff range, as rapid enemy response with artillery or drones can target the traceable launch signature or inferred position. Compared to fire-and-forget systems, TOW's effective engagement envelope is constrained by these line-of-sight demands and maximum range, limiting utility against maneuvering targets at distances beyond 4 kilometers or versus loitering munitions capable of persistent surveillance and strikes from 10-40 kilometers.^[68] Explosive reactive armor (ERA) significantly degrades TOW penetration, with early BGM-71A models vulnerable to basic Kontakt-1 ERA that detonates to disrupt shaped-charge jets. Tandem-warhead upgrades in the BGM-71E TOW-2A variant trigger ERA prematurely via a precursor charge, enabling the main warhead to achieve up to 900 mm rolled homogeneous armor (RHA) equivalent penetration post-ERA, but advanced second-generation ERA like Kontakt-5 reduces this by countering tandem effects, halving or more the residual lethality against protected main battle tanks such as the T-72 or T-90.^[69] Empirical tests and combat footage indicate variable success, with ERA-equipped vehicles surviving direct hits more frequently than unarmored counterparts, though top-attack TOW-2B profiles bypass some ERA coverage on turrets and roofs.^[70] Active protection systems (APS) further counter TOW threats, with soft-kill variants like the Russian Shtora-1 employing infrared jammers to spoof the missile's rear beacon, disrupting tracker lock-on during flight, and aerosol smoke to obscure optical guidance. Hard-kill APS such as Arena or Afganit use radar-guided interceptors to physically destroy incoming missiles mid-flight, proven effective against wire-guided ATGMs in trials, though coverage gaps exist for top-attack trajectories and require operational activation. In a documented 2016 Syrian engagement, a TOW struck a Shtora-equipped T-90 without observed jammer activation, but reactive armor absorbed the impact, allowing crew survival and vehicle recovery, highlighting layered defenses' role in reducing one-shot lethality to below 100 percent.^[71] These countermeasures have prompted evolutionary TOW adaptations, yet underscore persistent vulnerabilities in peer conflicts featuring integrated vehicle protections.^[69]

Comparative Advantages Over Rival Systems

The BGM-71 TOW exhibits advantages in guidance precision and operator workload reduction over Soviet-era ATGMs like the AT-5 Spandrel and AT-7 Saxhorn, which rely on radio-command links prone to interference and higher error margins in contested environments. U.S. military tests have documented TOW hit probabilities of 80-90% under controlled conditions, attributed to its semi-automatic command-to-line-of-sight (SACLOS) system that only requires the operator to maintain target tracking, contrasting with the more demanding manual corrections in early Soviet designs.^[7] This empirical edge in first-round effectiveness stems from TOW's optical wire guidance, which minimizes signal disruption compared to radio-based alternatives, enabling consistent performance at ranges up to 3.75 km.^[4] Against modern Russian systems like the 9M133 Kornet, the TOW maintains competitive lethality through superior supply chain reliability and coalition scalability, as evidenced by its deployment in Ukraine where it has neutralized multiple T-72 and T-90 variants with reported field success rates highlighting fewer duds than adversary counterparts. While the Kornet offers extended range (up to 8 km) and tandem warheads defeating over 1,200 mm of armor, TOW's upgrades—such as the TOW-2A's dual-mode warhead—counter reactive armor effectively, with U.S.-sourced munitions benefiting from stringent quality control absent in proliferated Russian exports often hampered by maintenance issues in irregular forces.^[8]^[45] Empirical data from sustained operations underscore TOW's lower failure rates, around 90% reliability in engagements, enabling higher volume fire in attritional warfare where Kornet's beam-riding guidance proves vulnerable to electronic countermeasures and operator exposure.^[72] Fire-and-forget rivals like the FGM-148 Javelin provide tactical convenience by permitting immediate operator concealment post-launch, reducing vulnerability in high-threat scenarios; however, TOW's wire-guided design yields a superior cost-lethality balance, with per-unit expenditures allowing for greater stockpiling and sustained barrages critical in prolonged conflicts. This scalability has proven decisive in coalition operations, where TOW's integration across platforms—from tripods to vehicles—facilitates massed effects without the premium pricing of autonomous seekers, debunking claims of obsolescence by demonstrating ongoing upgrades that preserve penetration against evolving threats.^[7]^[4]

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